Lilypond

GNU LilyPond
The music typesetter
Han-Wen Nienhuys
Jan Nieuwenhuizen
Jürgen Reuter
Rune Zedeler
Copyright °c 1999–2004 by the authors
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections. A copy of the license is included in the section
entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”.
(For LilyPond version 2.2.6)

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Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Notes to version 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1 Engraving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Automated engraving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 What symbols to engrave? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Music representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Example applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 About this manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1 First steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Running LilyPond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 More about pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Entering ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Automatic and manual beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Octave entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7 Music expressions explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8 More staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.9 Adding articulation marks to notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.10 Combining notes into chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.11 Basic rhythmical commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.12 Commenting input files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.13 Printing lyrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.14 A lead sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.15 Listening to output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.16 Titling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.17 Single staff polyphony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.18 Piano staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.19 Organizing larger pieces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.20 An orchestral part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.21 Integrating text and music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 Notation manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 Note entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.2 Pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.3 Chromatic alterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.4 Chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.5 Rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.6 Skips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.7 Durations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.8 Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.9 Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.10 Tuplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2 Easier music entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
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3.2.1 Relative octaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.2.2 Octave check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.3 Bar check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.4 Skipping corrected music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2.5 Automatic note splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Staff notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.1 Staff symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.2 Key signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.3 Clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.4 Ottava brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.5 Time signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.6 Partial measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.7 Unmetered music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.8 Bar lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 Polyphony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5 Beaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5.1 Manual beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5.2 Setting automatic beam behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.6 Accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.7 Expressive marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.7.1 Slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.7.2 Phrasing slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.7.3 Breath marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.7.4 Metronome marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.7.5 Text spanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.7.6 Analysis brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7.7 Articulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7.8 Fingering instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.7.9 Text scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.7.10 Grace notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.7.11 Glissando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.7.12 Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.8 Repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8.1 Repeat syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8.2 Repeats and MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.8.3 Manual repeat commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.8.4 Tremolo repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.8.5 Tremolo subdivisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.8.6 Measure repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.9 Rhythmic music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.9.1 Showing melody rhythms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.9.2 Entering percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.9.3 Percussion staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.10 Piano music. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.10.1 Automatic staff changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.10.2 Manual staff switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.10.3 Pedals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.10.4 Arpeggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.10.5 Staff switch lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.11 Vocal music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.11.1 Entering lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.11.2 The Lyrics context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.11.3 More stanzas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.11.4 Ambitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
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3.12 Tablatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.12.1 Tablatures basic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.12.2 Non-guitar tablatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.13 Chord names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.13.1 Chords mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.13.2 Printing chord names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.14 Orchestral music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.14.1 Multiple staff contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.14.2 Rehearsal marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.14.3 Bar numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.14.4 Instrument names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.14.5 Transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.14.6 Instrument transpositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.14.7 Multi measure rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.14.8 Automatic part combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.14.9 Hiding staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.14.10 Different editions from one source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.14.11 Quoting other voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.15 Ancient notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.15.1 Ancient note heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.15.2 Ancient accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.15.3 Ancient rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.15.4 Ancient clefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.15.5 Ancient flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.15.6 Ancient time signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.15.7 Custodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.15.8 Divisiones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.15.9 Ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.15.9.1 White mensural ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.15.9.2 Gregorian square neumes ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.15.10 Vaticana style contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.15.11 Figured bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.16 Contemporary notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.16.1 Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.16.2 Fermatas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.17 Special notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.17.1 Balloon help. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.17.2 Easy Notation note heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.18 Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.18.1 MIDI block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.18.2 MIDI instrument names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4 Changing defaults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.1 Scheme tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.2 Interpretation contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.2.1 Creating contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.2.2 Changing context properties on the fly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.2.3 Modifying context plug-ins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.2.4 Layout tunings within contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2.5 Changing context default settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2.6 Defining new contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2.7 Which properties to change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3 Tuning output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3.1 Common tweaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
iv
4.3.2 Constructing a tweak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

4.3.3 Navigating the program reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.3.4 Layout interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.3.5 Determining the grob property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.4 Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.4.1 Selecting font sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.4.2 Font selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.5 Text markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.5.1 Overview of text markup commands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.6 Global layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.6.1 Setting global staff size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.6.2 Vertical spacing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.6.3 Horizontal Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.6.4 Line breaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.6.5 Page layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.7 Output details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5 Invoking LilyPond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

5.1 Invoking lilypond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.1.1 Titling layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.1.2 Additional parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.2 Invoking the lilypond binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.3 Command line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.4 Environment variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.5 Error messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.6 Reporting bugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.7 Editor support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.8 Point and click . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6 lilypond-book manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

6.1 Integrating Texinfo and music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.2 Integrating LaTeX and music. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.3 Integrating HTML and music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.4 Music fragment options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.5 Invoking lilypond-book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.6 Bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7 Converting from other formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

7.1 Invoking convert-ly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.2 Invoking midi2ly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.3 Invoking etf2ly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.4 Invoking abc2ly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.5 Invoking musedata2ly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.6 Invoking mup2ly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Unified index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Appendix A Notation manual details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

A.1 Chord name chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
A.2 MIDI instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A.3 The Feta font. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
A.4 All context properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
A.5 Layout properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
v
Appendix B Literature list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Appendix C Interfaces for programmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

C.1 Programmer interfaces for input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
C.1.1 Input variables and Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
C.1.2 Internal music representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
C.1.3 Manipulating music expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
C.2 Markup programmer interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
C.2.1 Markup construction in scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
C.2.2 Markup command definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
C.3 Contexts for programmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
C.3.1 Context evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
C.3.2 Running a function on all layout objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Appendix D Cheat sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Appendix E GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . 192

E.0.1 ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
1
Preface
It must have been during a rehearsal of the EJE (Eindhoven Youth Orchestra), somewhere
in 1995 that Jan, one of the cranked violists told Han-Wen, one of the distorted French horn
players, about the grand new project he was working on. It was an automated system for
printing music (to be precise, it was MPP, a preprocessor for MusiXTeX). As it happened,
Han-Wen accidentally wanted to print out some parts from a score, so he started looking at the
software, and he quickly got hooked. It was decided that MPP was a dead end. After lots of
philosophizing and heated email exchanges Han-Wen started LilyPond in 1996. This time, Jan
got sucked into Han-Wen’s new project.
In some ways, developing a computer program is like learning to play an instrument. In the
beginning, discovering how it works is fun, and the things you cannot do are challenging. After
the initial excitement, you have to practice and practice. Scales and studies can be dull, and
if you are not motivated by others—teachers, conductors or audience—it is very tempting to
give up. You continue, and gradually playing becomes a part of your life. Some days it comes
naturally, and it is wonderful, and on some days it just does not work, but you keep playing,
day after day.
Like making music, working on LilyPond is can be dull work, and on some days it feels like
plodding through a morass of bugs. Nevertheless, it has become a part of our life, and we keep
doing it. Probably the most important motivation is that our program actually does something
useful for people. When we browse around the net we find many people that use LilyPond, and
produce impressive pieces of sheet music. Seeing that feels unreal, but in a very pleasant way.
Our users not only give us good vibes by using our program, many of them also help us by
giving suggestions and sending bug reports, so we would like to thank all users that sent us bug
reports, gave suggestions or contributed in any other way to LilyPond.
Playing and printing music is more than nice analogy. Programming together is a lot of fun,
and helping people is deeply satisfying, but ultimately, working on LilyPond is a way to express
our deep love for music. May it help you create lots of beautiful music!
Han-Wen and Jan
Utrecht/Eindhoven, The Netherlands, July 2002.
Notes to version 2.2

During the 2.1 development cycle, the cleanup of the existing features has continued unabated.
Major areas of improvement are orchestral notation, lyrics formatting and font size handling.
Han-Wen and Jan
Utrecht/Eindhoven, The Netherlands, March 2004.
Chapter 1: Introduction 2
1 Introduction
LilyPond is a system for formatting music prettily. This chapter discusses the backgrounds
of LilyPond. It explains the problem of printing music with computers, and our approach to
solving those problems.
1.1 Engraving
The art of music typography is called (plate) engraving. The term derives from the traditional
process of music printing. Just a few decades ago, sheet music was made by cutting and stamping
the music into a zinc or pewter plate in mirror image. The plate would be inked, the depressions
caused by the cutting and stamping would hold ink. An image was formed by pressing paper
to the plate. The stamping and cutting was completely done by hand. Making a correction was
cumbersome, if possible at all, so the engraving had to be perfect in one go. Engraving was
a highly specialized skill, a craftsman had to complete around ten years of practical training
before he could be a master engraver.
Nowadays, all newly printed music is produced with computers. This has obvious advantages;
prints are cheaper to make, editorial work can be delivered by email. Unfortunately, the pervasive
use of computers has also decreased the graphical quality of scores. Computer printouts have a
bland, mechanical look, which makes them unpleasant to play from.
The images below illustrate the difference between traditional engraving and typical computer
output, and the third picture shows how LilyPond mimics the traditional look. The left picture
shows a scan of a flat symbol from a Henle edition published in 2000. In the center show symbol
from a hand engraved Bärenreiter edition of the same music. The left scan illustrates typical
flaws of computer print: the staff lines are thin, the weight of the flat symbol matches the light
lines and it has a straight layout with sharp corners. By contrast, the Bärenreiter flat has a
bold, almost voluptuous rounded look. Our flat symbol is designed after, among others, this
one. It is rounded, and its weight harmonizes with the thickness of our staff lines, which are
also much thicker than Henle’s lines.
Henle (2000) Bärenreiter (1950) LilyPond Feta font (2003)
In spacing, the distribution of space should reflect the durations between notes. However,
many modern scores adhere to the durations with mathematical precision, which leads to a poor
result. In the next example a motive is printed twice. It is printed once using exact mathematical
spacing, and once with corrections. Can you spot which fragment is which?
> > > > > > > > > > > >
> >
> >
The fragment only uses quarter notes: notes that are played in a constant rhythm. The
spacing should reflect that. Unfortunately, the eye deceives us a little; not only does it notice
the distance between note heads, it also takes into account the distance between consecutive
stems. As a result, the notes of an up-stem/down-stem combination should be put farther apart,
and the notes of a down-up combination should be put closer together, all depending on the
combined vertical positions of the notes. The first two measures are printed with this correction,
the last two measures without. The notes in the last two measures form down-stem/up-stem
clumps of notes.
Musicians are usually more absorbed with performing than with studying the looks of piece
of music; nitpicking about typographical details may seem academical. But it is not. In larger
pieces with monotonous rhythms, spacing corrections lead to subtle variations in the layout of
every line, giving each one a distinct visual signature. Without this signature all lines would
look the same, they become like a labyrinth. If the musician looks away once or has a lapse in
his concentration, he will be lost on the page.
Similarly, the strong visual look of bold symbols on heavy staff lines stands out better when
music is far away from reader, for example, if it is on a music stand. A careful distribution of
white space allows music to be set very tightly without cluttering symbols together. The result
minimizes the number of page turns, which is a great advantage.
This is a common characteristic of typography. Layout should be pretty, not only for its
own sake, but especially because it helps the reader in his task. For performance material like
sheet music, this is doubly important: musicians have a limited amount of attention. The less
attention they need for reading, the more they can focus on playing itself. In other words, better
typography translates to better performances.
Hopefully, these examples also demonstrate that music typography is an art that is subtle
and complex, and to produce it requires considerable expertise, which musicians usually do not
have. LilyPond is our effort to bring the graphical excellence of hand-engraved music to the
computer age, and make it available to normal musicians. We have tuned our algorithms, font-
designs, and program settings to produce prints that match the quality of the old editions we
love to see and love to play from.
1.2 Automated engraving

How do we go about implementing typography? If craftsmen need over ten years to become
true masters, how could we simple hackers ever write a program to take over their jobs?
The answer is: we cannot. Typography relies on human judgment of appearance, so people
cannot be replaced ultimately. However, much of the dull work can be automated. If LilyPond
solves most of the common situations correctly, this will be a huge improvement over existing
software. The remaining cases can be tuned by hand. Over the course of years, the software can
be refined to do more and more automatically, so manual overrides are less and less necessary.
When we started we wrote the LilyPond program entirely in the C++ programming language,
the program’s functionality was set in stone by the developers. That proved to be unsatisfactory
for a number of reasons:
• When LilyPond makes mistakes, users need to override formatting decisions. Therefore, the
user must access to the formatting engine. Hence, rules and settings cannot be fixed by us
at compile time, but they must be accessible for users at run-time.
• Engraving is a matter of visual judgment, and therefore a matter of taste. As knowledgeable
as we are, users can disagree with our personal decisions. Therefore, the definitions of
typographical style must also be accessible to the user.
• Finally, we continually refine the formatting algorithms, so we need a flexible approach to

rules. The C++ language forces a certain method of grouping rules that do not match well
with how music notation works.
These problems have been addressed by integrating the GUILE interpreter for the Scheme
programming language and rewriting parts of LilyPond in Scheme. The new, flexible formatting
is built around the notion of graphical objects, described by Scheme variables and functions.
This architecture encompasses formatting rules, typographical style and individual formatting
decisions. The user has direct access to most of these controls.
Scheme variables control layout decisions. For example, many graphical objects have a direc-
tion variable that encodes the choice between up and down (or left and right). Here you see two
chords, with accents and arpeggio. In the first chord, the graphical objects have all directions
down (or left). The second chord has all directions up (right).
U
qq >>> >
>> qq
U
The process of formatting a score consists of reading and writing the variables of graphical
objects.
Some variables have a preset value. For example, the thickness of many lines—a characteristic
of typographical style—are preset variables. Changing them gives a different typographical
impression
3 > > >>> > 3 > > 3>

> >>
> >>> > 3>

> 3> > > > 3>
Formatting rules are also preset variables: each object has variables containing procedures.
These procedure perform the actual formatting, and by substituting different ones, we can
change behavior. In the following example, the rule that note head objects use to produce their
symbol is changed during the music fragment
\
2
4 >>> F
G JJJ c2 3> /c 2 /c
D m m
1.3 What symbols to engrave?

The formatting process in LilyPond decides where to place symbols. However, this can only be
done once it is decided what symbols should be printed, in other words what notation to use.
Common music notation is a system of recording music that has evolved over the past 1000
years. The form that is now in common use, dates from the early renaissance. Although, the
basic form (i.e. note heads on a 5-line staff) has not changed, the details still change to express
the innovations of contemporary notation. Hence, it encompasses some 500 years of music. Its
applications range from monophonic melodies to monstrous counterpoint for large orchestras.
How can we get a grip on such a many-headed beast, and force it into the confines of a
computer program? We have broken up the problem of notation (as opposed to engraving, i.e.
typography) into digestible and programmable chunks: every type of symbol is handled by a
separate module, a so-called plug-in. Each plug-in is completely modular and independent, so
each can be developed and improved separately. People that translate musical ideas to graphic
symbols are called copyists or engravers, so by analogy, each plug-in is called engraver.
In the following example, we see how we start out with a plug-in for note heads, the Note_
heads_engraver.
> >>>>>
> > > >
Then a Staff_symbol_engraver adds the staff
> >>>>>
> > > >
The Clef_engraver defines a reference point for the staff
> > > > > >>>>>

And the Stem_engraver adds stems
> > > > > > >

> > >
The Stem_engraver is notified of any note head coming along. Every time one (or more, for
a chord) note head is seen, a stem object is created and connected to the note head. By adding
engravers for beams, slurs, accents, accidentals, bar lines, time signature, and key signature, we
get a complete piece of notation.
// V V V V >U
3> > > > > > > > >
This system works well for monophonic music, but what about polyphony? In polyphonic
V V V V U
notation, many voices can share a staff.
/ >>
/ 3 > 2 >> >> / >> >> >> >>
>>
>
>
2> U
V V V V
In this situation, the accidentals and staff are shared, but the stems, slurs, beams, etc. are
private to each voice. Hence, engravers should be grouped. The engravers for note heads, stems,
slurs, etc. go into a group called “Voice context,” while the engravers for key, accidental, bar,
etc. go into a group called “Staff context.” In the case of polyphony, a single Staff context
contains more than one Voice context. In polyphonic notation, many voices can share a staff.
V V V V U
Similarly, more Staff contexts can be put into a single Score context
// > >>
> >> > > >>>
2 3 >> 2 > / > > >>> >
U
V V V V V
V V
// * > ( * > +>* U
> * ( > * ( >
V V >
U
1.4 Music representation
Ideally, the input format for any high-level formatting system is an abstract description of the
content. In this case, that would be the music itself. This poses a formidable problem: how
can we define what music really is? Instead of trying to find an answer, we have reversed the
question. We write a program capable of producing sheet music, and adjust the format to be
as lean as possible. When the format can no longer be trimmed down, by definition we are left
with content itself. Our program serves as a formal definition of a music document.
The syntax is also the user-interface for LilyPond, hence it is easy to type
c’4 d’8
a quarter note C1 (middle C) and eighth note D1 (D above middle C)

> >
On a microscopic scale, such syntax is easy to use. On a larger scale, syntax also needs
structure. How else can you enter complex pieces like symphonies and operas? The structure is
formed by the concept of music expressions: by combining small fragments of music into larger
ones, more complex music can be expressed. For example
c4

>
Combine this simultaneously with two other notes by enclosing in << and >>
<<c4 d4 e4>>
>>
>
This expression is put in sequence by enclosing it in curly braces { ... }
{ <<c4 d4 e4>> f4 }
>>> >
The above is another expression, and therefore, it many combined again with a simultaneous
expression; in this case, a half note
<< { <<c4 d4 e4>> f4 } g2 >>
>> >
>=
Such recursive structures can be specified neatly and formally in a context-free grammar.
The parsing code is also generated from this grammar. In other words, the syntax of LilyPond
is clearly and unambiguously defined.
User-interfaces and syntax are what people see and deal with most. They are partly a matter
of taste, and also subject of much discussion. Although discussions on taste do have their merit,
they are not very productive. In the larger picture of LilyPond, the importance of input syntax
is small: inventing neat syntax is easy, writing decent formatting code is much harder. This
is also illustrated by the line-counts for the respective components: parsing and representation
take up less than 10% of the code.
1.5 Example applications

We have written LilyPond as an experiment of how to condense the art of music engraving into
a computer program. Thanks to all that hard work, the program can now be used to perform
useful tasks. The simplest application is printing notes
2 > > > > =

4 > >
By adding chord names and lyrics we obtain a lead sheet
C C F C
2
> > > > =
4
> >
twin kle twin kle lit tle star
Polyphonic notation and piano music can also be printed. The following example combines
some more exotic constructs
> > > 2 > 2 > / >> 2 >

3 >> : : 2 > >>
33 > >> >
2
4
8
>
> : 2 > / >> >
3
3
33 4 qq / 2 / >>>
8 qs 2 / >>
The fragments shown above have all been written by hand, but that is not a requirement.
Since the formatting engine is mostly automatic, it can serve as an output means for other
programs that manipulate music. For example, it can also be used to convert databases of
musical fragments to images for use on websites and multimedia presentations.
This manual also shows an application: the input format is text, and can therefore be easily
embedded in other text-based formats such as LaTEX, HTML or in the case of this manual,
Texinfo. By means of a special program, the input fragments can be replaced by music images
in the resulting PostScript or HTML output files. This makes it easy to mix music and text in
documents.
1.6 About this manual

