Easy Level:

What is NoSQL, and how does it differ from traditional relational databases?
NoSQL, short for "not only SQL," is a category of database management systems that differ from
traditional relational databases (SQL databases) in terms of their data model, consistency models, and
scalability. Here are some key characteristics and differences of NoSQL databases compared to
traditional relational databases:

Data Model:
1. NoSQL databases are typically non-relational and use various data models, such as document-
oriented, key-value, columnar, and graph-based models.
2. Relational databases follow a structured, tabular model with predefined schemas consisting of tables,
rows, and columns.

Scalability:
1. NoSQL databases are designed to scale horizontally, meaning they can efficiently distribute data
across multiple servers or nodes, offering high scalability and performance.
2. Traditional relational databases are often vertically scaled, where you need to upgrade hardware or
migrate to more powerful servers to handle increased data and traffic.

Flexibility and Schema:

1. NoSQL databases are schema-less or have flexible schemas, allowing you to store and retrieve data
without a predefined structure. This flexibility enables easier handling of evolving and unstructured data.
2. Relational databases enforce a rigid schema upfront, defining the structure, relationships, and
constraints of the data. Any changes to the schema can be complex and require careful planning.

Consistency:
1. NoSQL databases offer various consistency models, including eventual consistency, where data
changes are propagated asynchronously, resulting in a trade-off between availability and data
consistency.
2. Relational databases typically follow the ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) properties,
emphasizing strong consistency and transactional integrity.

Use Cases:
1. NoSQL databases excel in handling large volumes of rapidly changing, unstructured, or semi-
structured data, making them suitable for applications like real-time analytics, content management, and
IoT data processing.
2. Relational databases are commonly used when maintaining data integrity and complex relationships
are crucial, such as in financial systems, e-commerce, and applications with well-defined schemas.

It's important to note that while NoSQL databases offer advantages in certain use cases, they may not be
the best choice for every situation. The choice between NoSQL and traditional relational databases
depends on the specific requirements, data structure, scalability needs, and consistency requirements of
the application at hand.

Name a few popular NoSQL databases apart from MongoDB and Cassandra.

Apart from MongoDB and Cassandra, there are several other popular NoSQL databases. Here are a few
examples:

1. Redis: Redis is an in-memory data structure store that supports various data structures such as strings,
lists, sets, sorted sets, and hashes. It is often used for caching, real-time analytics, and pub/sub
messaging.

2. Apache CouchDB: CouchDB is a document-oriented NoSQL database that uses JSON for data
storage and JavaScript as its query language. It provides replication and synchronization capabilities,
making it suitable for offline and distributed applications.
3. Amazon DynamoDB: DynamoDB is a fully managed NoSQL database service provided by Amazon
Web Services (AWS). It offers low-latency, scalable, and highly available storage for applications with
varying read and write requirements.

4. Elasticsearch: Although primarily used as a search engine, Elasticsearch can also be considered a
NoSQL database. It provides distributed full-text search capabilities along with features like document
indexing, analysis, and real-time data exploration.

5. Apache HBase: HBase is a columnar, distributed, and scalable NoSQL database built on top of
Apache Hadoop. It is designed to handle large-scale, sparse data sets and offers random, real-time
read/write access to the data.

6. Couchbase: Couchbase is a distributed NoSQL database that combines key-value and document-
oriented models. It offers high performance, flexible data modeling, and built-in caching, making it suitable
for various use cases, including mobile applications.

7. Neo4j: Neo4j is a graph database that stores data in nodes, relationships, and properties. It is
specifically designed for managing and querying highly connected data, making it well-suited for
applications dealing with complex relationships and network analysis.

These are just a few examples of popular NoSQL databases, each with its own strengths and use cases.
The choice of a NoSQL database depends on the specific requirements and nature of the data you are
working with.

What are the key characteristics of a document-oriented NoSQL database?

The key characteristics of a document-oriented NoSQL database are as follows:

1. Document Model: Document-oriented databases store and retrieve data in the form of documents. A
document is a self-contained data structure that can contain nested elements, such as key-value pairs,
arrays, and even sub-documents. The documents are typically represented in formats like JSON or
BSON (Binary JSON).

2. Flexible Schema: Document-oriented databases have a flexible schema, also known as a schema-less
or schema-flexible model. This means that each document can have a different structure, allowing for
dynamic changes and easy handling of evolving data. This flexibility makes document-oriented databases
suitable for managing unstructured or semi-structured data.

3. CRUD Operations: Document-oriented databases support CRUD operations (Create, Read, Update,
Delete) for working with data. This means you can easily create new documents, retrieve existing
documents based on various criteria, update specific fields or entire documents, and delete documents
from the database.

4. Querying: Document-oriented databases provide powerful querying capabilities. They support various
query patterns, including simple key-value lookups, range queries, full-text search, and even complex
queries using operators and aggregation functions. The queries are typically expressed using query
languages specific to the database, such as MongoDB's Query Language (MQL).

5. Scalability: Document-oriented databases are designed for horizontal scalability, allowing them to
handle large volumes of data and high traffic loads. They achieve scalability by distributing data across
multiple servers or nodes, enabling parallel processing and improved performance.

6. Replication and High Availability: Document-oriented databases often offer built-in replication
mechanisms. By replicating data across multiple nodes, they ensure high availability and fault tolerance.
Replication allows for seamless failover and enables applications to continue operating even if a node
becomes unavailable.

7. Data Aggregation: Document-oriented databases often provide built-in mechanisms for data
aggregation and analytics. They support aggregation pipelines, map-reduce functions, and other data
manipulation techniques that allow you to perform complex calculations, transformations, and
aggregations on the data.

These characteristics make document-oriented NoSQL databases well-suited for handling unstructured or
semi-structured data, providing flexibility, scalability, and ease of development. They are widely used in
various domains, such as content management systems, real-time analytics, IoT applications, and
dynamic data-driven applications.

Explain the CAP theorem in the context of NoSQL databases.

The CAP theorem, also known as Brewer's theorem, is a fundamental concept in distributed systems that
states that it is impossible for a distributed system to simultaneously provide all of the following three
guarantees: consistency (C), availability (A), and partition tolerance (P). In the context of NoSQL
databases, the CAP theorem helps understand the trade-offs involved when designing and choosing a
database system.

Consistency (C): Consistency refers to the requirement that all nodes in a distributed system have the
same view of the data at any given time. In other words, when data is written or updated, all subsequent
reads should return the latest updated value. In a consistent system, data is immediately propagated and
synchronized across all nodes.

