Communication Systems

Characteristics of Communication Systems

Communication system enables people to send and receive data and information

- Telephone, radio and television

Five basic components:

1. Data source produces data to be sent

2. Transmitter encodes data into signal suitable for transmission medium

3. Transmission medium is a channel (e.g. cable) where signal is transmitted to the destination

- Signal may be distorted during transmission

4. Receiver decodes signal back to original data

5. Destination

Example: radio

- Data source: person speaking into microphone

- Transmitter: microphone and associated electronics changing sound into signal
- Transmission medium/channel: space between the transmitting and receiving antennas
- Receiver: radio converting signal into analog sounds
- Destination: person listening to radio

Good communication systems:

- Accurate, reliable and secure transmission medium

- Minimum delay in communicating
- Depends on protocols, handshaking, speed of transmission and error checking

Protocols
A set of rules that governs the transfer of data between computers

- Defines how info is transmitted and how errors are detected

- Two computers must use the same protocols when communicating

OSI Models
- Divides data communication into seven layers
- Each layer expresses the standard, using a protocol
- Software is used to control and direct the operation of hardware
- Hardware used resides within Transmission Level which includes physical layer
o Physical layer Network Interface Cards, hubs and wireless transmission media
move data from transmitter to receiver
Handshaking
Handshaking is an agreement about which protocol to use to accomplish the exchange of
information. Therefore, data can only be successfully transferred between devices if handshaking
occurs.

- A series of signals flowing between devices during transmission

- Involves sending signals to indicate type of protocol
- When not successful, devices ‘hang up’ and try again

Methods:

1. Hardware flow control: uses dedicated connection, such as wire.

- Practical when devices are close enough

- Common HW protocol: RTS/CTS (request to send/clear to send)

2. Software flow control: uses special code sent with data

- For long distance communication

- XON/XOFF (X stands for transmit)
- Is break in transmission needed, XOFF command is sent; start again – XON sent
Speed of transmission
Determined by the transmitting device and bandwidth capacity of channel/transmission medium

- E.g. fibre optic cables have high bandwidthmore data transferred

o Cable televisionmany different channels can be transmitted at same time

Bits per second (bps) – bit rate: max no. of bits that can be transmitted per second.

- Used in asynchronous transmission and any error checking bits

Baud rate: max no. of data symbols or electronic signals that can be transmitted per second

- Data symbol can contain more than one bit, so baud rate and bit rate may be different
o 1200 baud might transmit at 4800 bps

Error Checking
Parity checking
Uses an additional bit called a parity bit identifies whether bits being moved have arrived
successfully (odd/even)

Errors

- Even number of bits change from 0 to 1

- Bits switch position

Checksum
Counts the number of bits in a data packet

- Sum attached to data packet and receiver checks whether all bits have arrived by matching
the sum

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Checks for errors in data transmission using a division process (detects 99.99%)

- Data is divided into predetermined lengths and divided by fixed divisor

- Remainder of calculation attached and sent with data
- Error in transmission if remainders do not match
- Sum>255 : divide by 256 and attach remainder

Communication Settings
Communication settings can be changed by the user to ensure a
connection between two devices

 Often parameter: variable given a constant value for a particular

application
 Bps is speed of transmission
 Data bits are the no. of bits in each group of data usually sent
as a byte e.g. 7-bit ASCII
 Parity is whether data contains a parity bit for error detection
 Start/stop bits are no. of bits used in asynchronous transmission
o Parameter identifies each byte with normal range 0-2
 Flow control is software handshaking protocol
Examples of Communication Systems
Teleconferencing
It is the use of an electronic transmission to allow meetings to occur at the same time in different
locations.  alternative for a face-to-face meeting

 Audio conference: single telephone call with three or more people at different locations-
o Audio data transmitted and received using the existing telephone lines
 Video conference: allows people in different locations to see video images of each other on
a screen, as well as hear speech and audio
o HW: digital camera, microphone, computer, monitor etc.
o High bandwidth required to transmit video
- Reduces costs
o Money for airfares, hotel rooms and meals
o Saves time and energy for travelling
- Frequently used in business and distance education
- Remove inter-personal relationship
o Physical contact and informal discussions are often needed to clarify ideas and
develop partnerships