The manual is divided into the following chapters:
• Chapter 2 [Tutorial], page 10 gives a gentle introduction to typesetting music. First time
users should start here.
• Chapter 3 [Notation manual], page 31 discusses topics grouped by notation construct. Once
you master the basics, this is the place to look up details.
• Chapter 4 [Changing defaults], page 107 explains how to fine tune layout.
• Chapter 5 [Invoking LilyPond], page 133 shows how to run LilyPond and its helper pro-
grams.
• Chapter 6 [lilypond-book manual], page 140 explains the details behind creating documents
with in-line music examples (like this manual).
• Chapter 7 [Converting from other formats], page 145 explains how to run the conversion
programs. These programs are supplied with the LilyPond package, and convert a variety
of music formats to the .ly format. In addition, this section explains how to upgrade input
files from previous versions of LilyPond.
• Appendix B [Literature list], page 182 contains a set of useful reference books, for those
who wish to know more on notation and engraving.
Once you are an experienced user, you can use the manual as reference: there is an extensive
index1 , but the document is also available in a big HTML page, which can be searched easily
using the search facility of a web browser.
If you are not familiar with music notation or music terminology (especially if you are a
non-native English speaker), it is advisable to consult the glossary as well. The glossary ex-
plains musical terms, and includes translations to various languages. It is a separate document,
available in HTML and PDF.
This manual is not complete without a number of other documents. They are not available
in print, but should be included with the documentation package for your platform:
• Program reference
The program reference is a set of heavily cross linked HTML pages, which documents the
nit-gritty details of each and every LilyPond class, object and function. It is produced
directly from the formatting definitions used.
Almost all formatting functionality that is used internally, is available directly to the user.
For example, all variables that control thicknesses, distances, etc, can be changed in input
files. There are a huge number of formatting options, and all of them are described in the
generated documentation. Each section of the notation manual has a See also subsection,
which refers to the the generated documentation. In the HTML document, these subsections
have clickable links.
• Templates
After you have gone through the tutorial, you should be able to write input files. In practice,
writing files from scratch turns out to be intimidating. To give you a head start, we have
1
If you are looking for something, and you cannot find it in the manual, that is considered a bug. In that case,
please file a bug report.
collected a number of often-used formats in example files. These files can be used as a start;
simply copy the template and add notes in the appropriate places.
• Various input examples
This collection of files shows various tips and tricks, and is available as a big HTML docu-
ment, with pictures and explanatory texts included.
• The regression tests
This collection of files tests each notation and engraving feature of LilyPond in one file.
The collection is primarily there to help us debug problems, but it can be instructive to see
how we exercise the program. The format is similar to the the tips and tricks document.
In all HTML documents that have music fragments embedded, the LilyPond input that was
used to produce that image can be viewed by clicking the image.
The location of the documentation files that are mentioned here can vary from system to
system. On occasion, this manual refers to initialization and example files. Throughout this
manual, we refer to input files relative to the top-directory of the source archive. For example,
‘input/test/bla.ly’ may refer to the file ‘lilypond-1.7.19/input/test/bla.ly’. On binary
packages for the Unix platform, the documentation and examples can typically be found some-
where below ‘/usr/share/doc/lilypond/’. Initialization files, for example ‘scm/lily.scm’, or
‘ly/engraver-init.ly’, are usually found in the directory ‘/usr/share/lilypond/’.
Finally, this and all other manuals, are available online both as PDF files and HTML from
the web site, which can be found at http://www.lilypond.org/.
Chapter 2: Tutorial 10
2 Tutorial
This tutorial starts with a short introduction to the LilyPond music language. After this first
contact we will show you how to produce printed output. Then you will be able to create and
print your own sheets of music.
By cutting and pasting the full input into a test file, you have a starting template for ex-
periments. If you like learning in this way, you will probably want to print out or bookmark
Appendix D [Cheat sheet], page 189, which is a table listing all commands for quick reference.
2.1 First steps

The first example demonstrates how to enter the most elementary piece of music, a scale. A
note can be entered by typing its name, from ‘a’ through ‘g’. So, if you enter
c d e f g a b
the result looks like this
> > > > > > >

The duration of a note is specified by a number after the note name. ‘1’ for a whole note, ‘2’
for a half note, ‘4’ for a quarter note and so on

a1 a2 a4 a16 a32
< = > > >

If you do not specify a duration, the duration last entered is used; the duration of the first
note defaults to a quarter
a a8 a a2 a
> >>= =
Rests are entered just like notes, but with the name “r”
r2 r4 r8 r16
" ( * +
Add a dot ‘.’ after the duration to get a dotted note

a2. a4 a8. a16
=: > >: >
The meter (or time signature) can be set with the \time command
\time 3/4
\time 6/8
\time 4/4
3 6
4 8
The clef can be set using the \clef command

\clef treble
\clef bass
\clef alto
\clef tenor

To recognize names like c and d as pitches, they have to be entered inside a so-called \notes
block. This block is formed by enclosing notes and commands are enclosed in curly braces {
... } and adding the keyword \notes before the opening brace
\notes {
\time 3/4
\clef bass
c2 e4 g2.
f4 e d c2 r4
}
Now the piece of music is almost ready to be printed. Enclose the \notes block in a \score
block
\score {
\notes {
\time 3/4
\clef bass
c2 e4 g2.
f4 e d c2 r4
}
}
and the music will be converted to printable output.
> =: > > > (

3
4
= =
In many examples in this manual, both \score and \notes and accompanying braces are
left out for brevity. However, they must be present when feeding the file to LilyPond.
For more elaborate information on
Entering pitches and durations
see Section 3.1.2 [Pitches], page 31 and Section 3.1.7 [Durations], page 34.
Clefs see Section 3.3.3 [Clef], page 40
Rests see Section 3.1.5 [Rests], page 33.
Time signatures and other timing commands

see Section 3.3.5 [Time signature], page 42.
2.2 Running LilyPond

In the last section we explained what kind of things you could enter in a LilyPond file. In this
section we will explain what commands to run and how to view or print the output. If you have
not used LilyPond before, want to test your setup, or want to run an example file yourself, read
this section. The instructions that follow are for Unix-like systems. Some additional instructions
for Microsoft Windows are given at the end of this section.
Begin by opening a terminal window and starting a text editor. For example, you could open
an xterm and execute joe1 . In your text editor, enter the following input and save the file as
‘test.ly’
\score {
\notes { c’4 e’ g’ }
}
To process ‘test.ly’, proceed as follows
lilypond test.ly
You will see something resembling
GNU LilyPond 1.8.0
Now processing: ‘/home/fred/ly/test.ly’
Parsing...
Interpreting music...[1]
... more interesting stuff ...
PDF output to ‘test.pdf’...
DVI output to ‘test.dvi’...
The result is the file ‘test.pdf’2 which you can print or with the standard facilities of your
operating system.3
On Windows, start up a text-editor4 and enter
\score {
\notes { c’4 e’ g’ }
}
Save it on the desktop as ‘test.ly’ and make sure that it is not called ‘test.ly.TXT’. Double
clicking ‘test.ly’ will process the file and show the resulting PDF file.
2.3 More about pitches

A sharp (/) pitch is made by adding ‘is’ to the name, a flat ( 3) pitch by adding ‘es’. As you
might expect, a double sharp or double flat is made by adding ‘isis’ or ‘eses’:5
cis1 ees fisis aeses
1
There are macro files for VIM addicts, and there is a LilyPond-mode for Emacs addicts. If it has not been
installed already, refer to the file ‘INSTALL.txt’
2
For TEX aficionados: there is also a ‘test.dvi’ file. It can be viewed with xdvi. The DVI uses a lot of
PostScript specials, which do not show up in the magnifying glass. The specials also mean that the DVI file
cannot be processed with dvilj. Use dvips for printing.
3
If your system does not have any tools installed, you can try http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/ (Ghostscript),
a freely available package for viewing and printing PDF and PostScript files.
4
Any simple or programmer-oriented editor will do, for example Notepad. Do not use a word processor, its
formatting codes will confuse LilyPond
5
This syntax derived from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages, like German and Dutch.
3< 7< 5<

/<
The key signature is set with the command “\key”, followed by a pitch and \major or \minor
\key d \major
g1
\key c \minor
g
/ 22 3
/ < 33 <
Key signatures together with the pitches (including alterations) are used together to deter-
mine when to print accidentals. This is a feature that often causes confusion to newcomers, so
let us explain it in more detail
LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and layout. The alteration (flat,
natural or sharp) of a note is part of the pitch, and is therefore musical content. Whether an
accidental (a flat, natural or sharp sign) is a printed in front of the corresponding note is a ques-
tion of layout. Layout is something that follows rules, so accidentals are printed automatically
according to those rules. The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will not be added
automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.
In this example
/
/ >
> >
no note gets an explicit accidental, but still you enter
\key d \major
d cis fis
The code d does not mean “print a black dot just below the staff.” Rather, it means: “a
note with pitch D-natural.” In the key of A-flat, it does get an accidental
3 33
3 2>
\key as \major
d
Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more effort when typing, but the advan-
tage is that transposing is easier, and music can be printed according to different conventions.
See Section 3.6 [Accidentals], page 49 for some examples how accidentals can be printed accord-
ing to different rules.
For more information on
Accidentals
see Section 3.6 [Accidentals], page 49
Key signature
see Section 3.3.2 [Key signature], page 40
2.4 Entering ties

A tie is created by adding a tilde “~” to the first note being tied
g4~ g a2~ a4
> > = >

For more information on Ties, see Section 3.1.9 [Ties], page 35.
2.5 Automatic and manual beams

Beams are drawn automatically
a8 ais d es r d
> 3> * >

> />
If you do not like where beams are put, they can be entered by hand. Mark the first note to
be beamed with [ and the last one with ].
a8[ ais] d[ es r d]
> 3> * >

> />
For more information on beams, see Section 3.5 [Beaming], page 46.
Here are key signatures, accidentals and ties in action
\score {
\notes {
\time 4/4
\key g \minor
\clef violin
r4 r8 a8 gis4 b
g8 d4.~ d e8
fis4 fis8 fis8 eis4 a8 gis~
gis2 r2
}
}
33 ( * 2 >
> /> >
>: >: 2>
3
3 / > > > 2/ > > / > = "
3
There are some interesting points to note in this example. Bar lines and beams are drawn
automatically. Line breaks are calculated automatically; it does not matter where the line breaks
are in the source file. Finally, the order in which time, key and clef changes are entered is not
relevant: in the printout, these are ordered according to standard notation conventions.
2.6 Octave entry

To raise a note by an octave, add a high quote ’ (apostrophe) to the note name, to lower a note
one octave, add a “low quote” , (a comma). Middle C is c’
>
c’4 c’’ c’’’ \clef bass c c,
> >
> >
An example of the use of quotes is in the following Mozart fragment
\key a \major
\time 6/8
cis’’8. d’’16 cis’’8 e’’4 e’’8
b’8. cis’’16 b’8 d’’4 d’’8
/// >: > > > >

>: > > > >

6
8
This example shows that music in a high register needs lots of quotes. This makes the input
less readable, and it is a source of errors. The solution is to use “relative octave” mode. In
practice, this is the most convenient way to copy existing music. To use relative mode, add
\relative before the piece of music. You must also give a note from which relative starts, in
this case c’’. If you do not use octavation quotes (i.e. do not add ’ or , after a note), relative
mode chooses the note that is closest to the previous one. For example, c f goes up while c g
goes down
\relative c’’ {
c f c g c
}
> >
> > >
Since most music has small intervals, pieces can be written almost without octavation quotes
in relative mode. The previous example is entered as
\relative c’’ {
\key a \major
\time 6/8
cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
b8. cis16 b8 d4 d8
}
/// >: > > > >

>: > > > >

6
8
Larger intervals are made by adding octavation quotes.

\relative c’’ {
c f, f c’ c g’ c,
}
> > > > >

> >
In \relative mode, quotes or commas no longer determine the absolute height of a note.
Rather, the height of a note is relative to the previous one, and changing the octave of a single
note shifts all following notes an octave up or down.
For more information on Relative octaves see Section 3.2.1 [Relative octaves], page 37 and
Section 3.2.2 [Octave check], page 38.
2.7 Music expressions explained

In input files, music is represent by so-called music expression. We have already seen in the
previous examples; a single note is a music expression
a4
>

Enclosing group of notes in braces creates a new music expression
{ a4 g4 }
> >

Putting a bunch of music expressions (notes) in braces, means that they should be played in
sequence. The result again is a music expression, which can be grouped with other expressions
sequentially. Here, the expression from the previous example is combined with two notes
{ { a4 g } f g }
> > > >

This technique is useful for non-monophonic music. To enter music with more voices or more
staves, we also combine expressions in parallel. Two voices that should play at the same time,
are entered as a simultaneous combination of two sequences. A “simultaneous” music expression
is formed by enclosing expressions in << and >>. In the following example, three sequences (all
containing two notes) are combined simultaneously
<<
{ a4 g }
{ f e }
{ d b }
>>
> >

> >

>
>
This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula is created by composing
small formulas. Such formulas are called expressions, and their definition is recursive, so you
can make arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
1
1 + 2
(1 + 2) * 3
((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
This example shows a sequence of expressions, where each expression is contained in the next
one. The simplest expressions are numbers and operators (like +, * and /). Parentheses are used
to group expressions.
Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested arbitrarily deep, e.g.
{
c <<c e>>
<< { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
}
> >> >> >>>

When spreading expressions over multiple lines, it is customary to use an indent that indicates
the nesting level. Formatting music like this eases reading, and helps you insert the right number
of closing braces at the end of an expression. For example,
\score {
\notes <<
{
...
}
{
...
}
>>
}
Some editors have special support for entering LilyPond, and can help indenting source files.
See Section 5.7 [Editor support], page 138 for more information.
2.8 More staves

To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a staff is marked by adding \new
Staff before it. These Staff’s are then combined parallel with << and >>, as demonstrated
here
<<
\new Staff { \clef violin c’’ }
\new Staff { \clef bass c }
>>
>
>
The command \new introduces a “notation context.” A notation context is an environment

in which musical events (like notes or \clef commands) are interpreted. For simple pieces, such
notation contexts are created implicitly. For more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts
explicitly. This ensures that each fragment gets its own stave.
There are several types of contexts: Staff, Voice and Score handle normal music notation.
Other staves are also Lyrics (for setting lyric texts) and ChordNames (for printing chord names).
In terms of syntax, prepending \new to a music expression creates a bigger music expression.
In this way it resembles the minus sign in mathematics. The formula (4+5) is an expression, so
-(4+5) is a bigger expression.
We can now typeset a melody with two staves
\score {
\notes <<
\new Staff {
\time 3/4
\clef violin
\relative c’’ {
e2 d4 c2 b4 a8[ a]
b[ b] g[ g] a2. }
}
\new Staff {
\clef bass
c2 e4 g2.
f4 e d c2.
}
>>
}
= > = > > > > > > > =:

3
4
=: > > >

3
4
= > =:
For more information on context see the description in Section 4.2 [Interpretation contexts],
page 109.
2.9 Adding articulation marks to notes

Common accents can be added to a note using a dash (‘-’) and a single character
c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
V Y U \ _ Z
> > > > > >
Similarly, fingering indications can be added to a note using a dash (‘-’) and the digit to be
printed
c-3 e-5 b-2 a-1
> >
>
1
>
3 5 2
Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings (with a backslash) to the note
c\ff c\mf
> >
ff mf
Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands \< and \>. An ending dynamic,
for example \f, will finish the crescendo, or the command \! can be used
c2\< c2\ff\> c2 c2\!
= = = =
ff
A slur is a curve drawn across many notes, and indicates legato articulation. The starting
note and ending note are marked with a “(” and a “)” respectively
d4( c16)( cis d e c cis d e)( d4)
> > /> > > 2> /> > > >

A slur looks like a tie, but it has a different meaning. A tie simply makes the first note
sound longer, and can only be used on pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs indicate the
articulations of notes, and can be used on larger groups of notes. Slurs and ties are also nested
in practice
= > /> > = =

Slurs to indicate phrasing can be entered with $ and $, so you can have both legato slurs
and phrasing slurs at the same time.
a8($ ais b c) cis2 b’2 a4 cis, c$
= >
> /> > > /= /> >

Fingering see Section 3.7.8 [Fingering instructions], page 56
Articulations
see Section 3.7.7 [Articulations], page 54
Slurs see Section 3.7.1 [Slurs], page 51
Phrasing slurs
see Section 3.7.2 [Phrasing slurs], page 52
Dynamics see Section 3.7.12 [Dynamics], page 60
Fingering
2.10 Combining notes into chords

Chords can be made by surrounding pitches with angled brackets. Angled brackets are the
symbols < and >.
r4 <c e g>4 <c f a>8

( >> >>
> >
You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords. They must be placed outside
the angled brackets
r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>

( >> >> >>
>>>
r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g> <c f a>8\!)