Availability (A): Availability implies that a distributed system should always respond to read and write
requests, even in the presence of failures or network partitions. It ensures that users can always access
the system and perform operations, irrespective of individual node failures.

Partition Tolerance (P): Partition tolerance deals with the ability of a distributed system to function even
when network partitions occur. Network partitions can cause nodes to lose connectivity or fail, resulting in
message delays or message loss. Partition tolerance ensures that the system can continue operating
despite these partitions.

According to the CAP theorem, in a distributed system, it is only possible to achieve any two out of the
three guarantees: consistency, availability, and partition tolerance. It means that when a network partition
occurs, you have to choose between consistency and availability.

NoSQL databases, including document-oriented, key-value, and columnar databases, often prioritize
either availability or partition tolerance over strong consistency. They focus on providing high availability
and fault tolerance, even in the face of network partitions or node failures. This trade-off allows for
eventual consistency, where data updates may propagate asynchronously and take some time to reach
all nodes.

It's important to note that the CAP theorem is a theoretical principle, and practical systems and databases
may make different choices depending on their specific requirements and use cases. Various distributed
database systems, including NoSQL databases, offer different consistency models and trade-offs based
on the CAP theorem.

How does data consistency differ in NoSQL databases compared to relational databases?

Data consistency differs between NoSQL databases and relational databases in terms of the consistency
models they employ and the trade-offs they make. Here's how data consistency differs in these two types
of databases:
NoSQL Databases:
NoSQL databases often prioritize availability and partition tolerance over strong consistency, following the
principles outlined in the CAP theorem. Here are some characteristics of data consistency in NoSQL
databases:

Eventual Consistency: Many NoSQL databases employ an eventual consistency model. It means that
after a write or update operation, data replicas are eventually synchronized and reach a consistent state
across all nodes. However, there may be a temporary period during which different replicas may have
different views of the data.

Conflict Resolution: NoSQL databases often employ conflict resolution mechanisms to handle
inconsistencies that can arise due to concurrent updates or conflicting data changes. These mechanisms
vary across different NoSQL databases, and they typically require application-level resolution or use
techniques like vector clocks or last-write-wins policies.

Flexible Consistency Models: NoSQL databases often provide configurable consistency models, allowing
developers to choose the level of consistency required for specific operations or data access patterns.
For example, some databases offer strong consistency for critical operations while relaxing consistency
for less critical operations, enabling a balance between performance and data integrity.

Relational Databases:
Relational databases, in contrast, typically follow the ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability)
properties, emphasizing strong consistency. Here are some characteristics of data consistency in
relational databases:

ACID Transactions: Relational databases provide support for ACID transactions, ensuring that database
operations are executed in an all-or-nothing manner. ACID transactions guarantee consistency by
enforcing data integrity rules, maintaining referential integrity, and allowing concurrent operations to occur
without interference.

Strong Consistency Guarantees: Relational databases strive for immediate consistency, where data
changes are visible to all transactions immediately after being committed. This ensures that concurrent
transactions see a consistent view of the database and maintain data integrity.

Structured Schemas: Relational databases enforce structured schemas, defining the structure,
relationships, and constraints of the data. These schemas are predefined, and any changes to the
schema require careful planning and often involve schema migration processes.

Transactions and Locking: Relational databases employ locking mechanisms to ensure that concurrent
transactions do not interfere with each other, maintaining the consistency of the data. Transactions are
typically serialized or executed under isolation levels to prevent conflicts and maintain data integrity.

In summary, NoSQL databases often prioritize availability, scalability, and flexible consistency models
over strong consistency, while relational databases emphasize strong consistency guarantees, ACID
transactions, and structured schemas. The choice between the two depends on the specific requirements
of an application, data structure, and the trade-offs one is willing to make.

Moderate Level:
What is MongoDB, and what are its key features?

MongoDB is a popular document-oriented NoSQL database that provides a flexible, scalable, and high-
performance solution for storing and retrieving data. Here are some key features of MongoDB:
1. Document-Oriented: MongoDB stores data in flexible, self-describing documents using the BSON
(Binary JSON) format. Documents can have varying structures and can nest sub-documents and arrays,
allowing for flexible data modeling.

2. Scalability and High Performance: MongoDB is designed to scale horizontally by distributing data
across multiple servers or nodes. It offers automatic sharding, which enables the database to handle
large volumes of data and high traffic loads while maintaining performance.

3. Indexing and Querying: MongoDB supports various indexing techniques, including primary keys,
secondary indexes, compound indexes, and geospatial indexes. It provides a rich query language with a
flexible and expressive syntax that allows for complex queries, filtering, sorting, and aggregation
operations.

4. Replication and High Availability: MongoDB supports replica sets, which are self-healing clusters that
provide automatic failover and data redundancy. Replica sets ensure high availability by maintaining
multiple copies of data across different nodes, enabling seamless recovery in case of node failures.

5. Distributed Transactions: MongoDB introduced multi-document ACID transactions in version 4.0,

allowing multiple operations to be grouped into a transaction that ensures all or none of the operations
are applied. This supports data consistency and integrity across multiple documents.

6. Flexible Data Model: MongoDB's schema flexibility allows for easy handling of evolving data and
dynamic schema changes. This makes it well-suited for agile development and scenarios where data
structures may change frequently.

7. Rich Ecosystem: MongoDB has a thriving ecosystem with extensive community support, libraries, and
frameworks for various programming languages. It integrates with popular tools, such as MongoDB
Compass for GUI-based data exploration and management, and MongoDB Atlas for managed database
hosting on the cloud.

8. Horizontal Scalability: MongoDB's sharding feature enables the distribution of data across multiple
servers or nodes, allowing it to handle large data volumes and high traffic loads while maintaining
performance and scalability.

9. Geospatial Capabilities: MongoDB provides native support for geospatial data and offers features like
geospatial indexing and geospatial queries. This makes it well-suited for location-based applications and
scenarios involving spatial data.

10. Flexible Deployment Options: MongoDB can be deployed on-premises or in the cloud. MongoDB
Atlas, the fully managed cloud service, simplifies database management and provides automated scaling,
backups, and monitoring.

These features make MongoDB a popular choice for various use cases, including content management
systems, real-time analytics, e-commerce applications, and IoT data storage and processing.

How does MongoDB ensure high availability and fault tolerance?