Messaging Systems
Used to send messages to people in different locations involves the creation, storage, exchange
and management of message

Traditional Systems
 Telephone: transmits sounds or speech between distant locations along telephone lines
o Telephone answering system (voicemail)stores messages and allow person to
hear later
 Fax: machines is a system of transmitting and reproducing documents by means of signals
sent over telephone lines  scans document and converts it into a bit-mapped image
o Image compressed and transmitted along the telephone network to destination
o Can quickly transfer hard copy of document or send written message

Voice Mail
- Allows communication with other people by storing and forwarding spoken messages
- Msg digitally stored on computer system and retrieved by receiver
- Analog sound waves converted to digital to be stored in a system which then converts into
analog waves for receiver to hear
- Voicemails combines the features of a telephone answering system and some concepts of
the email

Electronic Mail
Allows communication and other email users by sending and receiving electronic messages using a
computer

- Fast, economical and convenient to send around the world

- Computer is linked to a network (Internet), an account with Internet service provider (ISP),
email address and email software
- Email addresses are unique and obtained free with two parts separated by the @ symbol
 o “name @ domain name”
o Domain name: the ISP where it shows the location of the person’s account on the
Internet identifies specific computer or server where the person’s email messages
are stored
- Email messages contain two main part: the header and the body of the message
o Email address (To:)
o Carbon copy (Cc:) send same message to other people
o Blind carbon copy (Bcc:) send a copy to other people without revealing
o Subject is topic of message

Body:

- Typed using email software or imported or copied from a word processor

- Can be written offline and sent when the user logs onto a LAN or Internetsaves money if
ISP charges by hour for connection time
- Email is stored on server where recipient has an account (Gmail) stays there until checked

Reply:

- Address of receiver and subject are automatically inserted in header of reply “thread” of
message
- Previous message can be retained so original sender remembers message “quoting”

Address book is used to store email addresses saves time typing address and no need to avoid

Mailing list is a group of people who may want to receive the same messages e.g. people working on
same project

Signature is several lines auto appended to outgoing mails (e.g. email address, Web site, graphic,
occupation or telephone number)

Electronic Commerce
E-commerce, the buying or selling of goods and services via the Internetprovides 24-hour
availability, global reach, ability to interact and provide customer information, and multimedia
environment

EFTPOS (electronic fund transfer at point-of-sale)

System that allows people to purchase goods and services using a credit or debit card

- Transfers money from customer’s bank account to the retailer’s bank account
- Made shopping easier for customers and allowed retailers to immediately receive payments
- Each POS terminal is linked to the computer of the customer’s bank using acc no. on card
o PIN is security measure to identify the customer
o When connection is made and approved, the money is immediately transferred

Electronic Banking

Allow customers to view their acc balances and transaction histories, transfer money between acc
and pay bills using Bpay 24h services but cannot cater for cash or cheque withdrawals

- Automatic electronic debits

- Cheques are expensive and inefficient way of settling debts  batch processing
- Some require to download special banking software and install on computer
 - Electronic banking raises the issue of security
- Data encryption is used to secure the data transfer between the customer’s computer and
bank’s computer

Transmitting and Receiving

Communication Concepts
Transmission of Data
Parallel Transmission: data simultaneously transmitted using separate channels

Serial Transmission: data is transferred one after the other; used to transmit on peripheral devices,
such as modems and printers and networks

 Asynchronous: sending of data by identifying each byte with special start and stop bits
(normal range between 0 and 2)
 Synchronous: all data is to be sent at the same rate; same number of bytes is sent each
second set clock speed
o Faster and more efficient as there are no extra bits used on larger computer
systems

Data Flow:

 Simplex: allows transmission in one direction only (radio, telegram or television)

 Half-duplex: both directions but not at the same time (walkie-talkie or disk drive)
 Full duplex: both directions at the same time (telephone or email)

Protocols and Handshaking

Protocol: set of rules that governs the transfer of data between computers

- Defines how a link is established, how data is transmitted and how errors are detected
- Same protocolsdiff types of computers and other devices can communicate

Handshake: sending signals to indicate the type of protocol to be used for agreement to be reached

- Needed as modems at each end of the line may have different capabilities
- E.g. need to inform each other about and agree on highest transmission speed

Networks
No. of computers and their peripheral devices connected together. Each device is a node.