( >>> >>> >>> >>>
2.11 Basic rhythmical commands

A pickup is entered with the keyword \partial. It is followed by a duration: \partial 4 is a
quarter note upstep and \partial 8 an eighth note
\partial 8
f8 c2 d e
> = = =

Tuplets are made with the \times keyword. It takes two arguments: a fraction and a piece
of music. The duration of the piece of music is multiplied by the fraction. Triplets make notes
occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so a triplet has 2/3 as its fraction
\times 2/3 { f8 g a }
\times 2/3 { c r c }
> > > > * >

3
Grace notes are also made by prefixing a music expression with the keyword \appoggiatura
or \acciaccatura
c4 \appoggiatura b16 c4
c4 \acciaccatura b16 c4
> >> > >>


Grace notes
see Section 3.7.10 [Grace notes], page 57,
Tuplets see Section 3.1.10 [Tuplets], page 36,
Pickups see Section 3.3.6 [Partial measures], page 43.
2.12 Commenting input files

A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input, it is ignored and has no effect
on the printed output. There are two types of comments. The percent symbol % introduces a
line comment; the rest of the line is ignored. A block comments marks a whole section of music
input, anything that is enclosed in %{ and %} is ignored. The following fragment shows possible
uses for comments
% notes for twinkle twinkle follow
c4 c g’ g a a
%{
This line, and the notes below
are ignored, since they are in a
block comment.
g g f f e e d d c2
%}
There is a special statement that really is a kind of comment. The version statement marks
for which version of LilyPond the file was written. To mark a file for version 2.1.17, use
\version "2.1.17"
These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more smoothly. Changes in the
syntax are handled with a special program, ‘convert-ly’ (see Section 7.1 [Invoking convert-ly],
page 145), and it uses \version to determine what rules to apply.
2.13 Printing lyrics

Lyrics are entered by separating each syllable with a space,
I want to break free
To prevent certain words (for example “as”) as being read as a pitch, the input-mode must
be switched. This is done with \lyrics. In \lyrics mode, all words are read as lyric syllables.
\lyrics { I want to break free }
Again, the braces {} signify that the syllables are sung in sequence.
By default, music expressions are interpreted in Staff context. For lyrics, this is obviously
not desirable, so it is necessary to explicitly specify a Lyrics context,
\new Lyrics \lyrics { I want to break free }
The melody for this song is as follows
> > > > > =

3 3
The lyrics can be set to these notes, combining both with the \lyricsto keyword
\lyricsto "name " \new Lyrics ...
where name identifies to which melody the lyrics should be aligned. In this case, there is
only one melody, so we can leave it empty.
The final result is
\score {
\notes <<
\partial 4
\relative c’ {
c4
\times 2/3 { f g g } \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
}
\lyricsto "" \new Lyrics \lyrics { I want to break free }
>>
}

3
> > > > =

3
>
This melody ends on a melisma, a single syllable (“free”) sung to more than one note. This
is indicated with an extender line. It is entered as two underscores, i.e.
\lyrics { I want to break free __ }
> > > > =

3 3
>
Similarly, hyphens between words can be entered as two dashes, resulting in a centered
hyphen between two syllables
>
Twin -- kle twin -- kle
>
2
4 > >
Twin kle twin kle
More options, like putting multiple lines of lyrics below a melody are discussed in Section 3.11
[Vocal music], page 71.
2.14 A lead sheet

In popular music, it is common to denote accompaniment as chord-names. Such chords can be
entered like notes,
c2 f4. g8
but now, each pitch is read as the root of a chord instead of a note. This mode is switched on
with \chords
\score {
\chords { c2 f4. g8 }
}
>>
== >>> ::: >
=
Other chords can be created by adding modifiers after a colon. The following example shows
a few common modifiers
\chords { c2 f4:m g4:maj7 gis1:dim7 }
/ >> <<
== 3 >>> >> / <<
=
For lead sheets, chords are not printed on staves, but as names on a line of themselves. Hence,
we have to override the context with \new, rendering the music expression in a ChordNames
context
/
\new ChordNames \chords { c2 f4.:m g4.:maj7 gis8:dim7 }
o7
C Fm GM G
When put together, chord names, lyrics and a melody form a lead sheet, for example,
\score {
<<
\new ChordNames \chords { chords }

\notes the melody
\lyricsto "" \new Lyrics \lyrics { the text }
>>
}
Csus4 F

3
> > > =

3
> >
A complete list of modifiers and other options for layout can be found in Section 3.1.4
[Chords], page 33.
2.15 Listening to output

MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a standard for connecting and controlling digital
instruments. A MIDI file is like a tape recording of a MIDI instrument.
To create a MIDI from a music piece of music, add a \midi block causes LilyPond to create a
MIDI file, so you can listen to the music you entered. It is great for checking the music: octaves
that are off or accidentals that were mistyped stand out very much when listening to the musical
transcription.
The \midi block is added to \score, for example,
\score {
..music..
\midi { \tempo 4=72 }
}
Here, the tempo is specified using the \tempo command. In this case the tempo of quarter
notes is set to 72 beats per minute. More information on auditory output in the notation manual,
Section 3.18 [Sound], page 105.
If there is a \midi command in a \score, only MIDI will be produced. If notation is needed
too, a \paper block must be added too
\score {
..music..
\midi { \tempo 4=72 }
\paper { }
}
2.16 Titling
Bibliographic information is entered in a separate block, the \header block. The name of the
piece, its composer, etc. are entered as an assignment, within \header { ... }. For example,
\header {
title = "Eight miniatures"
composer = "Igor Stravinsky"
tagline = "small is beautiful"
}
\score { ... }
When the file is processed the title and composer are printed above the music. The ‘tagline’
is a short line printed at bottom of the last page which normally says “Engraved by LilyPond,
version . . . ”. In the example above it is replaced by the line “small is beautiful.”6
Normally, the \header is put at the top of the file. However, for a document that contains
multiple pieces (e.g. an etude book, or an orchestral part with multiple movements), the header
can be put in the \score block as follows; in this case, the name of each piece will be printed
before each movement
\header {
title = "Eight miniatures"
composer = "Igor Stravinsky"
tagline = "small is beautiful"
}
\score { ...
\header { piece = "Adagio" }
}
\score { ...
\header { piece = "Menuetto" }
}
More information on titling can be found in Section 5.1 [Invoking lilypond], page 133.
2.17 Single staff polyphony

When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they are printed as polyphonic voices:
each voice has its own stems, slurs and beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the
bottom voice has them down.
Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence (with { .. }), and combining
those simultaneously, separating the voices with \\
<< { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
{ r4 g4 f2 f4 } >>
> => = > >

(
For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be convenient: these are rests that
do not print. It is useful for filling up voices that temporarily do not play. Here is the same
example with a spacer rest instead of a normal rest
> => = > >

Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily
6
Nicely printed parts are good PR for us, so please leave the tagline if you can.
> => = > >

>< > = >>
< >
More features of polyphonic typesetting in the notation manual in Section 3.4 [Polyphony],
page 45.
2.18 Piano staves

Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a brace. Printing such a staff is similar to the
polyphonic example in Section 2.8 [More staves], page 18
<< \new Staff { ... }
\new Staff { ... } >>
but now this entire expression must be interpreted as a PianoStaff
\new PianoStaff << \new Staff ... >>
Here is a full-fledged example
> >
2
2
4
> >
> > >
2 >
4
More information on formatting piano music is in Section 3.10 [Piano music], page 67.
2.19 Organizing larger pieces

When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce larger files, the \score
blocks get a lot bigger, because the music expressions are longer, and, in the case of polyphonic
pieces, more deeply nested. Such large expressions can become unwieldy.
By using variables, also known as identifiers, it is possible to break up complex music expres-
sions. An identifier is assigned as follows
namedMusic = \notes { ...
The contents of the music expression namedMusic, can be used later by preceding the name
with a backslash, i.e. \namedMusic. In the next example, a two note motive is repeated two
times by using variable substitution
seufzer = \notes {
e’4( dis’4)
}
\score {
\new Staff { \seufzer \seufzer }
}
> /> > >

The name of an identifier should have alphabetic characters only; no numbers, underscores
or dashes. The assignment should be outside of the \score block.
It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in the input. For example,
width = 4.5\cm
name = "Wendy"
aFivePaper = \paper { paperheight = 21.0 \cm }
Depending on its contents, the identifier can be used in different places. The following
example uses the above variables
\score {
\notes { c4^\name }
\paper {
\aFivePaper
linewidth = \width
}
}
More information on the possible uses of identifiers is in the technical manual, in TODO.
2.20 An orchestral part

In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice: both in a part for the musicians, and in a full
score for the conductor. Identifiers can be used to avoid double work: the music is entered once,
and stored in a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate both the part
and the score.
It is convenient to define the notes in a special file, for example, suppose that the
‘horn-music.ly’ contains the following part of a horn/bassoon duo,
hornNotes = \notes \relative c {
\time 2/4
r4 f8 a cis4 f e d
}
Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file
\include "horn-music.ly"
\header {
instrument = "Horn in F"
}
\score {
\notes \transpose f c’ \hornNotes
}
The line
substitutes the contents of ‘horn-music.ly’ at this position in the file, so hornNotes is defined
afterwards. The command \transpose f c’ indicates that the argument, being \hornNotes,
should be transposed by a fifth downwards: sounding f is denoted by notated c’, which corre-
sponds with tuning of a normal French Horn in F. The transposition can be seen in the following
output
2 (
> /> > > >
4
>
In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many measures. This is denoted
by a special rest, the multi-measure rest. It is entered with a capital R followed by a duration
(1 for a whole note, 2 for a half note, etc.) By multiplying the duration, longer rests can be
constructed. For example, this rest takes 3 measures in 2/4 time
R2*3
When printing the part, multi-rests must be condensed. This is done by setting a run-time
variable
\set Score.skipBars = ##t
This commands sets the property skipBars property in the Score context to true (##t).
Prepending the rest and this option to the music above, leads to the following result
'! ( /> > > >

3
2
>
4 >
The score is made by combining all of the music in a \score block. Assuming that the other
voice is in bassoonNotes in the file ‘bassoon-music.ly’, a score is made with
\include "bassoon-music.ly"
\score {
\simultaneous {
\new Staff \hornNotes
\new Staff \bassoonNotes
}
}
leading to
! ! ! (

/> > > >
2
>
4
>
> / > > > 3> > > > > /> >
2 ( > >
4
More in-depth information on preparing parts and scores in the notation manual, in Sec-
tion 3.14 [Orchestral music], page 81.
Setting run-time variables (“properties”) is discussed in ref-TODO.
2.21 Integrating text and music

Some texts include music examples. Examples are musicological treatises, songbooks or manuals
like this. Such texts can be made by hand, simply by importing a PostScript figure into the word
processor. However, there is an automated procedure to reduce the amount of work involved
HTML, LaTEX, and Texinfo documents.
A script called lilypond-book will extract the music fragments, run format them, and put
back the resulting notation. This program is fully described in Chapter 6 [lilypond-book manual],
page 140. Here we show a small example. The example also contains explanatory text, so we
will not comment on it further
\documentclass[a4paper]{article}
\begin{document}
Documents for lilypond-book may freely mix music and text. For
example,
\begin{lilypond}
\score { \notes \relative c’ {
c2 g’2 \times 2/3 { f8 e d } c’2 g4
} }
\end{lilypond}
If there is no \verb+\score+ block in the fragment,

\texttt{lilypond-book} will supply one
\begin{lilypond}
c’4
\end{lilypond}
In this example two things happened: a

\verb+\score+ block was added, and the line width was set to natural
length.
Options are put in brackets.
\begin[staffsize=26,verbatim]{lilypond}
c’4 f16
\end{lilypond}
Larger examples can be put in a separate file, and introduced with

\verb+\lilypondfile+.
\lilypondfile{screech-boink.ly}
\end{document}
Under Unix, you can view the results as follows
$ cd input/tutorial
$ mkdir -p out/
$ lilypond-book --output=out/ lilybook.tex
lilypond-book (GNU LilyPond) 2.1.19
Reading ‘input/tutorial/lilybook.tex’
Reading ‘input/screech-boink.ly’
lots of stuff deleted
Writing ‘out/lilybook.tex’
$ cd out
$ latex lilybook
lots of stuff deleted
$ xdvi lilybook
To convert the file into a nice PDF document, run the following commands
$ dvips -Ppdf -u +lilypond lilybook
$ ps2pdf lilybook.ps
Running lilypond-book and running latex creates a lot of temporary files, which would clutter
up the working directory. To remedy this, use the output option. It will create the files in a
separate subdirectory ‘out’.
The result looks more or less like
Documents for lilypond-book may freely mix music and text. For example
= = >
3
= >>>
If you have no \score block in the fragment, lilypond-book will supply one

>
In this example two things happened: a score block was added, and the line width was set
to natural length.
Options are put in brackets.
c’4 f16
>
>
Larger examples can be put in a separate file, and introduced with \lilypondfile.
> > > 2 > 2 > / >> 2 >

3 >> : : 2 > >>
33 > > > >
2
4
8
>
> : 2 > / >> >
3
3
33 4
qq / 2 / >>>
8
qs 2 / >>
Chapter 3: Notation manual 31
3 Notation manual
This chapter describes all the different types of notation supported by LilyPond. It is intended
as a reference for users that are already somewhat familiar with LilyPond.
3.1 Note entry

This section is about basic notation elements notes, rests and related constructs, such as stems,
tuplets and ties.
3.1.1 Notes
A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration1
cis’4 d’8 e’16 c’16

/> > > 2>
3.1.2 Pitches
The most common syntax for pitch entry is used in \chords and \notes mode. In these modes,
pitches may be designated by names. The notes are specified by the letters a through g, while
the octave is formed with notes ranging from c to b. The pitch c is an octave below middle C
and the letters span the octave above that C
\clef bass
> > >

a,4 b, c d e f g a b c’ d’ e’ \clef treble f’ g’ a’ b’ c’’
> > >

> >
> > > > > > > >
>
5
A sharp is formed by adding -is to the end of a pitch name and a flat is formed by adding
-es. Double sharps and double flats are obtained by adding -isis or -eses. These names
are the Dutch note names. In Dutch, aes is contracted to as, but both forms are accepted.
Similarly, both es and ees are accepted.
Half-flats and half-sharps are formed by adding -eh and -ih; the following is a series of Cs
with increasing pitches
ceses4
ceseh
ces
ceh
c
1
Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input, but they do not form valid input on their own
without a \score block. However, for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will generally omit \score blocks
and \paper declarations in this manual.
cih
cis
cisih
5 > 26 > 23 > 24 > > 0 > / > 1 > 7 >

cisis

There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages. To use them, include
the language specific init file. For example: \include "english.ly". The available language
files and the note names they define are
Note Names sharp flat
nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
-x (double)
deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of single quote (‘’’) characters
or a series of comma (‘,’) characters. Each ’ raises the pitch by one octave; each , lowers the
pitch by an octave
c’ c’’ es’ g’ as’ gisis’ ais’
> 3 > 7 > 2/ >

> 3> >
Predefined commands
Notes can be hidden and unhidden with the following commands
\hideNotes, \unHideNotes.
See also
Program reference: NoteEvent, and NoteHead.
3.1.3 Chromatic alterations

Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also print them manually. A
reminder accidental can be forced by adding an exclamation mark ! after the pitch. A cautionary
accidental (i.e. an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the question mark
‘?’ after the pitch
cis’ cis’ cis’! cis’?

/ > > / > 9/8 >
See also
The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many ways. For more information,
refer to Section 3.6 [Accidentals], page 49.
Bugs
There are no generally accepted standards for denoting three quarter flats, so LilyPond’s symbol
does not conform to any standard.
3.1.4 Chords
A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in < and >. A chord may be followed by a
duration, and a set of articulations, just like simple notes.
>>
> >
3.1.5 Rests
Rests are entered like notes, with the note name r
r1 r2 r4 r8
!
" ( *
Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar, must be done with multi-measure rests. They
are discussed in Section 3.14.7 [Multi measure rests], page 85.
A rest’s vertical position may be explicitly specified by entering a note with the \rest
keyword appended. This makes manual formatting in polyphonic music easier. Rest collision
testing will leave these rests alone
a’4\rest d’4\rest
( (
See also
Program reference: RestEvent, and Rest.
3.1.6 Skips
An invisible rest (also called a ‘skip’) can be entered like a note with note name ‘s’ or with
\skip duration
a2 s4 a4 \skip 1 a4

= > >
The s syntax is only available in note mode and chord mode. In other situations, you should
use the \skip command
\score {
\new Staff <<
{ \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
\notes\relative c’’ { a2 a1 }
>>
}
4 = <
8
The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not produce any output,
not even transparent output.
The s skip command does create Staff and Voice when necessary, similar to note and rest
commands. For example, the following results in an empty staff.
\score { \notes { s4 } }

The same fragment using \skip results in an empty page.
See also
Program reference: SkipEvent, SkipMusic.
3.1.7 Durations
In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers and dots: durations are
entered as their reciprocal values. For example, a quarter note is entered using a 4 (since it is a
1/4 note), while a half note is entered using a 2 (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes longer than
a whole you must use variables
c’\breve
c’1 c’2 c’4 c’8 c’16 c’32 c’64 c’64
r\longa r\breve

r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
; < = > > >>>> & ' !
" ( * + ,--
7
If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered duration. The default for
the first note is a quarter note. The duration can be followed by dots (‘.’) in order to obtain
dotted note lengths
a’ b’ c’’8 b’ a’4 a’4. b’4.. c’8.
> > >>> >: >::

>:
You can alter the length of duration by a fraction N/M appending ‘*N/M ’ (or ‘*N ’ if M=1).
This will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two beats, but no triplet
bracket is printed.
\time 2/4
a4*2/3 gis4*2/3 a4*2/3
a4
> /> > >
2
4
Predefined commands
Dots are normally moved up to avoid staff lines, except in polyphonic situations. The following
commands may be used to force a particular direction manually
\dotsUp, \dotsDown, \dotsBoth.
See also
This manual: Section 3.1.10 [Tuplets], page 36
Program reference: Dots, and DotColumn.
3.1.8 Stems
Whenever a note is found, a Stem object is created automatically. For whole notes and rests,
they are also created but made invisible.
Predefined commands
\stemUp, \stemDown, \stemBoth.
3.1.9 Ties
A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in effect extends the length
of a note. Ties should not be confused with slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs,
which indicate musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol ‘~’
e’ ~ e’ <c’ e’ g’> ~ <c’ e’ g’>
> > >> >>

> >
When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match are connected. When
no note heads match, no ties will be created.
In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar to the augmentation
dot; in the following example there are two ways of notating exactly the same concept

=:
3
4
= >
If you need to tie a lot of notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic note splitting
(see Section 3.2.5 [Automatic note splitting], page 39).
Predefined commands
\tieUp, \tieDown, \tieBoth, \tieDotted, \tieSolid.
See also
In this manual: Section 3.2.5 [Automatic note splitting], page 39.
Program reference: TieEvent, Tie.
For tying only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords, see
‘input/regression/tie-chord-partial.ly’.
Bugs
Switching staves when a tie is active will not produce a slanted tie.
Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. The results are often not optimal.
3.1.10 Tuplets
Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations with a fraction
\times fraction musicexpr
The duration of musicexpr will be multiplied by the fraction. The fraction’s denominator will
be printed over the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of their written length
g’4 \times 2/3 {c’4 c’ c’} d’4 d’4
>
3
> > > > >

The property tupletSpannerDuration specifies how long each bracket should last. With
this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing \times only once, saving lots of typing. In the
next example, there are two triplets shown, while \times was only used once
\set tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
\times 2/3 { c’8 c c c c c }
>>>>>>
3 3
The format of the number is determined by the property tupletNumberFormatFunction.