MongoDB ensures high availability and fault tolerance through its replica set architecture and automatic
failover mechanisms. Here's how MongoDB achieves these objectives:

1. Replica Sets: MongoDB uses a replica set, which is a self-healing cluster of database nodes, to
provide high availability. A replica set consists of multiple MongoDB instances, where one node acts as
the primary and others serve as secondary nodes.
2. Primary-Secondary Replication: MongoDB replicates data across the nodes in a replica set. The
primary node receives all write operations and replicates them to secondary nodes asynchronously. This
replication process ensures that data is redundantly stored across multiple nodes, enabling fault tolerance
and data durability.

3. Automatic Failover: In a replica set, if the primary node becomes unavailable due to a failure or
network issue, the replica set automatically triggers an election process. During the election, secondary
nodes participate in selecting a new primary node. Once a new primary is elected, the replica set
continues to serve read and write operations seamlessly.

4. Read Scalability: While the primary node handles write operations, secondary nodes in a replica set
can handle read operations. Applications can distribute read traffic across secondary nodes to improve
read scalability and reduce the load on the primary node. It allows for scaling read operations horizontally
and enhancing performance.

5. Heartbeat Monitoring: Replica sets use heartbeat messages to monitor the health and availability of
nodes. Each node periodically sends heartbeat messages to other nodes, indicating its status. If a node
does not respond within a specified time period, the replica set marks it as unreachable and triggers an
automatic failover process.

6. Data Consistency and Integrity: MongoDB ensures data consistency and integrity in a replica set by
applying the replication protocol. Before acknowledging a write operation as successful, the primary node
ensures that the write is replicated to a majority of the nodes in the replica set, guaranteeing that data is
consistent across the cluster.

7. Reconfiguration and Recovery: If a failed node recovers or a new node joins the replica set, MongoDB
automatically reconfigures the set and redistributes data to maintain redundancy. This self-reconfiguration
ensures fault tolerance and data availability even during node failures or recoveries.

Describe the basic structure of a document in MongoDB.

In MongoDB, documents are the basic units of data storage. They are stored in BSON (Binary JSON)
format, which is a binary representation of JSON-like documents. Here is the basic structure of a
document in MongoDB:

1. Field-Value Pairs: A document in MongoDB consists of a set of field-value pairs. Each field represents
a unique identifier or key, and its corresponding value can be of various types, including strings, numbers,
arrays, sub-documents, and other BSON data types.

2. Key Names: The keys in a document are typically strings and serve as identifiers for the associated
values. Key names are case-sensitive and should be unique within the document.

3. Values: The values in a document can be of different data types, such as strings, numbers, Booleans,
dates, arrays, or sub-documents. They can also include specialized BSON types, such as ObjectId,
Binary, Timestamp, and Decimal128.

4. Nesting: MongoDB documents allow nesting of sub-documents and arrays within a document. This
nesting feature allows for the representation of complex data structures and hierarchical relationships.
Sub-documents are treated as embedded documents within the parent document, and arrays can store
multiple values of the same or different data types.

Here is an example of a basic document structure in MongoDB:

```json
{
"_id": ObjectId("60e8e9cbb6b0d1167462e877"),
"name": "John Doe",
"age": 30,
"email": "[email protected]",
"address": {
"street": "123 Main St",
"city": "New York",
"state": "NY",
"zip": "10001"
},
"interests": ["music", "sports", "reading"]
}
```

In this example, the document represents information about a person. It includes fields like `_id`, `name`,
`age`, `email`, `address` (which is a sub-document), and `interests` (which is an array).

The flexible and nested structure of MongoDB documents allows for dynamic schema designs,
accommodating changes and additions to the data without requiring a predefined schema.

What is sharding in MongoDB, and how does it improve performance and scalability?

Sharding in MongoDB is a mechanism for distributing data across multiple machines or servers in a
cluster. It is a key feature that enhances the performance and scalability of MongoDB databases.
Sharding allows MongoDB to handle large data volumes and high traffic loads efficiently. Here's how
sharding works and its benefits:

Sharding Process:
1. Shard Key: MongoDB uses a shard key to determine how data is distributed across shards (machines
or servers). The shard key is a field or set of fields chosen to partition the data. It can be based on a
specific attribute, such as user ID, timestamp, or geographic location.

2. Shards: Shards are individual instances or servers that store a subset of the data. Each shard holds a
distinct range of data based on the shard key.

3. Chunking: MongoDB divides the data into chunks, where each chunk represents a range of values
based on the shard key. Chunks are automatically distributed across the available shards.

4. Balancer: MongoDB's balancer process continuously monitors the distribution of chunks across the
shards. If imbalances occur due to data growth or redistribution, the balancer automatically migrates
chunks between shards to maintain an even distribution.

Benefits of Sharding:
1. Improved Performance: Sharding improves performance by distributing the workload across multiple
servers. With data partitioned and spread across shards, read and write operations can be parallelized,
resulting in faster response times and increased throughput.

2. Horizontal Scalability: Sharding enables horizontal scalability, allowing the MongoDB cluster to handle
increasing data volumes and traffic. As data grows, additional shards can be added to the cluster,
providing linear scalability without sacrificing performance.

3. Fault Tolerance: Sharding improves fault tolerance by replicating data across multiple shards. If a
shard fails, the data on other shards remains available, ensuring high availability and continuity of
operations.
4. Load Distribution: Sharding evenly distributes the data across shards based on the shard key. This
prevents hotspots and ensures that the workload is evenly distributed across the cluster, preventing
performance bottlenecks.

5. Elasticity: Sharding provides the ability to scale up or down the cluster as needed. Shards can be
added or removed dynamically, allowing for elastic scaling based on changing workload or resource
requirements.

It's important to note that sharding introduces some complexity, such as the careful selection of the shard
key and understanding query patterns to avoid unbalanced data distribution or performance issues.
However, when implemented correctly, sharding in MongoDB offers significant performance
improvements and enables the handling of massive data sets and high-scale applications.

Explain the concept of indexing in MongoDB and its importance in query optimization.

Indexing in MongoDB is the process of creating and maintaining data structures that improve the
efficiency and speed of query execution. Indexes in MongoDB are similar to indexes in traditional
relational databases and enable faster data retrieval by allowing the database to locate relevant
documents more efficiently. Here's an explanation of indexing and its importance in query optimization:

1. Index Structure: In MongoDB, an index consists of an ordered data structure that stores the values of
specific fields from documents, along with a reference to the location of the documents containing those
values.

2. Query Performance: Indexing significantly improves query performance by reducing the number of
documents that need to be scanned during a query. Instead of scanning the entire collection, MongoDB
can use the index to locate the relevant subset of documents that match the query criteria.