Terminals are devices that send data to and receive data from another computer system.

- Intelligent terminal (workstations) when both has memory and processing capabilities (most
personal computers)

Local Area Networks (LAN): connects computers within a building or group of building on one site

- Covers a small geographical area

- Computer linked together by coaxial cable or fibre-optic cable

ADV:

- Sharing limited hardware resources (e.g. printers, hard disks and modems)
 - Sharing application software (e.g. word processing, database, spreadsheet and graphic
program)
- Improved communication among users by sending electronic messages

Wide Area Network (WAN): connect computer over hundreds or thousands of kilometres

- Consist of a mainframe computer (host) and a no. of terminals

- EFTPOS and ATM terminals are all part of a WAN
- May use a private leased line, normal telephone network or combination of both
- Private leased line: dedicated to the network
o Offers a higher transmission speed and more accurate transfer of data than those
through public switched telephone network (PSTN)
o PSTN links are cheap if computers do not require constant connection can be
interrupted

Packet Switching: divides messages into small data packets and transmits them and later joins the
packets to form the original message

- Multiple users can use the same transmission line of interspersing the data packets
- Packets may not travel along the same path and could arrive at destination at different times
and wrong order  packet contains address and control instruction to reassemble msg in
correct order

Network Topologies
Physical arrangement of devices in a network

- Central computer with each device

connected directly to it
- Central computer serves as a switch
receives messages and sends them
to the destination device
- Requires extra cabling
Star Topology - If one cable or device breaks, network
can still operate
- If central computer fails, network fails
- Limited by processing power of central
computer
- Uses time-sharing system that allocates
certain amount of CPU for each user
- Common topology for mainframe
- All devices are attached to a direct line
called the bus
- Each device has a unique identity and
can only recognise those signals
intended for it
Bus Topology - Device check bus and retrieve msg
- Device communicate directly along
network
- Easiest to setup and can still operate if
one node fails
 Ethernet: LAN access method
- Data transmitted simultaneously to all
nodes  collision may occur
CSMA/CD: carrier-sense multiple access with
collision detection
- Sense no signals on bus, transmits
- Collision detected: stop transmitting
and retransmit at another time

- All devices attached so path in

continuous circle
- Each node has unique address
- Data flow in one direction
- Moves until reaches destination
Ring Topology Token Ring: LAN access method
- Workstations capture free token and
attach data along with addressing
information
- After arrival: data replaced with
acknowledgement and sent back to
original sending node

Network Hardware
Network Interface Card
An expansion card that allows device to be connected to a network

- Require network cable connection and have connectors on the card for different type of
cables
- Type of NIC depends on type of network
- NIC package data according to rules of network operating system and transmit data along
connecting network cable

Servers
Computer that provides services to other computers on the network

individual computers log on to server which gives them access to files, applications or peripheral
devices

 File server: controlling computer in network that stored programs and data shared by users
o Files can be retrieved by any node that has access rights
 Print server: computer that controls one or more printers and stores data to be printed
 Mail server: provides email facilities and stored incoming mail for distribution to users and
forwards outgoing mail
 Web server: computer that provides connection to the Internet (ALL Internet traffic directed
through this server)

Routers
Determines best route to send data packets between networksdecisions made based on current
understanding of networks
 - Table with available routes and their conditions  IP addresses

Switches
Directs data packets along a path

- Simpler and faster as it does not maintain knowledge of networks

- Not always required in a network
- MAC addresses

Bridges
Combination of hardware and software to link two similar networks i.e. same protocol

- Examines each data packet and forwards

Faster than routers (connect networks using same protocol)

Gateway
Links two different types of networks i.e.
different protocols

e.g. used to convert a TCP/IP packet to NetWare

IPX packet.