The default prints only the denominator, but if it is set to the Scheme function fraction-
tuplet-formatter, num:den will be printed instead.
Predefined commands
\tupletUp, \tupletDown, \tupletBoth.
See also
Program reference: TupletBracket, and TimeScaledMusic.
Examples: ‘input/regression/tuplet-nest.ly’.
Bugs
Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer tuplet brackets should be
moved manually, which is demonstrated in ‘input/regression/tuplet-nest.ly’.
3.2 Easier music entry

This section deals with tricks and features of the input language that were added solely to
help entering music, finding and correcting mistakes. There are also external tools that make
debugging easier. See Section 5.8 [Point and click], page 138 for more information.
It is also possible to enter and edit music using other programs. For example, GUI interfaces,
or MIDI sequencers. Refer to the LilyPond website for more information.
3.2.1 Relative octaves

Octaves are specified by adding ’ and , to pitch names. When you copy existing music, it is
easy to accidentally put a pitch in the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. The relative
octave mode prevents these errors: a single error puts the rest of the piece off by one octave
\relative startpitch musicexpr
The octave of notes that appear in musicexpr are calculated as follows: If no octave changing
marks are used, the basic interval between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth
or less. This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a fisis following a ceses
will be put above the ceses.
The octave changing marks ’ and , can be added to raise or lower the pitch by an extra
octave. Upon entering relative mode, an absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act
as the predecessor of the first note of musicexpr.
Here is the relative mode shown in action
\relative c’’ {
b c d c b c bes a
}
> > > > 3> >

> >
Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth
\relative c’’ {
c g c f, c’ a, e’’
}
>
> > > > >
>
If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used to determine the first note
of the next chord
\relative c’ {
c <c e g>
<c’ e g>
<c, e’ g>
}
>> >>
>> >
> > >
The pitch after the \relative contains a note name. To parse the note name as a pitch, it
must surrounded by \notes
The relative conversion will not affect \transpose, \chords or \relative sections in its
argument. If you want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an additional
\relative inside the \transpose.
3.2.2 Octave check

Octave checks make octave errors easier to correct: a note may be followed by =quotes which
indicates what its absolute octave should be. In the following example,
\relative c’’ { c=’’ b=’ d,=’’ }
the d will generate a warning, because a d” is expected, but a d’ is found. In the output, the
octave is corrected for this and the following notes.
There is also a syntax that is separate from the notes.
\octave pitch
This checks that pitch (without octave) yields pitch (with octave) in \relative mode. If not, a
warning is printed, and the octave is corrected, for example, the first check is passed successfully.
The second check fails with an error message. The octave is adjusted so the following notes are
in the correct octave once again.
\relative c’ {
e
\octave a’
\octave b’
}
The octave of a note following an octave check is determined with respect to the note pre-
ceding it. In the next fragment, the last note is a a’, above middle C. Hence, the \octave check
may be deleted without changing the meaning of the piece.
\relative c’ {
e
\octave b
a
}
> >
3.2.3 Bar check

Bar checks help detect errors in the durations. A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, ‘|’.
Whenever it is encountered during interpretation, it should fall on a measure boundary. If it
does not, a warning is printed. In the next example, the second bar check will signal an error
\time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |
Bar checks can also be used in lyrics, for example
\lyrics {
\time 2/4
Twin -- kle | Twin -- kle

}
Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect durations. Incorrect durations often com-
pletely garble up the score, especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the score
by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To speed up this process, you can use
skipTypesetting, described in the next section.
3.2.4 Skipping corrected music

The property Score.skipTypesetting can be used to switch on and off typesetting completely
during the interpretation phase. When typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much
more quickly. This can be used to skip over the parts of a score that have already been checked
for errors
\relative c’’ {
c8 d
\set Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
e f g a g c, f e d
\set Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
c d b bes a g c2 }
>
> > > > 3 > > > =

3.2.5 Automatic note splitting
Long notes can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done by replacing the Note_
heads_engraver by the Completion_heads_engraver. In the following examples, notes cross-
ing the bar line are split and tied.
\new Voice \with {
\remove "Note_heads_engraver"
\consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
} {
c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
}

: > > > > > > > > > = > > > > :
= > >

> > :
5
> =
This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts ties. One of its uses is to
debug complex scores: if the measures are not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how
much each measure is off.
Bugs
Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be represented exactly; the engraver
will not insert tuplets.
See also
Examples: ‘input/regression/completion-heads.ly’.
Program reference: Completion_heads_engraver.
3.3 Staff notation

This section describes music notation that occurs on staff level, such as keys, clefs and time
signatures.
3.3.1 Staff symbol

Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural ‘staves’).
In our system, these lines are drawn using a separate layout object called staff symbol.
See also
Program reference: StaffSymbol.
Examples: ‘input/test/staff-lines.ly’, ‘input/test/staff-size.ly’.
Bugs
If a staff is ended halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end exactly on the bar line.
3.3.2 Key signature

The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It is denoted by a set of
alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of the staff.
Setting or changing the key signature is done with the \key command
\key pitch type
Here, type should be \major or \minor to get pitch-major or pitch-minor, respectively. The
standard mode names \ionian, \locrian, \aeolian, \mixolydian, \lydian, \phrygian, and
\dorian are also defined.
This command sets the context property Staff.keySignature. Non-standard key signatures
can be specified by setting this property directly.
Accidentals and key signatures often confuse new users, because unaltered notes get natural
signs depending on the key signature. For more information, see Section 2.3 [More about pitches],
page 12.
Bugs
The ordering of a key cancellation is wrong when it is combined with repeat bar lines. The
cancellation is also printed after a line break.
See also
Program reference: KeyChangeEvent, and KeySignature.
3.3.3 Clef
The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which pitches.
The clef can be set or changed with the \clef command
\key f\major c’’2 \clef alto g’2
=
3 =
Supported clef-names include

treble, violin, G, G2
G clef on 2nd line
alto, C C clef on 3rd line
tenor C clef on 4th line.
bass, F F clef on 4th line
french G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
soprano C clef on 1st line
mezzosoprano
C clef on 2nd line
baritone C clef on 5th line
varbaritone
F clef on 3rd line
subbass F clef on 5th line
percussion
percussion clef
tab tablature clef
By adding _8 or ^8 to the clef name, the clef is transposed one octave down or up, respectively,
and _15 and ^15 transposes by two octaves. The argument clefname must be enclosed in quotes
when it contains underscores or digits. For example,
\clef "G_8" c4
>
8
This command is equivalent to setting clefGlyph, clefPosition (which controls the Y

position of the clef), centralCPosition and clefOctavation. A clef is printed when any of
these properties are changed.
See also
Program reference: the object for this symbol is Clef.
3.3.4 Ottava brackets

“Ottava” brackets introduce an extra transposition of an octave for the staff. They are created
by invoking the function set-octavation
\relative c’’’ {
a2 b
#(set-octavation 1)
a b
#(set-octavation 0)
a b
}
= = = =

8va
= =
The set-octavation function also takes -1 (for 8va bassa) and 2 (for 15ma) as arguments.
Internally the function sets the properties ottavation (e.g. to "8va") and centralCPosition.
For overriding the text of the bracket, set ottavation after invoking set-octavation, i.e.,
#(set-octavation 1)
\set Staff.ottavation = #"8"
See also
Program reference: OttavaBracket.
Examples: ‘input/regression/ottava.ly’, ‘input/regression/ottava-broken.ly’.
Bugs
set-octavation will get confused when clef changes happen during an octavation bracket.
3.3.5 Time signature

Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of strong and weak beats. It
is denoted by a fraction at the start of the staff.
The time signature is set or changed by the \time command
\time 2/4 c’2 \time 3/4 c’2.

=:
2 3
4
= 4
The symbol that is printed can be customized with the style property. Setting it to #’()
uses fraction style for 4/4 and 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout. See
‘input/test/time.ly’ for more examples.
This command sets the property timeSignatureFraction, beatLength and measureLength
in the Timing context, which is normally aliased to Score. The property measureLength de-
termines where bar lines should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated.
Changing the value of timeSignatureFraction also causes the symbol to be printed.
More options are available through the Scheme function set-time-signature. In combina-
tion with the Measure_grouping_engraver, it will create MeasureGrouping signs. Such signs
ease reading rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8 measure is
subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to set-time-signature as the third argument (2 2
2 3)
\score {
\notes \relative c’’ {
#(set-time-signature 9 8 ’(2 2 2 3))
g8[ g] d[ d] g[ g] a8[( bes g]) |
#(set-time-signature 5 8 ’(3 2))
a4. g4
}
\paper {
\context {
\StaffContext
\consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
}
}
}
9
8
> > > > > > > 3> > 5
8
>: >
See also
Program reference: TimeSignature, and Timing_engraver.
Bugs
Automatic beaming does not use the measure grouping specified with set-time-signature.
3.3.6 Partial measures

Partial measures, for example in upsteps, are entered using the \partial command
\partial 16*5 c16 cis d dis e | a2. c,4 | b2
=:
> /> >
> / > > =
The syntax for this command is

\partial duration
This is internally translated into
\set Timing.measurePosition = -length of duration
The property measurePosition contains a rational number indicating how much of the
measure has passed at this point.
3.3.7 Unmetered music

Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered music (e.g. cadenzas),
this is not desirable. By setting Score.timing to false, this automatic timing can be switched
off. Empty bar lines,
\bar ""
indicate where line breaks can occur.
Predefined commands
\cadenzaOn, \cadenzaOff.
3.3.8 Bar lines

Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate repeats. Normally, they are inserted
automatically. Line breaks may only happen on bar lines.
Special types of bar lines can be forced with the \bar command
c4 \bar "|:" c4
> :: >
The following bar types are available
c4
\bar "|" c
\bar "" c
\bar "|:" c
\bar "||" c
\bar ":|" c
\bar ".|" c
\bar ".|." c
\bar ":|:" c
\bar "|." c
\bar ":" c
:: :: :: :: ::
:
> > > > > > > > > > :>
For allowing line breaks, there is a special command,
\bar "empty"
This will insert an invisible bar line, and allow line breaks at this point.
In scores with many staves, a \bar command in one staff is automatically applied to all
staves. The resulting bar lines are connected between different staves of a StaffGroup
<<
\context StaffGroup <<
\new Staff {
e’4 d’
\bar "||"
f’ e’
}
\new Staff { \clef bass c4 g e g }
>>
\new Staff { \clef bass c2 c2 }
>>
> > > >
> > > >
= =
A bar line is created whenever the whichBar property is set. At the start of a measure it is
set to the contents of defaultBarType. The contents of repeatCommands are used to override
default measure bars.
The command \bar bartype is a short cut for doing \set Timing.whichBar = bartype.
Whenever whichBar is set to a string, a bar line of that type is created.
You are encouraged to use \repeat for repetitions. See Section 3.8 [Repeats], page 61.
See also
In this manual: Section 3.8 [Repeats], page 61.
Program reference: the bar line objects that are created at Staff level are called BarLine,
the bar lines that span staves are SpanBar objects.
The bar lines at the start of each system are SystemStartBar, SystemStartBrace, and
SystemStartBracket. Only one of these types is created in every context, and that type is
determined by the property systemStartDelimiter.
Examples: ‘input/test/bar-lines.ly’,
3.4 Polyphony
The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff is to split chords using
the separator \\. You can use it for small, short-lived voices or for single chords
\context Staff \relative c’’ {
c4 << { f d e } \\ { b c2 } >>
c4 << g’ \\ b, \\ f’ \\ d >>
}
> >= > >

> > > >>>
The separator causes Voice contexts2 to be instantiated. They bear the names "1", "2",
etc. In each of these contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. is set appropriately.
This can also be done by instantiating Voice contexts by hand, and using \voiceOne, up to
\voiceFour to assign a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part
\relative c’’
\context Staff <<
\new Voice { \voiceOne cis2 b }
\new Voice { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
\new Voice { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >>
/ / =>> / >> 2 =>> / >>

The command \oneVoice will revert back to the normal setting.
Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but when the object
property merge-differently-dotted is set in the NoteCollision object, they are merged
\context Voice << {
g8 g8
\override Staff.NoteCollision
#’merge-differently-dotted = ##t
g8 g8
} \\ { g8.[ f16] g8.[ f16] } >>
2
Polyphonic voices are sometimes called "layers" other notation packages
>> :> > > : > >

Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting merge-differently-
headed
\context Voice << {
c8 c4.
\override Staff.NoteCollision
#’merge-differently-headed = ##t

c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >>
>= > : = > :

LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem
\context Voice << c’’4 \\ r4 >>
>
(
Predefined commands
\oneVoice, \voiceOne, \voiceTwo, \voiceThree, \voiceFour.
The following commands specify in what chords of the current voice should be shifted: the
outer voice has \shiftOff, and the inner voices have \shiftOn, \shiftOnn, etc.
\shiftOn, \shiftOnn, \shiftOnnn, \shiftOff.
See also
Program reference: the objects responsible for resolving collisions are NoteCollision and
RestCollision.
Examples: See also example files ‘input/regression/collision-dots.ly’,
‘input/regression/collision-head-chords.ly’, ‘input/regression/collision-heads.ly’,
‘input/regression/collision-mesh.ly’, and ‘input/regression/collisions.ly’.
Bugs
Resolving collisions is a intricate subject, and only a few situations are handled. When LilyPond
cannot cope, the force-hshift property of the NoteColumn object and pitched rests can be used
to override typesetting decisions.
When using merge-differently-headed with an upstem eighth or a shorter note, and a
downstem half note, the eighth note gets the wrong offset.
There is no support for clusters where the same note occurs with different accidentals in the
same chord. In this case, it is recommended to use enharmonic transcription, or to use special
cluster notation (see Section 3.16.1 [Clusters], page 104).
3.5 Beaming
Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with the metrum. They are
inserted automatically
\time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
2 > > > > 6 > > > >: > >
4 8
When these automatic decisions are not good enough, beaming can be entered explicitly. It
is also possible to define beaming patterns that differ from the defaults.
Individual notes may be marked with \noBeam, to prevent them from being beamed
\time 2/4 c8 c\noBeam c c
>>>>

2
4
See also
Program reference: Beam.
3.5.1 Manual beams

In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming algorithm. For example,
the autobeamer will not put beams over rests or bar lines. Such beams are specified by manually:
the begin and end point are marked with [ and ]
\context Staff {
r4 r8[ g’ a r8] r8 g[ | a] r8
}
( *>>**> >*
Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically. If necessary, the
properties stemLeftBeamCount and stemRightBeamCount can be used to override the defaults.
If either property is set, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased
\context Staff {
f8[ r16 f g a]
f8[ r16 \set stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
}
> +>>>> +>>>

The property subdivideBeams can be set in order to subdivide all 16th or shorter beams at
beat positions, as defined by the beatLength property.
c16[ c c c c c c c]
\set subdivideBeams = ##t
c16[ c c c c c c c]
\set Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
c16[ c c c c c c c]
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>
Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected between the note
heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object property auto-knee-gap.
Normally, line breaks are forbidden when beams cross bar lines. This behavior can be changed
by setting allowBeamBreak.
Bugs
Automatically kneed cross-staff beams cannot be used together with hidden staves.
3.5.2 Setting automatic beam behavior

In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can only end in a few posi-
tions within the measure: beams can end on a beat, or at durations specified by the properties in
autoBeamSettings. The defaults for autoBeamSettings are defined in ‘scm/auto-beam.scm’.
The value of autoBeamSettings is changed with two functions,
#(override-auto-beam-setting
’(be p q n m ) a b
[context ])
#(revert-auto-beam-setting ’(be p q n m ))
Here, be is the symbol begin or end, and context is an optional context (default: ’Voice).
It determines whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity p/q refers to the
length of the beamed notes (and ‘* *’ designates notes of any length), n/M refers to a time
signature (wildcards ‘* *’ may be entered to designate all time signatures), a/b is a duration.
By default, this command changes settings for the current voice. It is also possible to adjust
settings at higher contexts, by adding a context argument.
For example, if automatic beams should end on every quarter note, use the following
#(override-auto-beam-setting ’(end * * * *) 1 4 ’Staff)
Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is entered as (ly:make-moment
1 4).
The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this example, automatic
beams can only end on a dotted quarter note
#(override-auto-beam-setting ’(end * * * *) 3 8)
In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on 3/8 and on the
fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times 3/8, has passed within the measure).
Rules can also be restricted to specific time signatures. A rule that should only be applied
in N /M time signature is formed by replacing the second asterisks by N and M. For example,
a rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
#(override-auto-beam-setting ’(begin * * 6 8) ...)
If a rule should be to applied only to certain types of beams, use the first pair of asterisks.
Beams are classified according to the shortest note they contain. For a beam ending rule that
only applies to beams with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), use (end 1 32 * *).
If beams are used to indicate melismata in songs, then automatic beaming should be switched
off. This is done by setting autoBeaming to #f.
Predefined commands
\autoBeamOff, \autoBeamOn.
Bugs
If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still accepting notes, this
last beam will not be typeset at all. The same holds polyphonic voices, entered with << ... \\
... >>. If a polyphonic voice ends while an automatic beam is still accepting notes, it is not
typeset.
The rules for ending a beam depend on the shortest note in a beam. So, while it is possible
to have different ending rules for eight beams and sixteenth beams, a beam that contains both
eight and sixteenth notes will use the rules for the sixteenth beam.
In the example below, the autobeamer makes eight beams and sixteenth end at 3 eights; the
third beam can only be corrected by specifying manual beaming.
> > > >>>>>>>>>>> > >

12
8
It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in different parts of a
measure. This means that it is not possible to use automatic beaming in irregular meters such
as 5/8.
3.6 Accidentals
This section describes how to change the way that accidentals are inserted automatically before
the running notes.
Common rules for typesetting accidentals have been canned in a function. This function is
called as follows
#(set-accidental-style ’modern ’Voice)
The function takes two arguments: a symbol that denotes the style (in the example, modern),
and another symbol that denotes the context name (in this example, Voice). If no context name
is supplied, Staff is the default.
The following styles are supported
default This is the default typesetting behavior. It should correspond to 18th century
common practice: Accidentals are remembered to the end of the measure in which
they occur and only on their own octave.
voice The normal behavior is to remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable,
however, typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that, the rule
is similar to code.
This leads to some weird and often unwanted results because accidentals from one
voice do not get canceled in other voices
\context Staff <<
#(set-accidental-style ’voice)
<<
{ es g } \\
{ c, e }
>> >>
3 > >>
>
Hence you should only use voice if the voices are to be read solely by individual
musicians. If the staff is to be used by one musician (e.g. a conductor) then you use
modern or modern-cautionary instead.
modern This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th century. This rule prints
the same accidentals as default, but temporary accidentals also are canceled in
other octaves. Furthermore, in the same octave, they also get canceled in the fol-
lowing measure
#(set-accidental-style ’modern)
cis’ c’’ cis’2 | c’’ c’
> =
/> /= 2=
modern-cautionary
This rule is similar to modern, but the “extra” accidentals (the ones not typeset by
default) are typeset as cautionary accidentals. They are printed in reduced size or
with parentheses
#(set-accidental-style ’modern-cautionary)
cis’ c’’ cis’2 | c’’ c’
> =
/> 9/8 = 928 =
modern-voice
This rule is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians playing
one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are typeset for each voice,
but they are canceled across voices in the same Staff.
modern-voice-cautionary
This rule is the same as modern-voice, but with the extra accidentals (the ones not
typeset by voice) typeset as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
default are typeset by this variable then some of them are typeset as cautionaries.
piano This rule reflects 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to modern
but accidentals also get canceled across the staves in the same GrandStaff or
PianoStaff.
piano-cautionary
As #(set-accidental-style ’piano)’ , str) but with the extra accidentals type-
set as cautionaries.
no-reset This is the same as default but with accidentals lasting “forever” and not only
until the next measure
#(set-accidental-style ’no-reset)
c1 cis cis c

< /< /< <
forget This is sort of the opposite of no-reset: Accidentals are not remembered at all—
and hence all accidentals are typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what
was before in the music
#(set-accidental-style ’forget)
\key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
/
/ > > /> />
2> 2> > >
See also
Program reference: Accidental_engraver, Accidental, and AccidentalPlacement.
Bugs
Simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in sequential mode. This means that in a chord
the accidentals are typeset as if the notes in the chord happened once at a time - in the order
in which they appear in the input file.
This is only a problem when accidentals in a chord depend on each other. This problem can
be solved by manually inserting ! and ? for the problematic notes.
In the default scheme, accidentals only depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on
the same staff, so no conflicts are possible.
3.7 Expressive marks

3.7.1 Slurs
A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or legato.
They are entered using parentheses
f( g)( a) a8 b( a4 g2 f4)
> > >> > = > = =

<c e>2( <b d>2)
> = =

Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads. However, in some
situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem ends. If you want to override this layout
you can do this through the object property attachment of Slur. Its value is a pair of symbols,
specifying the attachment type of the left and right end points
\slurUp
\override Stem #’length = #5.5
g’8(g g4)
\override Slur #’attachment = #’(stem . stem)
g8( g g4)
>>> >>>
If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved away upward or
downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the stems might look better
\stemUp \slurUp
d32( d’4 d8..)
\override Slur #’attachment = #’(stem . stem)
d,32( d’4 d8..)