3. Efficient Data Access: Indexes provide a way to efficiently access data based on the values of specific
fields. By creating indexes on frequently queried fields, MongoDB can quickly identify the documents that
satisfy the query conditions, resulting in faster response times.

4. Covered Queries: MongoDB supports covered queries, where the necessary data for query execution
can be retrieved solely from the index without needing to access the actual documents. Covered queries
can significantly improve performance by minimizing disk I/O and reducing memory consumption.

5. Index Types: MongoDB supports a variety of index types, including single-field indexes, compound
indexes (combining multiple fields), geospatial indexes (for geospatial queries), text indexes (for text
search), and more. Choosing the appropriate index type depends on the nature of the data and the
specific query requirements.

6. Index Creation and Maintenance: Indexes need to be created explicitly in MongoDB using the
createIndex() method or index management tools. MongoDB automatically maintains indexes as
documents are inserted, updated, or deleted. However, it's important to consider the trade-off between
query performance and the overhead of maintaining indexes during write operations.

7. Index Selectivity: Selectivity refers to the uniqueness or distinctiveness of the indexed values. Highly
selective indexes have a lower number of matching documents, leading to better query performance. It is
important to choose index fields that are selective and commonly used in query conditions.

Properly designed and implemented indexes in MongoDB can significantly improve query performance,
reduce the need for full collection scans, and enhance the overall responsiveness of the database.
However, it's essential to strike a balance between the number of indexes created, the size of the
indexes, and the impact on write operations to optimize the overall performance of the database.
What is Cassandra, and how does it differ from other NoSQL databases?

Cassandra is a highly scalable and distributed NoSQL database designed to handle large amounts of
structured and unstructured data across multiple commodity servers while providing high availability and
fault tolerance. It differs from other NoSQL databases in several ways. Here's an overview of Cassandra's
key characteristics and how it differs from other NoSQL databases:

1. Distributed Architecture: Cassandra is built on a peer-to-peer distributed architecture, where all nodes
in the cluster are equal and there is no single point of failure. This distributed nature enables linear
scalability, allowing Cassandra to handle massive amounts of data and traffic by adding more nodes to
the cluster.

2. Partitioning and Sharding: Cassandra uses a partitioning scheme called consistent hashing to
distribute data across multiple nodes in a cluster. It employs a technique called sharding to automatically
divide and replicate data across nodes based on the partition key. Each node is responsible for a subset
of the data, enabling efficient data distribution and parallel processing.

3. Tunable Consistency: Cassandra offers tunable consistency levels, allowing developers to specify the
level of consistency required for read and write operations. Consistency levels range from eventual
consistency, where updates are propagated asynchronously, to strong consistency, ensuring that all
replicas have the same view of the data before acknowledging an operation.

4. Write Optimized: Cassandra is designed to handle high write throughput and is particularly well-suited
for write-heavy workloads. It achieves this through a log-structured merge-tree (LSM-tree) data structure
that efficiently writes data to disk and performs periodic background compaction to optimize read
performance.

5. Wide Column Model: Cassandra uses a wide column model, also known as a columnar data model, to
store and organize data. It allows for the dynamic addition of columns to tables, making it flexible for
handling evolving and dynamic data structures. This model is different from other NoSQL databases that
may use document-oriented, key-value, or graph models.

6. Automatic Replication: Cassandra replicates data across multiple nodes using a configurable
replication factor. This ensures fault tolerance and data redundancy, enabling high availability even in the
presence of node failures. Data is automatically replicated to multiple replicas based on the configured
replication strategy.

7. Query Language: Cassandra uses its own query language called CQL (Cassandra Query Language)
for data manipulation and retrieval. CQL is similar to SQL but is optimized for distributed, highly scalable
environments. It supports a wide range of query capabilities, including filtering, sorting, and aggregation
operations.

These characteristics set Cassandra apart from other NoSQL databases, making it a suitable choice for
applications requiring high scalability, fault tolerance, and write-heavy workloads. Its distributed
architecture, tunable consistency, wide column model, and automatic replication make it well-suited for
handling large-scale, mission-critical applications.

Explain the role of replication factor in Cassandra and its impact on data availability and durability.

In Cassandra, the replication factor is a configuration parameter that determines the number of replicas of
data stored across the cluster. The replication factor defines how many copies of each piece of data are
replicated across multiple nodes in a Cassandra cluster. Here's an explanation of the role of the
replication factor in Cassandra and its impact on data availability and durability:
1. Data Replication: Cassandra uses a distributed architecture where data is partitioned and replicated
across multiple nodes or servers in the cluster. The replication factor determines the number of replicas of
each data item that are stored on different nodes. Each replica is stored on a different node to ensure
fault tolerance and data redundancy.

2. Data Availability: The replication factor directly impacts data availability. With multiple replicas of data
distributed across nodes, if a node fails or becomes unreachable, the data can still be accessed from
other available replicas. The higher the replication factor, the more replicas are available, increasing the
chances of data availability even during node failures or network partitions.

3. Consistency Level: The replication factor also affects the consistency level in Cassandra. The
consistency level determines the number of replicas that must acknowledge a read or write operation
before it is considered successful. For example, with a replication factor of 3 and a consistency level of
QUORUM, at least 2 out of 3 replicas must respond for the operation to succeed. The consistency level
can be configured to balance between data consistency and availability based on the desired level of
read and write performance.

4. Data Durability: The replication factor enhances data durability in Cassandra. Since multiple copies of
data are stored on different nodes, the chances of data loss or corruption due to node failures are
significantly reduced. If a node fails, the data can still be retrieved from the replicas stored on other
nodes, ensuring data durability and resilience.

5. Scalability and Performance: The replication factor also impacts the scalability and performance of a
Cassandra cluster. Increasing the replication factor improves fault tolerance and data availability, but it
also increases the storage requirements and network traffic for data replication. Careful consideration is
required to strike a balance between the desired level of data redundancy and the associated costs in
terms of storage, network overhead, and system resources.

It's important to note that the replication factor is set at the keyspace level in Cassandra, which means it
applies uniformly to all the tables within that keyspace. Choosing an appropriate replication factor
requires considering factors like data consistency requirements, fault tolerance needs, network
conditions, and the desired balance between availability and storage overhead.

Describe the data model used in Cassandra.

Cassandra uses a wide column data model, also known as a columnar data model or a column-family
data model. The data model in Cassandra is designed to handle large amounts of structured and
unstructured data with high scalability and performance. Here are the key aspects of the data model in
Cassandra:

1. Keyspaces: In Cassandra, data is organized into keyspaces, which can be thought of as namespaces
or containers for related data. A keyspace acts as a top-level entity for data organization and provides
isolation and configuration for the underlying data structures.