Repeater: rebuilds a fading signal to its original

strength and shape before transmitting it
onwards

- Ensures data is receives as it was sent

- Less intelligent than bridge or gateway
- Network repeater used in LAN to
connect network segments

Hubs
Central connecting device in a network and is connected to server using just one cablerelays msg
to every device connected

- May also include router and contain CPU and networking operating system (intelligent hubs)

Transmission Media
Capacity: bandwidth measured in bits per second

Wire Transmission

Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable Fibre-optic Cable

Two thin insulated copper Single copper wire surrounded Laser of light used to carry
wires (Unshielded by insulator data in glass fibres
TP[common] and Shielded TP) 500m 10-12km
STP used in ‘noisy’ Better transmission of data Free from electromagnetic and
environments as shield with little distortion radio interferencesecure
protects against interference Distances less than few km and transmit data at high
100m 10Mbps-100Mbps speeds with no errors
Slow - Cheap 400Mbps
- Cheapest - Can be tapped - Difficult to install
- Easy installation - Limited bandwidth - Need terminators to
- Distance is short convert data
 -
Susceptible to
interference
Most LANs use twisted-pair or coaxial as fibre-optic is too expensive and difficult to install

Baseband: transmission using entire capacity of cable to transit one signal at a time (most LANs)

Broadband: divide cable to that several signals can be transmitted at same time

Wireless Transmission

- High-frequency radio signal sent through space

- Antennas placed on tall buildings or mountain tops
- Long distances
Microwave - Faster than telephone lines or coaxial cables
- Weather conditions or objects can obstruct signal
- Point-to-point communication systems (satellite)
- Radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems

Signal (ground station) to satellite retransmits another

ground station
Satellite - Satellite dish used to send and receive signals
- Large amounts of data over long distances at great speed
- Weather forecasting, television broadcasts, radio
communication and internet communications

Wireless LANs - Problems in maintaining signal quality and concerns about

(radio waves) electromagnetic radiation  not popular

- Grid of cellular stations linked to wire-transmission

Mobile Phones telephone network
- Use radio waves to communicate with cellular station
- High service fees and per-call costs

Network Software
Contains the ‘rules’ for communication and determines how network devices send and receive data

- Organised by network administrator: manages a network within an organisation

o Network security, installing new applications, distributing software upgrades,
monitoring daily activity, enforcing licensing agreements, developing a storage
system and providing routine backups (completed using NOS)

Network Operating Systems (NOS)

Support computers connected on a LAN; controls flow of data between devices and controls
requests for data

Tasks
Administration: adds, removes and organises users; installs HW & SW; maintenance – backup

File management: gives user access to remote hard disks on server and provides file system and
ability to manage network directory

Applications: handles requests from users to share data and applications

Resource management: allow network devices (printer, modems) to be shares; assign users to
printers and order print jobs

Security: monitors and restricts access to network resources

Logon and Logoff Procedures

Logon: procedure used to get access to network

- User granted certain level of access authorised by network administrator

- User ID and password
- Password: security measure and must not be easy to guess
- Network must keep passwords secure (password file encrypted and protected from
unauthorised access)
- May require users to change password frequently

Intranets and Extranets

Intranet Extranet
Private network Intranet accessible to customers etc.
- has connection to Internet and consists of - provides info such as product descriptions,
many interlinked LANs answers to frequently asked questions,
- share information and computing resources warranties etc.
among employees of an organisation
- staff news, product info, telephone directories
- Firewalls used to monitor flow of data when
providing access to Internet (security)

Other Information Processes

COLLECTING
- Generating data to be transmitted
- Person using ATM generates data by inserting card and typing request on keyboard

 data collected and transmitted to bank

- Salesperson scan barcodes of product product details collected and transmitted to central
computer
- EFTPOS terminals for retail store
- Telephone for voicemail
- Keyboard for electronic mail
- Video cameras for surveillance system

PROCESSING
Manipulation of data
Encoding and Decoding
Encoding: converting data to another form for transmission

Decoding: reverse process back into its original form

Analog Data: represented using continuous variable physical quantities (real world)

Digital Data: represented in the form of digits and numbers

- Form of data and transmission signal affects quality of data received

- If analog data corrupted, no way of regenerating the wave
- Possible to reconstruct digital data (0s and 1s)