> > :: > > ::
> >
Predefined commands
\slurUp, \slurDown, \slurBoth, \slurDotted, \slurSolid.
See also
Program reference: internals document, Slur, and SlurEvent.
Bugs
Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond uses a simple, empiric method to
produce slurs. In some cases, its results are ugly.
3.7.2 Phrasing slurs

A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to indicate a musical sentence.
It is started using $ and $ respectively
\time 6/4 c’$ d( e) f( e) d$
6 > > > > > >

4
Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal slur. However, they
are treated as different objects. A \slurUp will have no effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you
should use \phrasingSlurUp, \phrasingSlurDown, and \phrasingSlurBoth.
The commands \slurUp, \slurDown, and \slurBoth will only affect normal slurs and not
phrasing slurs.
Predefined commands
\phrasingSlurUp, \phrasingSlurDown, \phrasingSlurBoth.
See also
Program reference: see also PhrasingSlur, and PhrasingSlurEvent.
Bugs
Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal slurs. Putting phrasing
slurs over rests leads to spurious warnings.
3.7.3 Breath marks

Breath marks are entered using \breathe
c’4 \breathe d4
> m>

The glyph of the breath mark can be tuned by overriding the text property of the
BreathingSign layout object with any markup text. For example,
c’4
\override BreathingSign #’text
= #(make-musicglyph-markup "scripts-rvarcomma")
\breathe
d4
> o>

See also
Program reference: BreathingSign, BreathingSignEvent.
Examples: ‘input/regression/breathing-sign.ly’.
3.7.4 Metronome marks

Metronome settings can be entered as follows
\tempo duration = per-minute
In the MIDI output, they are interpreted as a tempo change, and in the paper output, a
metronome marking is printed
\tempo 8.=120 c’’1

<
> : = 120
See also
Program reference: MetronomeChangeEvent.
3.7.5 Text spanners

Some performance indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, are written as texts, and ex-
tended over many measures with dotted lines. You can create such texts using text spanners:
attach \startTextSpan and \stopTextSpan to the start and ending note of the spanner.
The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object properties
\relative c’ {
c1
\override TextSpanner #’direction = #-1
\override TextSpanner #’edge-text = #’("rall " . "")
c2\startTextSpan b c\stopTextSpan a
}

< = = = =
rall
See also
Internals TextSpanEvent, TextSpanner.
Examples: ‘input/regression/text-spanner.ly’.
3.7.6 Analysis brackets

Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical pieces. LilyPond supports a
simple form of nested horizontal brackets. To use this, add the Horizontal_bracket_engraver
to Staff context. A bracket is started with \startGroup and closed with \stopGroup
\score {
c4\startGroup\startGroup
c4\stopGroup
c4\startGroup
c4\stopGroup\stopGroup
}
\paper {
\context {
\StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
}}}
> > > >
See also
Program reference: HorizontalBracket, NoteGroupingEvent.
Examples: ‘input/regression/note-group-bracket.ly’.
3.7.7 Articulations
A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate different characteristics of
the performance. They are added to a note by adding a dash and the character signifying the
articulation. They are demonstrated here
_ U
V Y
> > > >W > >\ >Z
c-. c-- c-+ c-| c-> c^ c
The meanings of these shorthands can be changed. See ‘ly/script-init.ly’ for examples.
The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force directions, you can use _ to force
them down, or ^ to put them up
c’’4^^ c’’4_^
\ >
>

]
Other symbols can be added using the syntax note\name, e.g. c4\fermata. Again, they can
be forced up or down using ^ and _, e.g.
c\fermata c^\fermata c_\fermata
>L >L >

M
U
> >\ >W >V >Y
accent marcato staccatissimo staccato tenuto
Z i T e f
> >` >a > > > >
portato upbow downbow flageolet thumb lheel rheel
g h ^ _ c b
> > > > > > >d
ltoe rtoe open stopped turn reverseturn trill
v w x y z
> > > > >
prall mordent prallprall prallmordent upprall
} { ~ | Ä
> > > > >
downprall upmordent downmordent pralldown prallup

>N >L
Õ
> >
lineprall signumcongruentiae shortfermata fermata
P j k l
> >R > > >
longfermata verylongfermata segno coda varcoda

Predefined commands
\scriptUp, \scriptDown, \scriptBoth.
See also
Program reference: ScriptEvent, and Script.
Bugs
These note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no effect on the MIDI rendering
of the music.
3.7.8 Fingering instructions

Fingering instructions can be entered using
note-digit
For finger changes, use markup texts
c’4-1 c’4-2 c’4-3 c’4-4
c’^\markup { \finger "2-3" }

1 2 3 4 2-3
> > > > >

You can use the thumb-script to indicate that a note should be played with the thumb (e.g.
in cello music)
>>
<a’ a’’-3>8_\thumb <b’ b’’-3>_\thumb
3 3
>>
T T
Fingerings for chords can also be added to individual notes of the chord by adding them after
the pitches
< c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >4
>>>
5
3
>
2
1
iIn this case, setting fingeringOrientations will put fingerings next to note heads
\set fingeringOrientations = #’(left down)
<c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 > 4
\set fingeringOrientations = #’(up right down)
<c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 > 4
\set fingeringOrientations = #’(right)
<es-2>4
33 >>> >>> >

5
> >
5
4 4
2 2 2
1 1
The last note demonstrates how fingering instructions can be put close to note heads in
monophonic music, using this feature.
See also
Program reference: FingerEvent, and Fingering.
Examples: ‘input/regression/finger-chords.ly’.
3.7.9 Text scripts

It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see Section 4.5 [Text markup],
page 123) above or below notes by using a string c^"text". By default, these indications do
not influence the note spacing, but by using the command \fatText, the widths will be taken
into account
\relative c’ {
c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4
}

longtext
> > >

longlongtext
It is possible to use TEX commands in the strings, but this should be avoided because the
exact dimensions of the string can then no longer be computed.
Predefined commands
\fatText, \emptyText.
See also
In this manual: Section 4.5 [Text markup], page 123.
Program reference: TextScriptEvent, TextScript.
3.7.10 Grace notes

Grace notes are ornaments that are written out. The most common ones are acciaccatura, which
should be played as very short. It is denoted by a slurred small note with a slashed stem. The
appoggiatura is a grace note that takes a fixed fraction of the main note, is and denoted as a
slurred note in small print without a slash. They are entered with the commands \acciaccatura
and \appoggiatura, as demonstrated in the following example
b4 \acciaccatura d8 c4 \appoggiatura e8 d4
\acciaccatura { g16[ f] } e4
> > > > >>

>
>
Both are special forms of the \grace command. By prefixing this keyword to a music
expression, a new one is formed, which will be printed in a smaller font and takes up no logical
time in a measure.
c4 \grace c16 c4
\grace { c16[ d16] } c2 c4
> >> > = >

>
Unlike \acciaccatura and \appoggiatura, the \grace command does not start a slur.
Internally, timing for grace notes is done using a second, ‘grace’ time. Every point in time
consists of two rational numbers: one denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing.
The above example is shown here with timing tuples
> > = >

> > >
1 -1 1 2 -1 2 -1 2
(0,0) ( 4 , 16 ) ( 4 , 0 ) ( 4 , 8 ) ( 4 , 16 ) ( 4 , 0 )
The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves. In the following
example, there are two sixteenth graces notes for every eighth grace note
<< \new Staff { e4 \grace { c16[ d e f] } e4 }

\new Staff { c’4 \grace { g8[ b] } c4 } >>
> >>
>>>
> > >

>

If you want to end a note with a grace, the standard trick is to put the grace notes after a
“space note”
\context Voice {
<< { d1^\trill ( }
{ s2 \grace { c16[ d] } } >>
c4)
}
<d > > >

By adjusting the duration of the skip note (here it is a half-note), the space between the main-
note and the grace is adjusted.
A \grace section will introduce special typesetting settings, for example, to produce smaller
type, and set directions. Hence, when introducing layout tweaks, they should be inside the grace
section, for example,
\new Voice {
\acciaccatura {
\override Stem #’direction = #-1
f16->
\revert Stem #’direction
}
g4
}
>U >

The overrides should also be reverted inside the grace section.

If the layout of grace sections must be changed throughout the music, then this can be
accomplished through the function add-grace-property. The following example undefines the
Stem direction for this grace, so stems do not always point up.
\new Staff {
#(add-grace-property "Voice" Stem direction ’())
...
}
Another option is to change the variables startGraceMusic, stopGraceMusic,
startAccacciaturaMusic, stopAccacciaturaMusic, startAppoggiaturaMusic,
stopAppoggiaturaMusic. More information is in the file ‘ly/grace-init.ly’.
See also
Program reference: GraceMusic.
Bugs
A score that starts with an \grace section needs an explicit \context Voice declaration, oth-
erwise the main note and grace note end up on different staves.
Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation, such as key signatures,
bar lines, etc. are also synchronized. Take care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves
without, for example,
<< \new Staff { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
\new Staff { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >>
>
: :: >
:

>
>
> :: ::
This can be remedied by inserting grace skips, for the above example
\new Staff { c4 \bar "|:" \grace s16 d4 } >>
Grace sections should only be used within sequential music expressions. Nesting or juxta-
posing grace sections is not supported, and might produce crashes or other errors.
3.7.11 Glissando
A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a wavy line between two
notes.
A glissando line can be requested by attaching a \glissando to a note
>
c’\glissando c’
>
See also
Program reference: Glissando, and GlissandoEvent.
Example files: ‘input/regression,glissando.ly’
Bugs
Printing text over the line (such as gliss.) is not supported.
3.7.12 Dynamics
Absolute dynamic marks are specified using a command after a note c4\ff. The available
dynamic marks are \ppp, \pp, \p, \mp, \mf, \f, \ff, \fff, \fff, \fp, \sf, \sff, \sp, \spp,
\sfz, and \rfz
c’\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
c2\sf c\rfz
> > > > > > > > = =

ppppp p mp mf f ff fff sf rfz
A crescendo mark is started with \< and terminated with \!. A decrescendo is started with
\> and also terminated with \!. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must use spacer
notes if multiple marks during one note are needed
c’’\< c’’\! d’’\> e’’\!
<< f’’1 { s4 s4\< s4\! \> s4\! } >>
> > <

> >
This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use minimum-length in Voice.Hairpin to lengthen
them, for example
\override Staff.Hairpin #’minimum-length = #5
You can also use a text saying cresc. instead of hairpins. Here is an example how to do it
\setTextCresc
c \< d e f\!
\setHairpinCresc
e\> d c b\!
> > > > > > >

>
cresc.
You can also supply your own texts

\context Voice {
\set crescendoText = \markup { \italic "cresc. poco" }
\set crescendoSpanner = #’dashed-line
a’2\< a a a\!\mf
}
= = = =
cresc. poco mf
Predefined commands
\dynamicUp, \dynamicDown, \dynamicBoth.
See also
Program reference: CrescendoEvent, DecrescendoEvent, and AbsoluteDynamicEvent.
Dynamics DynamicText and Hairpin objects. Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled
by the DynamicLineSpanner object.
3.8 Repeats
Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist for repetitions. In LilyPond,
most of these notations can be captured in a uniform syntax. One of the advantages is that they
can be rendered in MIDI accurately.
The following types of repetition are supported
unfold Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI output, and entering
repetitive music.
volta This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but alternative endings
(volte) are printed, left to right.
tremolo Make tremolo beams.
percent Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
3.8.1 Repeat syntax

LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of repeats. The syntax is
\repeat variant repeatcount repeatbody
If you have alternative endings, you may add
\alternative { alternative1
alternative2
alternative3 ... }
where each alternative is a music expression. If you do not give enough alternatives for all
of the repeats, the first alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
Normal notation repeats are used like this
c1
\repeat volta 2 { c4 d e f }
\repeat volta 2 { f e d c }
< :: > > > > :: :: > > > > ::
With alternative endings

c1
\repeat volta 2 {c4 d e f}
\alternative { {d2 d} {f f,} }
:: > > > > = = :: =

1. 2.
< =
\context Staff {
\partial 4
\repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
\alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
}
> = = = = > > > > > > > > =:

1.--3. 4.
::
Bugs
A nested repeat like
\repeat ...
\repeat ...
\alternative
is ambiguous, since it is is not clear to which \repeat the \alternative belongs. This ambiguity
is resolved by always having the \alternative belong to the inner \repeat. For clarity, it is
advisable to use braces in such situations.
3.8.2 Repeats and MIDI

For instructions on how to expand repeats for MIDI output, see the example file
‘input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly’.
Bugs
Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative, so after a repeat timing
information must be reset by hand, for example by setting Score.measurePosition or entering
\partial. Similarly, slurs or ties are also not repeated.
3.8.3 Manual repeat commands

The property repeatCommands can be used to control the layout of repeats. Its value is a Scheme
list of repeat commands, where each repeat command can be
the symbol start-repeat,
which prints a |: bar line,
the symbol end-repeat,
which prints a :| bar line,
the list (volta text ),
which prints a volta bracket saying text: The text can be specified as a text string
or as a markup text, see Section 4.5 [Text markup], page 123. Do not forget to
change the font, as the default number font does not contain alphabetic characters.
Or,
the list (volta #f), which
stops a running volta bracket
c4
\set Score.repeatCommands = #’((volta "93") end-repeat)
c4 c4
\set Score.repeatCommands = #’((volta #f))
c4 c4
93
> :: > > > >
See also
Program reference: VoltaBracket, RepeatedMusic, VoltaRepeatedMusic,
UnfoldedRepeatedMusic, and FoldedRepeatedMusic.
3.8.4 Tremolo repeats

To place tremolo marks between notes, use \repeat with tremolo style
\score {
\context Voice \notes\relative c’ {
\repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
}
}

< < = = >>
Tremolo marks can also be put on a single note. In this case, the note should not be
surrounded by braces.
\repeat "tremolo" 4 c’16

>
A similar mechanism is the tremolo subdivision, described in Section 3.8.5 [Tremolo subdi-
visions], page 63.
See also
In this manual: Section 3.8.5 [Tremolo subdivisions], page 63, Section 3.8 [Repeats], page 61.
Program reference: tremolo beams are Beam objects. Single stem tremolos are StemTremolo
objects. The music expression is TremoloEvent.
Example files: ‘input/regression/chord-tremolo.ly’, ‘input/regression/stem-tremolo.ly’.
3.8.5 Tremolo subdivisions

Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding ‘:[length]’ after the note. The length
must be at least 8. A length value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the length is
omitted, the last value (stored in tremoloFlags) is used
c’2:8 c’:32 | c’: c’: |

= = = =
Bugs
Tremolos entered in this way do not carry over into the MIDI output.
See also
In this manual: Section 3.8.4 [Tremolo repeats], page 63.
Elsewhere: StemTremolo, TremoloEvent.
3.8.6 Measure repeats

In the percent style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is printed once, and then the pattern
is replaced with a special sign. Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like
signs, patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes
\context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c’4 }
\repeat "percent" 2 { c’2 es’2 f’4 fis’4 g’4 c’’4 }
}
> : :
> = 3= > /> >
See also
Program reference: RepeatSlash, PercentRepeat, PercentRepeatedMusic, and
DoublePercentRepeat.
3.9 Rhythmic music

3.9.1 Showing melody rhythms
Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can be done with the
rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single
line
\context RhythmicStaff {
\time 4/4
c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
}
> > > = ( > " < !

See also
Program reference: RhythmicStaff.
Examples: ‘input/regression/rhythmic-staff.ly’.
3.9.2 Entering percussion

Percussion notes may be entered in \drums mode, which is similar to notes. Each piece of
percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and both be used in input files
hihat hh bassdrum bd
J J > >
The complete list of drum names is in the init file ‘ly/drumpitch-init.ly’.
See also
Program reference: DrumNoteEvent.
3.9.3 Percussion staves

A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a multiline staff where each
position in the staff refers to one piece of percussion.
To typeset the music, the notes must be interpreted in a DrumStaff and DrumVoice contexts
up = \drums { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
down = \drums { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
\score {
\new DrumStaff <<
\new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
\new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
>>
^
}
K JKJJJJ
> >> >>
*

The above example shows verbose polyphonic notation. The short polyphonic notation,
described in Section 3.4 [Polyphony], page 45, can also be used if the DrumVoices are instantiated
by hand first. For example,
\drums \new DrumStaff <<

\context DrumVoice = "1" { s1 *2 }
\context DrumVoice = "2" { s1 *2 }
{
bd4 sn4 bd4 sn4
<<
{ \repeat unfold 16 hh16 }
\\
{ bd4 sn4 bd4 sn4 }
>>
}
>>
> > > > J J J J J> J J J J J J J J> J J J

> >
There are also other layout possibilities. To use these, set the property drumStyleTable in
context DrumVoice. The following variables have been predefined
drums-style
is the default. It typesets a typical drum kit on a five-line staff

K A J J J_ J^ K
J
cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp
D
D > J > > > > >
> >
cb hc bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl
The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply select
the toms that produce the desired result, i.e. to get toms on the three middle lines
you use tommh, tomml and tomfh.
timbales-style
D
to typeset timbales on a two line staff
> J > J
timh ssh timl ssl cb
congas-style
to typeset congas on a two line staff
^
> > >_ J
> >^ >_ J
cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl
bongos-style
to typeset bongos on a two line staff
^
> > >_ J
> >^ >_ J
boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl
percussion-style
to typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves
J J^ J_ > > > D > > J > >
tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc

If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own list at the top of your
file
#(define mydrums ’(
(bassdrum default #f -1)
(snare default #f 0)
(hihat cross #f 1)
(pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" 2)
(lowtom diamond #f 3)))

up = \drums { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
down = \drums { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
\score {
\new DrumStaff <<
\set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable
= #(alist->hash-table mydrums)
\new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
\new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
>>
_ _
}
J> J J>J K> AKA
See also
Init files: ‘ly/drumpitch-init.ly’.
Program reference: DrumStaff, DrumVoice.
Bugs
Because general MIDI does not contain rim shots, the sidestick is used for this purpose instead.
3.10 Piano music

Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and
other key instruments. The PianoStaff is especially built to handle this cross-staffing behavior.
In this section we discuss the PianoStaff and some other pianistic peculiarities.
Bugs
There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get this result by increasing the
length of the stem in the lower stave so it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An
example is included with the distribution as ‘input/test/stem-cross-staff.ly’.
Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See ‘input/template/piano-dynamics.ly’.
The distance between the two staves is normally fixed across the entire score. It is
possible to tune this per system, but it does require arcane command incantations. See
‘input/test/piano-staff-distance.ly’.
3.10.1 Automatic staff changes

Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom staff. The syntax for this is
\autochange \context Voice { ...music ... }
The two staves of the piano staff must be named up and down.
A \relative section that is outside of \autochange has no effect on the pitches of music,
so, if necessary, put \relative inside \autochange like
\autochange \relative ... \new Voice ...
The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (middle C is the turning point), and it looks
ahead skipping over rests to switch in advance. Here is a practical example
\score { \notes \context PianoStaff <<

\context Staff = "up" {
\autochange \new Voice \relative c’ {
g4 a b c d r4 a g } }
\context Staff = "down" {
\clef bass
s1*2
} >> }
>
2 >
> > > (
> >
In this example, spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from terminating too soon.
See also
In this manual: Section 3.10.2 [Manual staff switches], page 68.
Program reference: AutoChangeMusic.
Bugs
The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high quality output, staff switches
should be specified manually.
\autochange cannot be inside \times.
Internally, the \partcombine interprets both arguments as Voices named one and two,
and then decides when the parts can be combined. Consequently, if the arguments switch to
differently named Voice contexts, the events in those will be ignored.
3.10.2 Manual staff switches

Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command
\change Staff = staffname music
The string staffname is the name of the staff. It switches the current voice from its current staff
to the Staff called staffname. Typically staffname is "up" or "down". The Staff referred to
must already exist, so usually the setup for a score will start with a setup of the staves,
<<
\context Staff = up {
\skip 1 * 10 % keep staff alive
}
\context Staff = down {
\skip 1 * 10 %idem
}
>>
and the Voice is inserted afterwards
\context Staff = down
\new Voice { ... \change Staff = up ... }
3.10.3 Pedals
Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a piano has three pedals,
sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching \sustainDown, \sustainUp,
\unaCorda, \treCorde, \sostenutoDown and \sostenutoUp to a note or chord
c’4\sustainDown c’4\sustainUp

> >

What is printed can be modified by setting pedalX Strings, where X is one of the pedal
types: Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to SustainPedal in the program reference for
more information.
Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the pedalSustainStyle
property to bracket objects
\set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #’bracket
c\sustainDown d e
b\sustainUp\sustainDown
b g \sustainUp a \sustainDown \bar "|."
> > > > >

> >
A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets, obtained by setting the
pedalSustainStyle style property to mixed
\set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #’mixed
c\sustainDown d e
b\sustainUp\sustainDown
b g \sustainUp a \sustainDown \bar "|."
> > > > >

> >

The default ‘*Ped.’ style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to style #’text. The
sostenuto pedal uses mixed style by default.
c\sostenutoDown d e c, f g a\sostenutoUp
> >
> > > >
>
Sost. Ped.
For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties edge-width, edge-
height, and shorten-pair of PianoPedalBracket objects (see PianoPedalBracket in the
Program reference) can be modified. For example, the bracket may be extended to the end
of the note head
\override Staff.PianoPedalBracket
#’shorten-pair = #’(0 . -1.0)
c\sostenutoDown d e c, f g a\sostenutoUp
> >
> > > >
>
Sost. Ped.
3.10.4 Arpeggio
You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an \arpeggio to a chord
<c e g c>\arpeggio
qqq >>>
q>
When an arpeggio crosses staves, you attach an arpeggio to the chords in both staves, and
set PianoStaff.connectArpeggios
\context PianoStaff <<
\set PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
\new Staff { <c’ e g c>\arpeggio }
\new Staff { \clef bass <c,, e g>\arpeggio }
qq >>
>>
qqq >>
qq
2 qq
qq
qq
qqqq >>>
The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an arrowhead to the wiggly
line
\context Voice {
\arpeggioUp
<c e g c>\arpeggio
\arpeggioDown
<c e g c>\arpeggio
}
tqq >>> qqq >>>

q> s>
A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not arpeggiate the chord
\arpeggioBracket
>>
<c’ e g c>\arpeggio
>
>
Predefined commands
\arpeggio, \arpeggioUp, \arpeggioUp, \arpeggioBoth, \arpeggioBracket.
See also
Program reference: ArpeggioEvent music expressions lead to Arpeggio objects. Cross staff
arpeggios are PianoStaff.Arpeggio.
Bugs
It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios in one PianoStaff at
the same time.
3.10.5 Staff switch lines

Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes can be printed automat-
ically. This is enabled if the property PianoStaff.followVoice is set to true
\context PianoStaff <<
\set PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
\context Staff \context Voice {
c1
\change Staff=two
b2 a
}
\context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
>>

2 <
= =

See also
The associated object is VoiceFollower.
Predefined commands
\showStaffSwitch, \hideStaffSwitch.
3.11 Vocal music

This section discusses how to enter and print lyrics.
3.11.1 Entering lyrics

Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is is introduced by the keyword \lyrics.
In this mode you can enter lyrics, with punctuation and accents without any hassle. Syllables
are entered like notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
\lyrics { Twin-4 kle4 twinkle little star2 }
A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, _, ?, !, :, ’, the control
characters ^A through ^F, ^Q through ^W, ^Y, ^^, any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127,
or a two-character combination of a backslash followed by one of ‘, ’, ", or ^.
Subsequent characters of a word can be any character that is not a digit and not white space.
One important consequence of this is that a word can end with }. The following example is
usually a bug. The syllable includes a }, and hence the opening brace is not balanced
\lyrics { twinkle}
Similarly, a period following a alphabetic sequence, is included in the resulting string. As a
consequence, spaces must be inserted around property commands
\override Score . LyricText #’font-shape = #’italic
Any _ character which appears in an unquoted word is converted to a space. This provides
a mechanism for introducing spaces into words without using quotes. Quoted words can also be
used in Lyrics mode to specify words that cannot be written with the above rules
\lyrics { He said: "\"Let" my peo ple "go\"" }
However, at least for english texts, you should use
\lyrics { He said: ‘‘Let my peo ple go’’ }
to get the correct shape of the starting and ending quote.
Centered hyphens are entered as ‘--’ between syllables. The hyphen will have variable length
depending on the space between the syllables and it will be centered between the syllables.
When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is indicated with a
horizontal line centered between a syllable and the next one. Such a line is called an extender
line, and it is entered as __.
See also
Program reference: events LyricEvent, HyphenEvent, and ExtenderEvent. Objects
LyricHyphen, LyricExtender and LyricText.
Examples: ‘input/test/lyric-hyphen-retain.ly’.
Bugs
The definition of lyrics mode is too complex.
3.11.2 The Lyrics context

Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in a Lyrics context
\context Lyrics \lyrics ...
This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were entered. The lyrics can also
be aligned under a given melody automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter
the correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the melody and the lyrics
with the \lyricsto expression
\lyricsto name \new Lyrics ...
This aligns the lyrics to the notes of the Voice context called name, which has to exist.
Therefore, normally the Voice is specified first, and then the lyrics are specified with \lyricsto.
For different or more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the hierarchy of staves and
lyrics first, e.g.
\context ChoirStaff \notes <<
\context Lyrics = sopranoLyrics { s1 }
\context Voice = soprano { music }
\context Lyrics = tenorLyrics { s1 }
\context Voice = tenor { music }
>>
and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines
\lyricsto "soprano" \context Lyrics = sopranoLyrics

the lyrics
The final input would resemble
<< \context ChoirStaff \notes << setup the music >>
\lyricsto "soprano" etc
\lyricsto "alto" etc
etc
>>
The \lyricsto command detects melismata: it only puts one syllable under a tied or slurred
group of notes. If you want to force an unslurred group of notes to be a melisma, insert \melisma
after the first note of the group, and \melismaEnd after the last one, e.g.
<<
\context Voice = "lala" {
\time 3/4
f4 g8
\melisma
f e f
\melismaEnd
e2
}
\lyricsto "lala" \new Lyrics \lyrics {
la di __ daah
}
>>
> >>>> =
3
4
la di daah
In addition, notes are considered a melisma if they are manually beamed, and automatic
beaming (see Section 3.5.2 [Setting automatic beam behavior], page 48) is switched off. The
criteria for deciding melismata can be tuned with the property melismaBusyProperties. See
Melisma_translator in the program reference for more information.
When multiple stanzas are put on the same melody, it can happen that two stanzas have
melismata in different locations. This can be remedied by switching off melismata for one
Lyrics. This is achieved by setting the ignoreMelismata property to #t. An example is shown
in ‘input/regression/lyric-combine-new.ly’.
A complete example of a SATB score setup is in the file ‘input/template/satb.ly’.
Predefined commands
\melisma, \melismaEnd
See also
Program reference: Music expressions: LyricCombineMusic, Contexts: Lyrics, Melisma_
translator.
Examples: ‘input/template/satb.ly’, ‘input/regression/lyric-combine-new.ly’.
Bugs
Melismata are not detected automatically, and extender lines must be inserted by hand.
For proper processing of extender lines, the Lyrics and Voice should be linked. This can be
achieved either by using \lyricsto or by setting corresponding names for both contexts. The
latter is explained in Section 3.11.3 [More stanzas], page 74.
3.11.3 More stanzas

The lyrics should be aligned with the note heads of the melody. To achieve this, each line of
lyrics should be marked to correspond with the melodic line. This is done automatically when
\lyricsto, but it can also be done manually.
To this end, give the Voice context an identity
\context Voice = duet {
\time 3/4
g2 e4 a2 f4 g2. }
Then set the Lyrics contexts to names starting with that identity followed by a dash. In
the preceding example, the Voice identity is duet, so the identities of the Lyricss are marked
duet-1 and duet-2
\context Lyrics = "duet-1" {
Hi, my name is Bert. }
\context Lyrics = "duet-2" {
Ooooo, ch\’e -- ri, je t’aime. }
The complete example is shown here
\score {
<<
\notes \relative c’’ \context Voice = duet {
\time 3/4
g2 e4 a2 f4 g2. }
\lyrics <<
\lyricsto "duet" \new Lyrics {
\set vocalName = "Bert"
\lyricsto "duet" \new Lyrics {
\set vocalName = "Ernie"
Ooooo, ch\’e -- ri, je t’aime. }
>>
>>
}
3
4
= > = > =:
Bert Hi, my name is Bert.
Ernie Ooooo, ché ri, je t’aime.
Stanza numbers can be added by setting stanza, e.g.
<<
\context Voice = duet {
\time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2. }
\lyrics \lyricsto "duet" \new Lyrics {
\set stanza = "1. "

>>
3
4 = > = > =:
1. Hi, my name is Bert.
This example also demonstrates how names of the singers can be added using vocalName
analogous to instrument annotations for staves. A short version may be entered as vocNam.
To make empty spaces in lyrics, use \skip.
See also
Program reference: Layout objects LyricText and VocalName. Music expressions LyricEvent.
Bugs
Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity
foo = bar
is interpreted as assigning a string identifier \foo such that it contains "bar". However, it could
also be interpreted as making or a music identifier \foo containing the syllable ‘bar’. The force
the latter interpretation, use
foo = \lyrics bar4
3.11.4 Ambitus
The term ambitus denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in a part of music. It also may
denote the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing. Ambituses are printed
on vocal parts, so singers can easily determine if it meets his or her capabilities.
It denoted at the beginning of a piece near the initial clef. The range is graphically specified
by two note heads, that represent the minimum and maximum pitch. To print such ambituses,
add the Ambitus_engraver to the Voice context, for example,
\paper {
\context {
\VoiceContext
\consists Ambitus_engraver
}
}
> =
3> >
This results in the following output
/> /=
3> > 3> >

> 3> > >
If you have multiple voices in a single staff, and you want a single ambitus per staff rather
than per each voice, add the Ambitus_engraver to the Staff context rather than to the Voice
context.
It is possible to tune individual ambituses for multiple voices on a single staff, for example
by erasing or shifting them horizontally. An example is in ‘input/test/ambitus-mixed.ly’.
See also
Program reference: Ambitus.
Examples: ‘input/regression/ambitus.ly’, ‘input/test/ambitus-mixed.ly’.
Bugs
There is no collision handling in the case of multiple per-voice ambitus.
3.12 Tablatures
Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string instruments. It notates pitches
not by using note heads, but by indicating on which string and fret a note must be played.
LilyPond offers limited support for tablature.
3.12.1 Tablatures basic

The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash followed by a number, e.g. c4\3
for a C quarter on the third string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes are printed as tablature, by
using TabStaff and TabVoice contexts
\notes \context TabStaff {
a,4\5 c’\2 a\3 e’\1
e\4 c’\2 a\3 e’\1
}

0 0
1 1
2 2
2
0
When no string is specified, the first string that does not give a fret number less than
minimumFret is selected. The default value for minimumFret is 0
e16 fis gis a b4
\set TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
e16 fis gis a b4
////
> >
>>>> > >> >
8
1 2
0
2 4 9
9 11 12
12
See also
Program reference: TabStaff, TabVoice, and StringNumberEvent.
Bugs
Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic string selector may easily
select the same string to two notes in a chord.
3.12.2 Non-guitar tablatures

You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines in the TabStaff.
You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as a Scheme list with
one integer number for each string, the number being the pitch (measured in semitones relative
to middle C) of an open string. The numbers specified for stringTuning are the numbers of
semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch by default middle C, in string order.
Thus, the notes are e, a, d, and g
\context TabStaff <<
\set TabStaff.stringTunings = #’(-5 -10 -15 -20)
\notes {
a,4 c’ a e’ e c’ a e’
}
>>
0
5 2 9
2
5 2 9
Bugs
No guitar special effects have been implemented.
See also
Program reference: Tab_note_heads_engraver.
3.13 Chord names

LilyPond has support for both printing chord names. Chords may be entered in musical chord
notation, i.e. < .. >, but they can also be entered by name. Internally, the chords are represented
as a set of pitches, so they can be transposed
twoWays = \notes \transpose c c’ {
\chords {
c1 f:sus4 bes/f
}
<c e g>
<f bes c’>
<f bes d’>
}
\score {
<< \context ChordNames \twoWays
3
\context Voice \twoWays >> }
3 <<<
Fsus4 Fsus4 F6/sus4
3 <<<
C B /F C
<<
<
<< 3 <<< 3 <<<
<
This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to be intelligent. The
last chord (f bes d) is not interpreted as an inversion.
3.13.1 Chords mode

Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common names. It is introduced
by the keyword \chords. In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered like
a common pitch
\chords { es4. d8 c2 }

3 > :
3 >> :: / >>> 2 ==
=
Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a modifier, and optionally,
a number
\chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
< <<
<<< / <<< <<
The first number following the root is taken to be the ‘type’ of the chord, thirds are added
to the root until it reaches the specified number
\chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
>>> >>>> >>

> >> >>> 3 >>> 3 >>> >>
> > > > >> >> >> >>
More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps to a chord. Additions
are added after the number following the colon, and are separated by dots
\chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
>
>>>> 3 >> >
>> >>
Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a - or + sign to the number
\chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
>>> 3 / >> 2 3 5 >>>

> > >
Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They must come after the
additions
\chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
>
> 3 >> >
> > >
Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are supported
m is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
dim is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present) the 7th
step.
aug is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
maj is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
sus is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd step. Append either 2
or 4 to add the 2nd or 4th step to the chord.
Modifiers can be mixed with additions
\chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
>>> 3 >>>> 3 35 >>>> 2 >>>>

Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an unaltered 13, the 11 is
removed in this case (unless it is added explicitly)
\chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
> >> >>
> >> >>
3 >>> >> 3 >>>
> >
An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well as bass notes, can be
specified by appending /pitch to the chord
\chords { c1 c/g c/f }
<< << <<

< < <
<
A bass note can be added instead of transposed out of the chord, by using /+pitch.
\chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
<< << <<

< << <
<
Chords is a mode similar to \lyrics, \notes etc. Most of the commands continue to work,
for example, r and \skip can be used to insert rests and spaces, and property commands may
be used to change various settings.
Bugs
Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following simply produces the augmented
chord, since 5+ is interpreted last
\chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
/ >>>
3.13.2 Printing chord names

For displaying printed chord names, use the ChordNames context. The chords may be entered
either using the notation described above, or directly using < and >
scheme = \notes {
\chords {a1 b c} <d’ f’ a’> <e’ g’ b’>
}
\score {
\notes <<
\context ChordNames \scheme
\context Staff \scheme
>>
}
A B C Dm Em
< / / <<<
/ << << <<
<
<<
<
<
You can make the chord changes stand out by setting ChordNames.chordChanges to true.
This will only display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at the start
of a new line
scheme = \chords {
c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
}
\score {
\notes <<
\context ChordNames {
\set chordChanges = ##t
\scheme }
\context Staff \transpose c c’ \scheme
>>
}
Cm
3 <<< 3 <<<

/ <<<
Cm D
3
3 <<< 3 <<<

The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by Klaus Ignatzek (see
Appendix B [Literature list], page 182). It can be tuned through the following properties
chordNameExceptions
This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting. For an example,
see ‘input/regression/chord-name-exceptions.ly’.
majorSevenSymbol
This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when it is ma-
jor. Predefined options are whiteTriangleMarkup and blackTriangleMarkup. See
‘input/regression/chord-name-major7.ly’ for an example.
chordNameSeparator
Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a slash. By setting
chordNameSeparator, you can specify other separators, e.g.
\context ChordNames \chords {
c:7sus4
\set chordNameSeparator
= \markup { \typewriter "|" }
c:7sus4
}
C7/sus4 C7|sus4
chordRootNamer
The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional alteration. The
transformation from pitch to letter is done by this function. Special note names (for
example, the German “H” for a B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function
in this property.
The predefined variables \germanChords, \semiGermanChords set these variables.
chordNoteNamer
The default is to print single pitch, e.g. the bass note, using the chordRootNamer.
The chordNoteNamer property can be set to a specialized function to change this
behavior. For example, the base can be printed in lower case.
There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate Jazz chord notation,
and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The alternate jazz notation is also shown on the
chart in Section A.1 [Chord name chart], page 158. Turning on these styles is described in the
input file ‘input/test/chord-names-jazz.ly’.
Predefined commands
\germanChords, \semiGermanChords.
See also
Examples: ‘input/regression/chord-name-major7.ly’, ‘input/regression/chord-name-exceptions.ly’,
‘input/test/chord-names-jazz.ly’, ‘input/test/chord-names-german.ly’.
Init files: ‘scm/chords-ignatzek.scm’, and ‘scm/chord-entry.scm’.
Bugs
Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord inversions are not identified,
and neither are added bass notes. This may result in strange chord names when chords are
entered with the < .. > syntax.
3.14 Orchestral music

Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score and the individual parts.
This section explains how to tackle some common problems in orchestral music.
3.14.1 Multiple staff contexts

Polyphonic scores consist of many staves. These staves can be constructed in three different
ways
• The group is started with a brace at the left, and bar lines are connected. This is done with
the GrandStaff context.
• The group is started with a bracket, and bar lines are connected. This is done with the
StaffGroup context
• The group is started with a vertical line. Bar lines are not connected. This is the default
for the score.
3.14.2 Rehearsal marks

To print a rehearsal mark, use the \mark command
\relative c’’ {
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark #8
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark \default
}
< < < < <

A B H J
(The letter I is skipped in accordance with engraving traditions.)