2. Column Families (Tables): Within a keyspace, data is stored in column families, which are similar to
tables in a relational database. A column family consists of rows and columns, but unlike relational
databases, the column family does not enforce a fixed schema. Each column family has a name and a
set of columns associated with it.

3. Rows: In Cassandra, a row is the unit of data storage within a column family. Rows are uniquely
identified by a primary key, which can be a composite key made up of multiple columns. Each row can
have a variable number of columns, and the column names do not need to be predefined or consistent
across rows.
4. Columns: Columns in Cassandra represent individual data values within a row. Each column consists
of a name-value pair, where the name is a string and the value can be of any supported data type,
including strings, numbers, booleans, and more. Columns are grouped into column families based on
their related data.

5. Column Groups (Static Columns): Cassandra allows the grouping of columns within a row into column
groups. Column groups provide a way to organize related columns together, facilitating efficient read and
retrieval operations. They can be useful when certain columns are accessed together more frequently.

6. Wide Rows (Wide Partitions): Cassandra supports wide rows, which are rows that can contain a large
number of columns. This allows for storing denormalized or aggregated data within a single row, enabling
efficient retrieval of related data in a single query.

7. Clustering Columns: Clustering columns allow for sorting and ordering of data within a row. They define
the physical order of columns on disk and enable range-based queries. Clustering columns are defined
as part of the primary key and help in efficient data retrieval based on a specified sort order.

The wide column data model in Cassandra offers flexibility and scalability for handling various types of
data, including time series, analytics, and multi-dimensional datasets. It allows for dynamic data
structures, efficient data access, and the ability to handle large-scale distributed environments. The
flexibility of the data model allows for schema evolution and easy addition of new columns without
affecting existing data.

How does Cassandra handle distributed queries and ensure data consistency?

Cassandra handles distributed queries and ensures data consistency through its distributed architecture,
replication, and consistency mechanisms. Here's an explanation of how Cassandra achieves these goals:

1. Distributed Query Processing: Cassandra uses a distributed query processing mechanism to execute
queries across multiple nodes in a cluster. When a query is issued, each node that holds relevant data
participates in processing and returns the requested data. This parallel execution improves query
performance and allows for scaling query processing horizontally.

2. Replication and Data Distribution: Cassandra replicates data across multiple nodes using a
configurable replication factor. Each data item is replicated to multiple replicas across different nodes
based on the replication strategy defined for the keyspace. This data distribution ensures fault tolerance,
data redundancy, and high availability.

3. Consistency Levels: Cassandra offers tunable consistency levels for read and write operations.
Consistency levels determine the number of replicas that must respond to a read or write request before
considering it successful. Developers can configure the desired consistency level based on the
application's requirements for data consistency and availability.

4. Quorum-Based Consistency: Cassandra employs a quorum-based consistency model to ensure data

consistency across replicas. In a quorum-based approach, a read operation requires responses from a
majority of replicas, and a write operation requires acknowledgments from a majority of replicas. This
ensures that the majority of replicas have consistent views of the data, providing strong consistency
guarantees.

5. Consistency Levels Trade-offs: The choice of consistency level in Cassandra allows for trade-offs
between data consistency, availability, and performance. Using lower consistency levels, such as ONE or
ANY, provides better availability and lower latency but may sacrifice strong consistency. Higher
consistency levels, like QUORUM or ALL, offer stronger consistency guarantees but may have higher
latency and lower availability.
6. Read Repair and Hinted Handoff: Cassandra employs mechanisms like read repair and hinted handoff
to maintain data consistency. Read repair ensures that inconsistencies among replicas are detected and
resolved during read operations. Hinted handoff allows writes to be temporarily stored on other replicas if
the intended replica is unavailable, ensuring data availability and eventual consistency.

7. Anti-Entropy and Merkle Trees: Cassandra uses anti-entropy mechanisms, such as the Merkle tree
algorithm, to detect and resolve data inconsistencies between replicas. Merkle trees allow efficient
comparison of data between replicas, identifying any differences and initiating repairs to synchronize the
replicas.

By combining these mechanisms, Cassandra achieves distributed query processing while ensuring data
consistency across the cluster. The replication of data, configurable consistency levels, quorum-based
consistency models, and repair mechanisms contribute to maintaining data integrity, high availability, and
fault tolerance in Cassandra's distributed environment.

Discuss the use cases where Cassandra is a suitable choice for data storage.

Cassandra is a powerful NoSQL database that excels in various use cases that require scalability, high
availability, fault tolerance, and fast write performance. Here are some common use cases where
Cassandra is a suitable choice for data storage:

1. Time Series Data: Cassandra is well-suited for handling time series data, such as sensor data, logs,
financial market data, or IoT telemetry. Its ability to handle high write throughput, efficient data
distribution, and automatic data expiration make it a preferred choice for storing and analyzing large
volumes of time-stamped data.

2. High-Speed Logging: Cassandra's write-optimized architecture and ability to handle massive write
workloads make it ideal for high-speed logging applications. It can efficiently store and analyze log data
from various sources, allowing real-time monitoring, analysis, and alerting.

3. Real-Time Analytics: Cassandra's ability to handle high write and read throughput with low-latency
makes it suitable for real-time analytics applications. It can store and process data for real-time analysis,
enabling businesses to gain immediate insights from streaming data or user interactions.

4. Online Retail and E-commerce: Cassandra's scalability and high availability make it a good choice for
online retail and e-commerce applications. It can handle large product catalogs, high traffic loads, and
dynamic data structures associated with inventory management, user profiles, shopping carts, and order
processing.

5. Content Management Systems: Cassandra's distributed architecture and ability to handle high write
rates make it suitable for content management systems. It can efficiently store and serve dynamic
content, user-generated data, and media files, providing a scalable and highly available solution for
content delivery.

6. Messaging and Chat Applications: Cassandra's fast write performance and ability to handle concurrent
operations make it a good fit for messaging and chat applications. It can store chat history, manage
online/offline presence, and support real-time messaging with high reliability and scalability.

7. Geospatial and Location-Based Applications: Cassandra's support for geospatial indexing and queries
makes it suitable for geospatial and location-based applications. It can efficiently store and process
location data, enabling applications such as GPS tracking, fleet management, geofencing, and location-
based services.