Example: Microphone encodes analog data and converts into digital signal for storagedigital signal
to analog data at receiver end for user to understand (speaker)

Analog data to analog signal: continuous wave encoded into signal

telephone encodes analog data to signal for telephone line if signal corrupted, og data cannot be
restored

Digital data to analog signal: series of 0s to 1s encoded into continuous wave

Modem modulates digital data into analog signals for telephone linesdemodulates into digital
data on other end

Digital data to digital signal: 0s and 1s transmitted by sending it through a channel as series of on
and off pulses

Data transmitted in a LAN  low error rate

Analog data to digital signal: wave shape encoded into series of 0s and 1s (digitising)

Images digitised using scanners, sounds digitised using sampling, transmission of television using
cable

Attachments
Computer files sent with an email message

- Receiver must have application that can read or convert the file
- Brief explanation necessary in main body of email when sending
- Email programs need to ‘encode’ file attachments into characters (MIME protocol)

Client-server Architecture
Client sends request to server according to agreed protocol, and server responds.

- Provides a convenient way to interconnect programs that are distributed across different
locations of a network
- Web browser (client) requests services from web server
- Server should provide a user-friendly interface

DISPLAYING
Presentation of information in the form of text, numbers, images, audio or video
Combination of hardware and software used

Telephone: displays audio info

- Contains transmitter converting sound into signal suitable for transmission medium
- Has receiver that converts signal back into sound

E.g. retrieving msg from voice mail

EFTPOS terminal: displays info about EFTPOS transactions

- Screen displays name and price

- Displays approval of transaction when customer’s bank has been contacted
- Provides receipt

Issues Related to Communication Systems

Messaging Systems
- Social context: Difficult in expressing user feelings as msg systems appear less forceful and
caring than ideas delivering personally
- Danger of misinterpretation: Communication often depends on context, inflection in
speaker’s voice and body language
- Power relationships: e.g. lowest paid worker can directly email senior manager without
middle management
- Privacy and confidentiality: msg are stored and can be accessed by providers; hackers;
conversations can be interrupted; fax msg read by others
- Electronic junk mail: takes up valuable time; prohibiting would be difficult to compromise to
our free society
- Information overload: increase in workload and stress expectation that people need to
respond more quickly

Internet
Internet Trading
ADV: Provides more information about products and services, shopping globally and increased
competitionlower prices

- Taxation: reduce money gov. receive from their goods and services taxes
- Employment ramification: more people need to be employed in the IT industryfewer
shop front and less employees providing the service
- Nature of business: less human interaction; no travelling; work from home
- Trade barrier: irrelevant due to communication technology as people are purchasing
globally

Censorship
- Internet provides access to large amount of offensive material (pornography, racism and
violence)
- Child locks and filters needed
- Internet Industry Association (IIA) represents Australian ISPs and deals with censorship of
online content
- Hard to manage as thousands of new sites are published daily
Internet Banking
- Security: online banking servicesdata encryption needed to secure data transfer
- Changing nature of work: banks require more ppl with IT skills and fewer with banking skills
- Branch closures and job loss: Internet banking, EFTPOS and ATMs, less need to access
facilities provided by bank branch

Radio and Video

- Websites broadcast radio from around the world cater for a variety of tastes
- Video on the Internet is replacing videotapes and other media
o Organisations can create unlimited video channels used for sales, training,
communication and host of other purposes
o Saves time, reduces costs and more views
o Possible due in increased bandwidth

Working from Home

Telecommuting: working at home and electronically communicating with office

Factors affecting: availability of bandwidth, perceived value in telecommuting and opportunities to

work collaboratively across large distances

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
- Greater flexibility in work hours - Miss social and professional contact by
- Saves money on transport, clothing and external place of work
good - Experience feelings of loneliness and
- Saves time isolation
- Benefits people physically impaired or - Blur distinction between work and
required to look after small children home life
- Employer saves on overheads (office - Home is no longer where pressures can
space and furniture) be forgotten and work may be
interrupted by domestic chores

- Who responsible for maintenance of equipment used in the home?

- Does telecommuter have same loyalty to employer as an employee working in office?
- How secure are sensitive documents in the home?