The mark is incremented automatically if you use \mark \default, but you can also use
an integer argument to set the mark manually. The value to use is stored in the property
rehearsalMark.
The style is defined by the property markFormatter. It is a function taking the current mark
(an integer) and the current context as argument. It should return a markup object. In the
following example, markFormatter is set to a canned procedure. After a few measures, it is set
to function that produces a boxed number.
\set Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-numbers
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark \default
\set Score.markFormatter
= #(lambda (mark context)
(make-bold-markup (make-box-markup (number->string mark))))
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark \default
< < < <

1 2 3
The file ‘scm/translation-functions.scm’ contains the definitions of format-mark-

numbers (the default format) and format-mark-letters. They can be used as inspiration for
other formatting functions.
The \mark command can also be used to put signs like coda, segno and fermatas on a bar
line. Use \markup to to access the appropriate symbol
c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
c1
L<
<
In the case of a line break, marks must also be printed at the end of the line, and not at the
beginning. Use the following to force that behavior
\override Score.RehearsalMark
#’break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
See also
Program reference: MarkEvent, RehearsalMark.
Init files: ‘scm/translation-functions.scm’ contains the definition of format-mark-
numbers and format-mark-letters. They can be used as inspiration for other formatting
functions.
Examples: ‘input/regression/rehearsal-mark-letter.ly’, ‘input/regression/rehearsal-mark-numb
3.14.3 Bar numbers

Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The number itself is stored in the
currentBarNumber property, which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the beginning of
each line. This is illustrated in the following example, whose source is available as
‘input/test/bar-number-regular-interval.ly’
4 8

< < < < < < < < <
See also
Program reference: BarNumber.
Examples: ‘input/test/bar-number-every-five-reset.ly’, and
‘input/test/bar-number-regular-interval.ly’.
Bugs
Bar numbers can collide with the StaffGroup bracket, if there is one at the top. To solve this,
the padding property of BarNumber can be used to position the number correctly.
3.14.4 Instrument names

In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left side of the staves.
This can be achieved by setting Staff.instrument and Staff.instr. This will print a string
before the start of the staff. For the first start, instrument is used, for the next ones instr is
used.
\set Staff.instrument = "Ploink "
\set Staff.instr = "Plk "
c1
\break
c’’

<
Ploink
2
<
Plk
You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument names, for example
\notes {
\set Staff.instrument = \markup {
\column < "Clarinetti" { "in B"
\smaller \flat } > }
{ c’’1 }
}
Clarinetti
in B 3 <
See also
Program reference: InstrumentName.
Bugs
When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the brace is not taken into
account. You must add extra spaces to the end of the name to avoid a collision.
3.14.5 Transpose
A music expression can be transposed with \transpose. The syntax is
\transpose from to musicexpr
This means that musicexpr is transposed by the interval between the pitches from and to:
any note with pitch from is changed to to.
For example, consider a piece written in the key of D major. If this piece is a little too low
for its performer, it can be transposed up to E major with
\transpose d e ...
Consider a part written for violin (a C instrument). If this part is to be played on the A
clarinet, the following transposition will produce the appropriate part
\transpose a c ...
Since from and to are pitches, so \transpose must be inside a \notes section. \transpose
distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both \transpose c cis or \transpose c des will
transpose up half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version will print
flats
mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
\score { \notes \context Staff {
\clef "F" \mus
\clef "G"
\transpose c g’ \mus
\transpose c f’ \mus
}}
// > > > > /// > > 22 / >

> > > > >
See also
Program reference: TransposedMusic, and UntransposableMusic.
Bugs
If you want to use both \transpose and \relative, you must put \transpose outside of
\relative, since \relative will have no effect music that appears inside a \transpose.
3.14.6 Instrument transpositions

The key of a transposing instrument can also be specified. This applies to many wind instru-
ments, for example, clarinets (B-flat, A and E-flat), horn (F) and trumpet (B-flat, C, D and
E-flat).
The transposition is entered after the keyword \transposition
\transposition bes %% B-flat clarinet
This command sets the property instrumentTransposition. The value of this property is
used for MIDI output and quotations. It does not affect how notes are printed in the current
staff.
3.14.7 Multi measure rests

Multi measure rests are entered using ‘R’. It is specifically meant for full bar rests and for entering
parts: the rest can expand to fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure
rest. This expansion is controlled by the property Score.skipBars. If this is set to true, empty
measures will not be expanded, and the appropriate number is added automatically
\time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
\set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
! ! ! !
17 4
&
The 1 in R1 is similar to the duration notation used for notes. Hence, for time signatures
other than 4/4, you must enter other durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or
fractions
\time 3/4
R2. | R2.*2
\time 13/8
R1*13/8
R1*13/8*12
! !
2 12
3 ' 13
4 8
An R spanning a single measure is printed as either a whole rest or a breve, centered in the
measure regardless of the time signature.
Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the note-markup syntax (see Section 4.5
[Text markup], page 123). In this case, the number is replaced. If you need both texts and
the number, you must add the number by hand. A variable (\fermataMarkup) is provided for
adding fermatas
\time 3/4
R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
R2.^\fermataMarkup
L
! !
3
4
Ad lib
If you want to have a text on the left end of a multi-measure rest, attach the text to a
zero-length skip note, i.e.
s1*0^"Allegro"
R1*4
See also
Program reference: MultiMeasureRestEvent, MultiMeasureTextEvent,
MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup, and MultiMeasureRest.
The layout object MultiMeasureRestNumber is for the default number, and
MultiMeasureRestText for user specified texts.
Bugs
It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. R1-4) to put numbers over multi-measure rests.
There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single multimeasure rest.
Multi measure rests do not take part in rest collisions.
Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole notes. The following will
enter two notes lasting four measures each
R1*4 cis cis
When skipBars is set, the result will look OK, but the bar numbering will be off.
3.14.8 Automatic part combining

Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a staff. It is aimed at
typesetting orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of time, only one
is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate voices, and stem
directions are set automatically. Also, solo and a due parts are identified and can be marked.
The syntax for part combining is
\partcombine musicexpr1 musicexpr2
The music expressions will be interpreted as Voice contexts. If using relative octaves,
\relative should be specified for both music expressions, i.e.
\partcombine \relative ... musicexpr1
\relative ... musicexpr2
A \relative section that is outside of \partcombine has no effect on the pitches of musicexpr1
and musicexpr2.
The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part combiner: putting
parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and polyphony
\new Staff \partcombine
\relative g’ { g g a( b) c c r r }
\relative g’ { g g r4 r e e g g }
> > > > >> >> > >

a2 Solo Solo II
The first g appears only once, although it was specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur
and tie directions are set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The first
part (with context called one) always gets up stems, and ‘solo’, while the second (called two)
always gets down stems and ‘Solo II’.
If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you may set the property
soloADue to false
\new Staff <<
\set Staff.soloADue = ##f
\partcombine
\relative g’ { g a( b) r }
\relative g’ { g r4 r f }
>>
> > > >
See also
Program reference: PartCombineMusic, SoloOneEvent, and SoloTwoEvent, and UnisonoEvent.
Bugs
In soloADue mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and off, the part combiner may
typeset a2 more than once in a measure.
\partcombine cannot be inside \times.
\partcombine cannot be inside \relative.
Internally, the \partcombine interprets both arguments as Voices named one and two,
and then decides when the parts can be combined. Consequently, if the arguments switch to
differently named Voice contexts, the events in those will be ignored.
3.14.9 Hiding staves

In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed. This saves some space.
This style is called ‘French Score’. For Lyrics, ChordNames and FiguredBass, this is switched
on by default. When these line of these contexts turn out empty after the line-breaking process,
they are removed.
For normal staves, a specialized Staff context is available, which does the same: staves
containing nothing (or only multi measure rests) are removed. The context definition is stored in
\RemoveEmptyStaffContext variable. Observe how the second staff in this example disappears
in the second line
\score {
\notes \relative c’ <<
\new Staff { e4 f g a \break c1 }
\new Staff { c4 d e f \break R1 }
>>
\paper {
linewidth = 6.\cm
\context { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext }
}
}
> > > >
> > > >

<
2
The first page shows all staves in full. If empty staves should be removed from the first page
too, set remove-first to false in RemoveEmptyVerticalGroup.
Another application is making ossia sections, i.e. alternative melodies on a separate piece of
staff, with help of a Frenched staff. See ‘input/test/ossia.ly’ for an example.
3.14.10 Different editions from one source

The \tag command marks music expressions with a name. These tagged expressions can be
filtered out later. With this mechanism it is possible to make different versions of the same
music source.
In the following example, we see two versions of a piece of music, one for the full score, and
one with cue notes for the instrumental part
c1
\relative c’ <<
\tag #’part <<
R1 \\
{
\set fontSize = #-1
c4_"cue" f2 g4 }
>>
\tag #’score R1
>>
c1
The same can be applied to articulations, texts, etc.: they are made by prepending
-\tag #your-tag
to an articulation, for example,
c1-\tag #’part ^4
This defines a note with a conditional fingering indication.
By applying the remove-tag function, tagged expressions can be filtered. For example,
\simultaneous {
the music
\apply #(remove-tag ’score) the music
\apply #(remove-tag ’part) the music
}
would yield
!!
< <
4
both >
> =
cue
!
< <
4
part >
> =
cue
!
score < <
The argument of the \tag command should be a symbol, or a list of symbols, for example,
\tag #’(original-part transposed-part) ...
See also
Examples: ‘input/regression/tag-filter.ly’.
3.14.11 Quoting other voices

With quotations, fragments of other parts can be inserted into a part directly. Before a part
can be quoted, it must be marked especially as quotable. This is done with code \addquote
command. The quotation may then be done with \quote
\addquote name music
\quote name duration
Here, name is an identifying string. The music is any kind of music. This is an example of
\addquote
\addquote clarinet \notes\relative c’ {
f4 fis g gis
}
During a part, a piece of music can be quoted with the \quote command.
\quote clarinet 2.
This would cite 3 quarter notes (a dotted half note) of the previously added clarinet voice.
Quotations take into account the transposition both source and target instruments, if they
are specified using the \transposition command.
\addquote clarinet \notes\relative c’ {
\transposition bes
f4 fis g gis
}
\score {
\notes {
e’8 f’8 \quote clarinet 2
} }
>>> >
Bugs
Only the contents of the first Voice occurring in an \addquote command will be considered for
quotation, so music can not contain \new and \context Voice statements that would switch to
a different Voice.
See also
In this manual: Section 3.14.6 [Instrument transpositions], page 85.
Examples: ‘input/regression/quote.ly’ ‘input/regression/quote-transposition.ly’
Program reference: QuoteMusic.
3.15 Ancient notation

Support for ancient notation includes features for mensural notation and Gregorian Chant no-
tation. There is also limited support for figured bass notation.
Many graphical objects provide a style property, see Section 3.15.1 [Ancient note heads],
page 90, Section 3.15.2 [Ancient accidentals], page 91, Section 3.15.3 [Ancient rests], page 91,
Section 3.15.4 [Ancient clefs], page 92, Section 3.15.5 [Ancient flags], page 94 and Section 3.15.6
[Ancient time signatures], page 95. By manipulating such a grob property, the typographical
appearance of the affected graphical objects can be accommodated for a specific notation flavor
without need for introducing any new notational concept.
Other aspects of ancient notation can not that easily be expressed as in terms of just changing
a style property of a graphical object. Therefore, some notational concepts are introduced specif-
ically for ancient notation, see Section 3.15.7 [Custodes], page 95, Section 3.15.8 [Divisiones],
page 96, Section 3.15.9 [Ligatures], page 97, and Section 3.15.11 [Figured bass], page 103.
If this all is way too much of documentation for you, and you just want to dive into typesetting
without worrying too much about the details on how to customize a context, you may have a
look at the predefined contexts (see Section 3.15.10 [Vaticana style contexts], page 102). Use
them to set up predefined style-specific voice and staff contexts, and directly go ahead with the
note entry.
Bugs
Ligatures need special spacing that has not yet been implemented. As a result, there is too
much space between ligatures most of the time, and line breaking often is unsatisfactory. Also,
lyrics do not correctly align with ligatures.
Accidentals must not be printed within a ligature, but instead need to be collected and
printed in front of it.
Augmentum dots within ligatures are not handled correctly.
3.15.1 Ancient note heads

For ancient notation, a note head style other than the default style may be chosen. This
is accomplished by setting the style property of the NoteHead object to the desired value
(baroque, neo_mensural or mensural). The baroque style differs from the default style only
in using a square shape for \breve note heads. The neo_mensural style differs from the baroque
style in that it uses rhomboidal heads for whole notes and all smaller durations. Stems are
centered on the note heads. This style is in particular useful when transcribing mensural music,
e.g. for the incipit. The mensural style finally produces note heads that mimic the look of note
heads in historic printings of the 16th century.
The following example demonstrates the neo_mensural style

\override NoteHead #’style = #’neo_mensural
a’\longa a’\breve a’1 a’2 a’4 a’8 a’16
3 4 5
8
7 8 8 8
When typesetting a piece in Gregorian Chant notation, a Gregorian ligature engraver will
automatically select the proper note heads, such there is no need to explicitly set the note head
style. Still, the note head style can be set e.g. to vaticana_punctum to produce punctum
neumes. Similarly, a mensural ligature engraver is used to automatically assemble mensural
ligatures. See Section 3.15.9 [Ligatures], page 97 for how ligature engravers work.
See also
In this manual Section 3.9.3 [Percussion staves], page 65 use note head styles of their own that
are frequently used in contemporary music notation.
Examples: ‘input/regression/note-head-style.ly’ gives an overview over all available
note head styles.
3.15.2 Ancient accidentals

Use the style property of grob Accidental to select ancient accidentals. Supported styles are
mensural, vaticana, hufnagel and medicaea.
vaticana medicaea hufnagel mensural

As shown, not all accidentals are supported by each style. When trying to access
an unsupported accidental, LilyPond will switch to a different style, as demonstrated in
‘input/test/ancient-accidentals.ly’.
Similarly to local accidentals, the style of the key signature can be controlled by the style
property of the KeySignature grob.
See also
In this manual: Section 3.1.2 [Pitches], page 31, Section 3.1.3 [Chromatic alterations], page 32
and Section 3.6 [Accidentals], page 49 give a general introduction into the use of accidentals.
Section 3.3.2 [Key signature], page 40 gives a general introduction into the use of key signatures.
Program reference: KeySignature.
Examples: ‘input/test/ancient-accidentals.ly’.
3.15.3 Ancient rests

Use the style property of grob Rest to select ancient accidentals. Supported styles are
classical, neo_mensural and mensural. classical differs from the default style only in
that the quarter rest looks like a horizontally mirrored 8th rest. The neo_mensural style suits
well for e.g. the incipit of a transcribed mensural piece of music. The mensural style finally
mimics the appearance of rests as in historic prints of the 16th century.
The following example demonstrates the neo_mensural style
\override Rest #’style = #’neo_mensural

r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16
" # $ % & ' (
There are no 32th and 64th rests specifically for the mensural or neo-mensural style. Instead,
the rests from the default style will be taken. See ‘input/test/rests.ly’ for a chart of all
rests.
There are no rests in Gregorian Chant notation; instead, it uses Section 3.15.8 [Divisiones],
page 96.
See also
In this manual: Section 3.1.5 [Rests], page 33 gives a general introduction into the use of rests.
3.15.4 Ancient clefs

LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the \clef command. Some
of the clefs use the same glyph, but differ only with respect to the line they are printed on.
In such cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs. Still, you can
manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an arbitrary line, as described in Section 3.3.3 [Clef],
page 40. The note printed to the right side of each clef in the example column denotes the c’
with respect to that clef.
Glyph Name Description Supported Clefs Example
clefs-neo_mensural_c modern style mensural C

clef
neo_mensural_c1,
neo_mensural_c2,
f >
neo_mensural_c3,
neo_mensural_c4
clefs-petrucci_c1
clefs-petrucci_c2
petrucci style mensural C
clefs, for use on different
petrucci_c1 petrucci_
c2 petrucci_c3
j >
clefs-petrucci_c3 staff lines (the examples petrucci_c4
clefs-petrucci_c4 shows the 2nd staff line C petrucci_c5
clefs-petrucci_c5 clef).
>
clefs-petrucci_f petrucci style mensural F petrucci_f t
clef
x
>
clefs-petrucci_g petrucci style mensural G petrucci_g
clef
clefs-mensural_c historic style mensural C mensural_c1, mensural_ r >

clef c2, mensural_c3,
mensural_c4
>
clefs-mensural_f historic style mensural F mensural_f v
clef
z
>
clefs-mensural_g historic style mensural G mensural_g
clef
clefs-vaticana_do Editio Vaticana style do vaticana_do1, ^ >

clef vaticana_do2,
vaticana_do3
>
clefs-vaticana_fa Editio Vaticana style fa vaticana_fa1, `
clef vaticana_fa2
clefs-medicaea_do Editio Medicaea style do medicaea_do1, b >

clef medicaea_do2,
medicaea_do3
>
clefs-medicaea_fa Editio Medicaea style fa medicaea_fa1, d
clef medicaea_fa2
clefs-hufnagel_do historic style hufnagel do hufnagel_do1, | >

clef hufnagel_do2,
hufnagel_do3
>
clefs-hufnagel_fa historic style hufnagel fa hufnagel_fa1, ~
clef hufnagel_fa2
>
clefs-hufnagel_do_fa historic style hufnagel hufnagel_do_fa
combined do/fa clef
Modern style means “as is typeset in contemporary editions of transcribed mensural music”.
Petrucci style means “inspired by printings published by the famous engraver Petrucci (1466-
1539)”.
Historic style means “as was typeset or written in historic editions (other than those of
Petrucci)”.
Editio XXX style means “as is/was printed in Editio XXX”.
Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical beams, depending on which
staff line it is printed.
See also
In this manual: see Section 3.3.3 [Clef], page 40.
Bugs
The mensural g clef is mapped to the Petrucci g clef, until a new mensural g clef is implemented.
3.15.5 Ancient flags

Use the flag-style property of grob Stem to select ancient flags. Besides the default flag
style, only mensural style is supported
\override Stem #’flag-style = #’mensural
\override Stem #’thickness = #1.0
\override NoteHead #’style = #’mensural
\autoBeamOff
c’8 d’8 e’8 f’8 c’16 d’16 e’16 f’16 c’32 d’32 e’32 f’32 s8
c’’8 d’’8 e’’8 f’’8 c’’16 d’’16 e’’16 f’’16 c’’32 d’’32 e’’32 f’’32
¡ ¡ § §
¡ ? ? ? § ? ? ? ???
¡ §
? ? ?
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ????
2
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ª ª ª ª
° ° ° °
Note that the innermost flare of each mensural flag always is vertically aligned with a staff
line. If you do not like this behavior, you can set the adjust-if-on-staffline property of
grob Stem to ##f. Then, the vertical position of the end of each flare is different between notes
on staff lines and notes between staff lines
¡ ¡ § §
¡ ¡ § §
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ????
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ???
2
¤ ¤ ¤ ¤ ª ª ª ª
° ° ° °
There is no particular flag style for neo-mensural notation. Hence, when typesetting e.g. the
incipit of a transcribed piece of mensural music, the default flag style should be used. There are
no flags in Gregorian Chant notation.
3.15.6 Ancient time signatures