8. Large-Scale Distributed Systems: Cassandra's distributed architecture, linear scalability, and fault
tolerance make it a preferred choice for building large-scale distributed systems. It can serve as a highly
available and resilient data store for systems such as content delivery networks (CDNs), recommendation
engines, social networks, and distributed file systems.

These are just a few examples of the many use cases where Cassandra shines. Its ability to handle
massive data volumes, high write throughput, and fault tolerance make it an excellent choice for
applications that require scalability, performance, and continuous availability in the face of data growth
and demanding workloads.

Difficult Level:
Explain the concept of eventual consistency in NoSQL databases.

Eventual consistency is a concept in NoSQL databases that describes a consistency model where
updates to data will propagate and eventually be reflected consistently across all replicas or nodes in a
distributed system. In an eventually consistent system, there is no guarantee that immediately after a
write operation, all replicas will have the same view of the data. Instead, the system allows for temporary
inconsistencies or divergent views that are resolved over time.

Key points to explain about eventual consistency in NoSQL databases are as follows:

1. Asynchronous Replication: NoSQL databases typically use asynchronous replication mechanisms to

replicate data across multiple nodes. When a write operation occurs, the update is propagated to replicas
asynchronously. This means that there might be a delay in updating all replicas.

2. Distributed Nature: NoSQL databases are designed to scale horizontally across multiple nodes in a
distributed environment. Each node can handle read and write operations independently, which
introduces the possibility of inconsistencies between replicas due to network delays, failures, or
concurrent updates.

3. Availability and Performance: Eventual consistency prioritizes availability and performance over strong
consistency guarantees. By allowing replicas to operate independently, NoSQL databases can continue
serving read and write requests even in the presence of network partitions or node failures.

4. Conflict Resolution: In an eventually consistent system, conflicts may arise when concurrent updates
are made to the same data item on different replicas. These conflicts need to be resolved to achieve a
consistent state. NoSQL databases provide conflict resolution mechanisms, such as last-write-wins or
application-defined conflict resolution strategies, to address these conflicts.

5. Quorum-Based Consistency: NoSQL databases often allow the configuration of consistency levels to
control the degree of eventual consistency. Quorum-based consistency models, such as "read-your-
writes" or "session consistency," can be chosen to ensure that clients see their own writes immediately or
within a specific timeframe.

6. Eventual Consistency in Practice: Eventual consistency does not imply that inconsistencies persist
indefinitely. Over time, the system works to converge and reconcile the replicas, ensuring data
consistency. The time it takes to achieve consistency depends on factors such as network latency,
replication speed, and the frequency and pattern of updates.

7. Use Cases: Eventual consistency is suitable for scenarios where real-time performance, high
availability, and scalability are critical, and immediate strong consistency is not required. Examples
include social media feeds, collaborative editing systems, and content delivery networks.

It's important to note that eventual consistency is a trade-off made in distributed systems to achieve high
availability and scalability. NoSQL databases provide eventual consistency as one of the consistency
models, allowing developers to choose the appropriate level of consistency for their specific application
requirements.

Compare and contrast the data modeling approaches in MongoDB and Cassandra.

MongoDB and Cassandra are both popular NoSQL databases, but they differ in their data modeling
approaches due to their distinct data models and design principles. Here's a comparison of the data
modeling approaches in MongoDB and Cassandra:

1. Data Model:
- MongoDB: MongoDB uses a document-oriented data model. Data is stored in flexible, self-describing
documents in BSON (Binary JSON) format. Documents can have nested structures, arrays, and varying
fields, allowing for rich and dynamic data representations. MongoDB's data model resembles JSON-like
structures, making it easy to work with object-oriented programming paradigms.
- Cassandra: Cassandra uses a wide column data model, also known as a column-family data model.
Data is organized into column families (similar to tables in relational databases), which contain rows and
columns. Each row has a primary key and can have a variable number of columns. Columns can be
grouped into column groups for efficient storage and retrieval.

2. Schema Flexibility:
- MongoDB: MongoDB has a flexible schema, allowing documents within a collection to have different
structures. This flexibility enables agile development, as new fields can be added without affecting
existing documents. MongoDB's schema-less approach is suitable for rapidly evolving or semi-structured
data.
- Cassandra: Cassandra has a more rigid schema compared to MongoDB. Column families in Cassandra
require a predefined schema with fixed column names and types. While Cassandra allows adding new
columns to rows dynamically, the overall structure needs to be planned in advance.

3. Querying and Indexing:

- MongoDB: MongoDB supports rich querying capabilities, including ad-hoc queries, range queries,
sorting, and aggregation. It provides a flexible query language (MongoDB Query Language - MQL) similar
to SQL, allowing complex queries on document attributes. MongoDB supports various types of indexes,
including single-field indexes, compound indexes, geospatial indexes, and text indexes, to optimize query
performance.
- Cassandra: Cassandra provides a query language called CQL (Cassandra Query Language), which is
SQL-like but with some differences. CQL supports basic querying capabilities such as SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE operations. However, Cassandra's querying capabilities are more limited
compared to MongoDB. Cassandra relies on predefined secondary indexes and denormalization
techniques to optimize data access patterns and query performance.

4. Scalability:
- MongoDB: MongoDB supports horizontal scalability by sharding data across multiple servers or nodes.
It allows distributing data based on a shard key, providing automatic data partitioning and load balancing.
- Cassandra: Cassandra is designed to be highly scalable and can handle massive data volumes across
a distributed cluster. It employs a shared-nothing architecture where data is partitioned and replicated
across nodes. Cassandra's decentralized design allows it to scale linearly by adding more nodes to the
cluster.

5. Consistency:
- MongoDB: MongoDB provides flexible consistency options. Developers can choose the desired level of
consistency for read and write operations, ranging from strong consistency to eventual consistency, by
specifying the read concern and write concern levels.
- Cassandra: Cassandra offers tunable consistency levels. Developers can configure the desired
consistency level for read and write operations based on factors like replication factor and data
consistency requirements. Cassandra provides a trade-off between consistency, availability, and partition
tolerance, and eventual consistency is a common choice in distributed environments.

In summary, MongoDB's document-oriented model offers more flexibility and dynamic schema
capabilities, making it suitable for agile development and semi-structured data. Cassandra's wide column
model provides a more structured approach with rigid schemas, optimized for scalability and high write
throughput. The choice between MongoDB and Cassandra depends on the specific requirements of the
application, data access patterns, and the trade-offs between flexibility, scalability, and consistency
needed for the project.

How does Cassandra handle write conflicts in a distributed environment?

In a distributed environment, Cassandra handles write conflicts using a mechanism called "last-write-
wins" or "vector clock" conflict resolution. When concurrent updates occur on different replicas, conflicts
may arise due to network delays or node failures. Cassandra employs the following approach to handle
write conflicts:

1. Vector Clocks:
- Cassandra uses vector clocks to track the ordering of updates across replicas. A vector clock is a data
structure that associates a timestamp with each replica or node in the cluster. It captures the causal
relationship between different versions of a data item.

2. Write Operation:
- When a write operation is performed on a replica, the vector clock associated with that replica is
incremented, indicating that a new version of the data item has been written.

3. Conflict Detection:
- During the replication process, Cassandra compares the vector clocks of different replicas to detect
conflicts. If the vector clocks of two replicas are incomparable (no causal relationship can be established),
Cassandra recognizes a conflict.

4. Conflict Resolution:
- In case of conflicts, Cassandra employs a "last-write-wins" strategy. It compares the timestamps
associated with the conflicting versions and selects the version with the latest timestamp as the winning
version.
- The winning version is propagated to other replicas, overwriting the conflicting versions.
- Note that this conflict resolution strategy may result in data loss or inconsistencies if conflicting updates
are made simultaneously on different replicas.

5. Read Repair:
- To ensure eventual consistency, Cassandra employs a mechanism called read repair. When a read
operation occurs, if the replicas have divergent versions of the data item, Cassandra automatically
initiates a read repair process.
- During read repair, Cassandra compares the versions of the data item across replicas and updates any
out-of-date replicas with the latest version, ensuring convergence and consistency over time.

It's important to note that while Cassandra provides conflict resolution mechanisms, it's still crucial for
application developers to design their data models and access patterns in a way that minimizes conflicts.
By understanding the data usage patterns and employing appropriate conflict resolution strategies,
developers can mitigate conflicts and maintain data integrity in a distributed environment.

Describe the process of data replication and data partitioning in Cassandra.

Data replication and data partitioning are integral components of Cassandra's architecture, enabling
scalability, fault tolerance, and high availability. Here's an overview of the process of data replication and
data partitioning in Cassandra:

Data Replication:
1. Replication Factor: In Cassandra, the replication factor determines the number of replicas for each data
item. It is set at the keyspace level, specifying how many copies of data are stored across the cluster.
Replication factor can be configured based on desired fault tolerance and data redundancy requirements.

2. Replication Strategy: Cassandra supports different replication strategies, such as SimpleStrategy and
NetworkTopologyStrategy. The replication strategy determines how replicas are distributed across the
cluster. SimpleStrategy evenly distributes replicas across the nodes in the cluster, while
NetworkTopologyStrategy allows for more granular control by considering data center and rack topology.

3. Replica Placement: Based on the configured replication strategy, Cassandra automatically determines
the placement of replicas on different nodes in the cluster. Each data item is replicated to multiple nodes
based on the replication factor and the placement strategy. Replicas can be located on the same data
center or spread across different data centers for disaster recovery and availability.

Data Partitioning:
1. Partitioning Scheme: Cassandra partitions data using consistent hashing. It employs a ring-based
partitioner, such as Murmur3Partitioner or RandomPartitioner, to distribute data across nodes based on a
partition key. The partition key determines the node responsible for storing and handling data associated
with that key.

2. Token Range Assignment: The partitioner maps each partition key to a token value within a token
range. Tokens are evenly distributed across the nodes in the cluster, creating a ring structure. Each node
is responsible for a range of tokens and the associated data.

3. Virtual Nodes (vNodes): Cassandra introduces the concept of virtual nodes to improve data distribution
and facilitate scaling. Instead of a one-to-one mapping between tokens and physical nodes, each physical
node can be responsible for multiple virtual nodes. Virtual nodes allow for finer-grained data distribution,
easier node addition/removal, and better load balancing.

4. Consistent Hashing: Consistent hashing ensures that data is evenly distributed across the cluster. It
minimizes the impact of adding or removing nodes on data relocation. When a node joins or leaves the
cluster, only a fraction of the data needs to be moved to maintain the desired replication factor and data
distribution.

Benefits:
- Scalability: Data partitioning allows Cassandra to scale horizontally by adding more nodes to the cluster.
Each node handles a specific range of data, enabling the system to handle large volumes of data and
traffic.
- Fault Tolerance: Replicating data across multiple nodes provides fault tolerance. If a node fails, the data
can still be accessed from other replicas, ensuring data availability and durability.
- Load Balancing: Data partitioning and virtual nodes help evenly distribute the data and load across the
cluster, ensuring optimal resource utilization and performance.

By combining data replication and partitioning, Cassandra achieves high scalability, fault tolerance, and
efficient data distribution across a distributed cluster. The replication factor ensures data redundancy and
availability, while consistent hashing and virtual nodes enable effective data partitioning and load
balancing.

Discuss the trade-offs between consistency, availability, and partition tolerance in NoSQL databases.
The trade-offs between consistency, availability, and partition tolerance in NoSQL databases are
commonly represented by the CAP theorem, which states that in a distributed system, it is impossible to
simultaneously achieve all three guarantees of consistency, availability, and partition tolerance. Here's a
closer look at these trade-offs:

1. Consistency:
Consistency refers to the guarantee that all nodes in a distributed system have the same view of the data
at any given time. Strong consistency ensures that every read operation receives the most recent write or
an error. Achieving strong consistency may require synchronous replication and coordination among
nodes, which can introduce higher latency and lower availability.

2. Availability:
Availability represents the guarantee that a distributed system will respond to read and write requests,
even in the presence of failures or network partitions. High availability requires that the system remains
operational and continues to respond to client requests. Achieving high availability may involve allowing
independent operation of nodes, leading to potential data inconsistencies or delays in propagating
updates.

3. Partition Tolerance:
Partition tolerance refers to a system's ability to continue functioning even if there are network partitions
or communication failures between nodes. Network partitions can occur due to network issues or node
failures. Partition tolerance is essential in distributed systems, as it ensures that the system remains
operational and resilient despite communication disruptions. However, achieving partition tolerance can
introduce challenges in maintaining consistency and availability guarantees.

In practice, NoSQL databases make different trade-offs in the CAP triangle based on their design goals
and use cases. Here are some common scenarios:

- Consistency and Availability (CA): Some NoSQL databases prioritize consistency and availability,
sacrificing partition tolerance. These databases ensure strong consistency and high availability in the
absence of network partitions. However, in the event of a network partition, they may become unavailable
or choose to sacrifice consistency to maintain availability.

- Consistency and Partition Tolerance (CP): Other NoSQL databases prioritize consistency and partition
tolerance. They ensure strong consistency even in the presence of network partitions, sacrificing
availability. These databases may experience downtime or reject requests during network partitions to
maintain consistency.

- Availability and Partition Tolerance (AP): Many NoSQL databases prioritize availability and partition
tolerance, sacrificing strong consistency. These databases focus on providing high availability and
resilience in a distributed environment. They may allow for eventual consistency, where data updates
propagate gradually, resulting in potential temporary inconsistencies.

It's important to note that the trade-offs between consistency, availability, and partition tolerance depend
on the specific requirements of the application. The appropriate choice of trade-offs should be determined
by considering factors such as the nature of the data, application use cases, performance needs, and
user expectations.

NoSQL databases provide flexibility in choosing different consistency models, such as strong
consistency, eventual consistency, or tunable consistency, allowing developers to select the level of
consistency that best suits their application's requirements.
Easy Level:
What is NoSQL, and how does it differ from traditional relational
databases?
Name a few popular NoSQL databases apart from MongoDB and
Cassandra.
What are the key characteristics of a document-oriented NoSQL database?
Explain the CAP theorem in the context of NoSQL databases.
How does data consistency differ in NoSQL databases compared to
relational databases?

Moderate Level:
What is MongoDB, and what are its key features?
How does MongoDB ensure high availability and fault tolerance?
Describe the basic structure of a document in MongoDB.
What is sharding in MongoDB, and how does it improve performance and scalability?
Explain the concept of indexing in MongoDB and its importance in query optimization.
What is Cassandra, and how does it differ from other NoSQL databases?
Explain the role of replication factor in Cassandra and its impact on data availability and
durability.
Describe the data model used in Cassandra.
How does Cassandra handle distributed queries and ensure data consistency?
Discuss the use cases where Cassandra is a suitable choice for data storage.

Difficult Level:
Explain the concept of eventual consistency in NoSQL databases.
Compare and contrast the data modeling approaches in
MongoDB and Cassandra.
How does Cassandra handle write conflicts in a distributed
environment?
Describe the process of data replication and data partitioning in
Cassandra.
Discuss the trade-offs between consistency, availability, and
partition tolerance in NoSQL databases.
Question 1:

Which of the following data models is associated with NoSQL databases?

a) Relational model

b) Document-oriented model

c) Entity-relationship model

d) Hierarchical model

Answer: b) Document-oriented model

Question 2:

Which of the following databases is an example of a key-value store NoSQL database?

a) MongoDB

b) Cassandra

c) Redis

d) Neo4j

Answer: c) Redis

Question 3:

Which consistency model is typically associated with NoSQL databases?

a) ACID

b) BASE

c) CAP

d) RAID
Answer: b) BASE

Question 4:

NoSQL databases are commonly used in which type of applications?

a) Applications requiring complex relationships and data integrity

b) Applications with strict schema requirements

c) Real-time analytics and content management systems

d) Applications with heavy transactional processing

Answer: c) Real-time analytics and content management systems

Question 5:

Which of the following is an advantage of NoSQL databases over traditional relational

databases?

a) Strong consistency guarantees

b) Strict schema enforcement

c) High scalability and performance

d) Support for complex joins and transactions

Answer: c) High scalability and performance

Question 1:

In MongoDB, which of the following is used to optimize queries and allow for efficient data retrieval?

a) Sharding

b) Replication

c) Indexing

d) MapReduce
Answer: c) Indexing

Question 2:

Which consistency model is used by Cassandra?

a) Eventual consistency

b) Strong consistency

c) Linearizability

d) Read-your-own-writes consistency

Answer: a) Eventual consistency

Question 3:

Which of the following is a characteristic of MongoDB's BSON format?

a) It supports dynamic schemas.

b) It is a columnar storage format.

c) It enforces strict data types.

d) It provides efficient graph traversals.

Answer: a) It supports dynamic schemas.

Question 4:

What is the primary purpose of Cassandra's replication factor?

a) To ensure strong consistency across all nodes

b) To define the number of replicas for fault tolerance

c) To enable efficient indexing and querying

d) To control data compression and storage size

Answer: b) To define the number of replicas for fault tolerance

Question 5:

Which of the following is a key feature of MongoDB's aggregation framework?

a) Distributed data storage

b) Support for graph data structures

c) Schema validation and enforcement

d) Powerful data aggregation and transformation operations

Answer: d) Powerful data aggregation and transformation operations

Question 6:

In Cassandra, which data model is used to organize data across multiple tables based on access patterns?

a) Document-oriented model

b) Key-value model

c) Wide-column model

d) Graph model

Answer: c) Wide-column model

Question 7:

Which of the following is a benefit of using Cassandra's peer-to-peer architecture?

a) Automatic data partitioning and distribution

b) Support for ACID transactions

c) Strict data consistency guarantees

d) Centralized control over data replication

Answer: a) Automatic data partitioning and distribution

Question 1:

In MongoDB, which operation is used to update multiple documents that match a specified condition?

a) insertMany()

b) updateMany()

c) findAndModify()

d) bulkWrite()

Answer: b) updateMany()

Question 2:

Which of the following is a consistency level in Cassandra that ensures strong consistency at the expense
of availability during network partitions?

a) LOCAL_QUORUM

b) LOCAL_ONE

c) EACH_QUORUM

d) SERIAL

Answer: c) EACH_QUORUM

Question 3:

What is the purpose of a MongoDB replica set?

a) To distribute data across multiple nodes for scalability

b) To provide fault tolerance and high availability

c) To enable efficient indexing and querying

d) To enforce data consistency across all nodes

Answer: b) To provide fault tolerance and high availability

Question 4:
Which Cassandra feature allows you to scale the database by distributing data across multiple clusters?

a) Sharding

b) Replication

c) CQL (Cassandra Query Language)

d) Partitioning

Answer: a) Sharding

Question 5:

In MongoDB, which index type supports text search capabilities?

a) B-tree index

b) Geospatial index

c) Hashed index

d) Text index

Answer: d) Text index

Question 6:

Which Cassandra feature enables automatic repair and recovery of data inconsistencies between
replicas?

a) Hinted Handoff

b) Merkle trees

c) Anti-entropy repair

d) Compaction

Answer: c) Anti-entropy repair

Question 7:
In MongoDB, which aggregation pipeline operator is used to unwind an array field and create a separate
document for each array element?

a) $group

b) $project

c) $unwind

d) $match

Answer: c) $unwind