There is limited support for mensural time signatures. The glyphs are hard-wired to particular
time fractions. In other words, to get a particular mensural signature glyph with the \time n/m
command, n and m have to be chosen according to the following table
Ã Ä Æ É
\time 4/4 \time 2/2 \time 6/4 \time 6/8
Å È Ç Ê
\time 3/2 \time 3/4 \time 9/4 \time 9/8
Ë Í
\time 4/8 \time 2/4
Use the style property of grob TimeSignature to select ancient time signatures. Supported
styles are neo_mensural and mensural. The above table uses the neo_mensural style. This
style is appropriate e.g. for the incipit of transcriptions of mensural pieces. The mensural style
mimics the look of historical printings of the 16th century.
‘input/test/time.ly’ gives an overview over all available ancient and modern styles.
See also
Program reference: Section 3.3.5 [Time signature], page 42 gives a general introduction into the
use of time signatures.
Bugs
Mensural signature glyphs are mapped to time fractions in a hard-wired way. This mapping
is sensible, but still arbitrary: given a mensural time signature, the time fraction represents a
modern meter that usually will be a good choice when transcribing a mensural piece of music.
For a particular piece of mensural music, however, the mapping may be unsatisfactory. In
particular, the mapping assumes a fixed transcription of durations (e.g. brevis = half note in
2/2, i.e. 4:1). Some glyphs (such as the alternate glyph for 6/8 meter) are not at all accessible
through the \time command.
Mensural time signatures are supported typographically, but not yet musically. The internal
representation of durations is based on a purely binary system; a ternary division such as 1
brevis = 3 semibrevis (tempus perfectum) or 1 semibrevis = 3 minima (cum prolatione maiori)
is not correctly handled: event times in ternary modes will be badly computed, resulting e.g. in
horizontally misaligned note heads, and bar checks are likely to erroneously fail.
The syntax and semantics of the \time command for mensural music is subject to change.
3.15.7 Custodes
A custos (plural: custodes; Latin word for ‘guard’) is a symbol that appears at the end of a
staff. It anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century. Nowadays, they
have survived only in a few particular forms of musical notation such as contemporary editions
of Gregorian chant like the editio vaticana. There are different custos glyphs used in different
flavors of notational style.
For typesetting custodes, just put a Custos_engraver into the Staff context when declaring
the \paper block, as shown in the following example
\paper {
\context {
\StaffContext
\consists Custos_engraver
Custos \override #’style = #’mensural
}
}
The result looks like this
<
<
The custos glyph is selected by the style property. The styles supported are vaticana,
medicaea, hufnagel and mensural. They are demonstrated in the following fragment

vaticana medicaea hufnagel mensural

See also
Program reference: Custos.
Examples: ‘input/regression/custos.ly’.
3.15.8 Divisiones
A divisio (plural: divisiones; Latin word for ‘division’) is a staff context symbol that is used to
structure Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of divisio minima,
divisio maior and divisio maxima can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, some-
what like Section 3.7.3 [Breath marks], page 52. The finalis sign not only marks the end of a
chant, but is also frequently used within a single antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end
of each section.
To use divisiones, include the file gregorian-init.ly. It contains definitions that you can
apply by just inserting \divisioMinima, \divisioMaior, \divisioMaxima, and \finalis at
proper places in the input. Some editions use virgula or caesura instead of divisio minima.
Therefore, gregorian-init.ly also defines \virgula and \caesura
divisio minima divisio maior
> > > > > > > > > > > >
Blah blub, blah blam. Blah blub, blah blam.
divisio maxima finalis
> > > > > > > > > > > > >
Blah blub, blah blam. Blah blub, blah blam. Blah
virgula caesura
> > > > > > > > >

m o
> > > >
blub, blah blam. Blah blub, blah blam. Blah
> > > >

blub, blah blam.
Predefined commands
\virgula, \caesura, \divisioMinima, \divisioMaior, \divisioMaxima, \finalis.
See also
In this manual: Section 3.7.3 [Breath marks], page 52.
Program reference: BreathingSign, BreathingSignEvent.
Examples: ‘input/test/divisiones.ly’.
3.15.9 Ligatures
A ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that represents at least two distinct notes. Ligatures
originally appeared in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th century
to denote ascending or descending sequences of notes.
Ligatures are entered by enclosing them in \[ and \]. Some ligature styles may need addi-
tional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature. By default, the LigatureBracket
engraver just puts a square bracket above the ligature
\score {
\notes \transpose c c’ {
\[ g c a f d’ \]
a g f
\[ e f a g \]
}
}
> >
> > > > > > > > >
>
To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver has to be added to the Voice
context, as explained in the following subsections. Only white mensural ligatures are supported
with certain limitations.
3.15.9.1 White mensural ligatures

There is limited support for white mensural ligatures.
To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper block the Mensural_ligature_engraver
has to be put into the Voice context, and remove the Ligature_bracket_engraver
\paper {
\context {
\VoiceContext
\remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
\consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
}
}
There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a white mensural ligature.
The shape is rather determined solely from the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While
this approach may take a new user a while to get accustomed, it has the great advantage that
the full musical information of the ligature is known internally. This is not only required for
correct MIDI output, but also allows for automatic transcription of the ligatures.
For example,
\set Score.timing = ##f
\set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
\override NoteHead #’style = #’neo_mensural
\override Staff.TimeSignature #’style = #’neo_mensural
\clef "petrucci_g"
\[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d’\longa \]
s4
\[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
;
x Ã 9<
Without replacing Ligature_bracket_engraver with Mensural_ligature_engraver, the
same music transcribes to the following
3
x Ã 3 4 4 5 5 4 3
4
Bugs
The implementation is experimental; it may output strange warnings or even crash in some cases
or produce weird results on more complex ligatures.
3.15.9.2 Gregorian square neumes ligatures

Gregorian square neumes notation (following the style of the Editio Vaticana) is under heavy
development, but not yet really usable for production purposes. Core ligatures can already be
typeset, but essential issues for serious typesetting are still under development, such as (among
others) horizontal alignment of multiple ligatures, lyrics alignment and proper accidentals han-
dling. Still, this section gives a sneak preview of what Gregorian chant may look like once it
will work.
The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd volume of the Antiphonale
Romanum (Liber Hymnarius), published 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.
Neuma aut Figurae Figurae Figurae

Neumarum Elementa Rectae Liquescentes Liquescentes
Auctae Deminutae
a b c d e f
1. Punctum @ D Q R S P
g
2. Virga @
h i
3. Apostropha vel Stropha T U
j
4. Oriscus V
k l m n
5. Clivis vel Flexa @@ @R @Q NL
o p q r
6. Podatus vel Pes GE @R @Q JI
s t
7. Pes Quassus
V@ VR
u v
8. Quilisma Pes GO OR
w x
9. Podatus Initio Debilis
L@ LR
y z A
10. Torculus
@@@ @@R @ML
B C D
11. Torculus Initio Debilis
L@@ L@R LML
E F G
12. Porrectus G R I
H I J
13. Climacus @ DD @ DS @ DP
K L M
14. Scandicus
HF@ @@R @KI
N O
15. Salicus
@V@ @VR
P
16. Trigonus T TT
Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for neumes does not neces-
sarily reflect directly the typographical appearance, but is designed to solely focuse on musical
meaning. For example, \[ a \pes b \flexa g \] produces a Torculus consisting of three Punc-
tum heads, while \[ a \flexa g \pes b \] produces a Porrectus with a curved flexa shape and
only a single Punctum head. There is no command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape;
the decision of when to typeset a curved flexa shape is purely taken from the musical input.
The idea of this approach is to separate the musical aspects of the input from the notation style
of the output. This way, the same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a different
style of Gregorian chant notation.
The following table shows the code fragments that produce the ligatures in the above neumes
table. The letter in the first column in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in
the above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the ligature. The third column
shows the code fragment that produces this ligature, using g, a and b as example pitches.
# Name Input Language

a Punctum \[ b \]
b Punctum Inclinatum \[ \inclinatum b \]
c Punctum Auctum Ascendens \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
d Punctum Auctum Descendens \[ \auctum \descendens b \]
e Punctum Inclinatum Auctum \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
f Punctum Inclinatum Parvum \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
g Virga \[ \virga b \]
h Stropha \[ \stropha b \]
i Stropha Aucta \[ \stropha \auctum b \]
j Oriscus \[ \oriscus b \]
k Clivis vel Flexa \[ b \flexa g \]
l Clivis Aucta Descendens \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
m Clivis Aucta Ascendens \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
n Cephalicus \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]

o Podatus vel Pes \[ g \pes b \]
p Pes Auctus Descendens \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
q Pes Auctus Ascendens \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
r Epiphonus \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
s Pes Quassus \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
t Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens
b \]
u Quilisma Pes \[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
v Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens \[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens
b \]
w Pes Initio Debilis \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
x Pes Auctus Descendens Initio \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum
Debilis \descendens b \]
y Torculus \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
z Torculus Auctus Descendens \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g
\]
A Torculus Deminutus \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
B Torculus Initio Debilis \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
C Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum
Debilis \descendens g \]
D Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa
\deminutum g \]
E Porrectus \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
F Porrectus Auctus Descendens \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b
\]
G Porrectus Deminutus \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
H Climacus \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g
\]
I Climacus Auctus \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum
\auctum g \]
J Climacus Deminutus \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum
\deminutum g \]
K Scandicus \[ g \pes a \virga b \]
L Scandicus Auctus Descendens \[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b
\]
M Scandicus Deminutus \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
N Salicus \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]

O Salicus Auctus Descendens \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum
\descendens b \]
P Trigonus \[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]
Predefined commands
The following head prefixes are supported
\virga, \stropha, \inclinatum, \auctum, \descendens, \ascendens, \oriscus,

\quilisma, \deminutum.
Head prefixes can be accumulated, though restrictions apply. For example, either
\descendens or \ascendens can be applied to a head, but not both to the same head.
Two adjacent heads can be tied together with the \pes and \flexa infix commands for a
rising and falling line of melody, respectively.
3.15.10 Vaticana style contexts

The predefined VaticanaVoiceContext and VaticanaStaffContext can be used to easily en-
grave a piece of Gregorian Chant in the style of the Editio Vaticana. These contexts initialize
all relevant context properties and grob properties to proper values. With these contexts, you
can immediately go ahead entering the chant, as the following short excerpt demonstrates
\include "gregorian-init.ly"
\score {
<<
\context VaticanaVoice = "cantus" {
\override Score.BarNumber #’transparent = ##t
\notes {
\[ c’\melisma c’ \flexa a \]
\[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \]
f \divisioMinima
\[ f\melisma \pes a c’ c’ \pes d’\melismaEnd \]
c’ \divisioMinima \break
\[ c’\melisma c’ \flexa a \]
\[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \] f \divisioMinima
}
}
\lyricsto "cantus" \new Lyrics \lyrics {
San- ctus, San- ctus, San- ctus
}
>>
}
^ @ @@ NL @FH @
@ EG
San- ctus, San- ctus,
^ @ @@ NL @
San- ctus
3.15.11 Figured bass

LilyPond has limited support for figured bass
<<
\context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais }
\context FiguredBass \figures {
< 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
< 6 >4 <6 5 [3+] >
}
>>
/> > 2> />

/
2 3
6/6 7 6
5
6
The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input mode, introduced
by \figures, where you can enter bass figures as numbers, and there is a context called
FiguredBass that takes care of making BassFigure objects.
In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by < and >. The duration is entered
after the >>
<4 6>
6
4
Accidentals are added when you append -, ! and + to the numbers
<4- 6+ 7!>
7 2
6 /
4 3
Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using _. Brackets are introduced with [ and ]
< [4 6] 8 [_! 12]>
2
12
8
6
4
Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord support, it works
much simpler. The \figures mode simply stores the numbers , and FiguredBass context
prints them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no realizations of the bass are
played in the MIDI file.
Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the markup text properties to
override formatting. For example, the vertical spacing of the figures may be set with baseline-
skip.
See also
Program reference: BassFigureEvent music, BassFigure object, and FiguredBass context.
Bugs
Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
3.16 Contemporary notation

In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical vocabulary. With this ex-
pansion, many innovations in musical notation have been tried. The book by Stone (1980) gives
a comprehensive overview (see Appendix B [Literature list], page 182). In general, the use of
new, innovative notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and its use should
therefore be avoided if possible. For this reason, support for contemporary notation in LilyPond
is limited.
3.16.1 Clusters
A cluster indicates a continuous range of pitches to be played. They can be denoted as the
envelope of a set of notes. They are entered by applying the function notes-to-clusters to a
sequence of chords, e.g.
\apply #notes-to-clusters { <c e > <b f’> }

The following example (from ‘input/regression/cluster.ly’) shows what the result looks
like
> > > > = >> > >

>
> > > >

Ordinary notes and clusters can be put together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In
such a case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between ordinary notes and
clusters.
See also
Program reference: ClusterSpanner, ClusterSpannerBeacon, Cluster_spanner_engraver,
and ClusterNoteEvent.
Examples: ‘input/regression/cluster.ly’.
Bugs
Music expressions like << { g8 e8 } a4 >> are not printed accurately. Use <g a>8 <e a>8 instead.
3.16.2 Fermatas
Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to indicate fermatas of
differing lengths. The following fermatas are supported
N L P R
> ( > ( > ( > (
shortfermata fermata longfermata verylongfermata

See Section 3.7.7 [Articulations], page 54 for general instructions how to apply scripts such
as fermatas to a \notes{} block.
3.17 Special notation

3.17.1 Balloon help
Elements of notation can be marked and named with the help of a square balloon. The primary
purpose of this feature is to explain notation.
The following example demonstrates its use.
\context Voice
\applyoutput
#(add-balloon-text ’NoteHead "heads, or tails?"
’(1 . -3))
c8
>
heads, or tails?
The function add-balloon-text takes the name of a grob, the label to print and where to put
the label relative to the object. In the above example, the text “heads or tails?” ends 3 spaces
below the ‘balloon.’
See also
Program reference: text-balloon-interface.
Examples: ‘input/regression/balloon.ly’.
3.17.2 Easy Notation note heads

The ‘easy play’ note head includes a name inside the head. It is used in music for beginners
\setEasyHeads
c’2 e’4 f’ | g’1
E
F
G
The command \setEasyHeads overrides settings for the NoteHead object. To make the letters
readable, it has to be printed in a large font size. To print with a larger font, see Section 4.6.1
[Setting global staff size], page 128.
If you view the result with Xdvi, staff lines may show through the letters. Printing the
PostScript file obtained does produce the correct result.
Predefined commands
\setEasyHeads
3.18 Sound
Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance is intended for proof-
hearing the music for errors.
Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks, crescendi and de-
crescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the
available MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the volume vary linearly between
their two extremities. The fractions can be adjusted by dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction in
Voice context. For each type of MIDI instrument, a volume range can be defined. This gives
a basic equalizer control, which can enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. The
equalizer can be controlled by setting instrumentEqualizer.
Bugs
Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., are not translated
to MIDI.
The MIDI output allocates a channel for each Staff, and one for global settings. Hence, the
MIDI file should not have more than 15 staves (or 14 if you do not use drums). Other staves
will remain silent.
3.18.1 MIDI block

The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat simpler. The \midi block
can contain
• a \tempo definition, and
• context definitions.
A number followed by a period is interpreted as a real number, so for setting the tempo for
dotted notes, an extra space should be inserted, for example
\midi { \tempo 4 . = 120 }
Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the \paper block. Transla-
tion modules for sound are called performers. The contexts for MIDI output are defined in
‘ly/performer-init.ly’.
3.18.2 MIDI instrument names

The MIDI instrument name is set by the Staff.midiInstrument property. The instrument
name should be chosen from the list in Section A.2 [MIDI instruments], page 159.
Bugs
If the selected string does not exactly match, the default is used, which is the Grand Piano.
Chapter 4: Changing defaults 107
4 Changing defaults
The purpose of LilyPond’s design is to provide the finest output quality as a default. Never-
theless, it may happen that you need to change this default layout. The layout is controlled
through a large number of proverbial “knobs and switches.” This chapter does not list each and
every knob. Rather, it outlines what groups of controls are available and explains how to lookup
which knob to use for a certain effect.
The controls available for tuning are described in a separate document, the Program
reference manual. This manual lists all different variables, functions and options
available in LilyPond. It is written as a HTML document, which is available on-line
(http://lilypond.org/doc/Documentation/user/out-www/lilypond-internals/), but is
also included with the LilyPond documentation package.
There are three areas where the default settings may be changed:
• Output: changing the appearance of individual objects. For example, changing stem direc-
tions, or the location of subscripts.
• Context: changing aspects of the translation from music events to notation. For example,
giving each staff a separate time signature.
• Global layout: changing the appearance of the spacing, line breaks and page dimensions.
Then, there are separate systems for typesetting text (like ritardando) and selecting different
fonts. This chapter also discusses these.
Internally, LilyPond uses Scheme (a LISP dialect) to provide infrastructure. Overriding
layout decisions in effect accesses the program internals, so it is necessary to learn a (very small)
subset of Scheme. That is why this chapter starts with a short tutorial on entering numbers,
lists, strings and symbols in Scheme.
4.1 Scheme tutorial

LilyPond uses the Scheme programming language, both as part of the input syntax, and as
internal mechanism to glue together modules of the program. This section is a very brief
overview of entering data in Scheme.1
The most basic thing of a language is data: numbers, character strings, lists, etc. Here is a
list of data types that are relevant to LilyPond input.
Booleans Boolean values are True or False. The Scheme for True is #t and False is #f.
Numbers Numbers are entered in the standard fashion, 1 is the (integer) number one, while
-1.5 is a floating point number (a non-integer number).
Strings Strings are enclosed in double quotes,
"this is a string"
Strings may span several lines

"this
is
a string"
Quotation marks and newlines can also be added with so-called escape sequences.
The string a said "b" is entered as
1
If you want to know more about Scheme, see http://www.schemers.org.
"a said \"b\""
Newlines and backslashes are escaped with \n and \\ respectively.

In a music file, snippets of Scheme code are introduced with the hash mark #. So, the previous
examples translated in LilyPond are
##t ##f
#1 #-1.5
#"this is a string"
#"this
is
a string"
For the rest of this section, we will assume that the data is entered in a music file, so we add
#s everywhere.
Scheme can be used to do calculations. It uses prefix syntax. Adding 1 and 2 is written as
(+ 1 2) rather than the traditional 1+2.
#(+ 1 2)
⇒ #3
The arrow ⇒ shows that the result of evaluating (+ 1 2) is 3. Calculations may be nested;
the result of a function may be used for another calculation.
#(+ 1 (* 3 4))
⇒ #(+ 1 12)
⇒ #13
These calculations are examples of evaluations; an expression like (* 3 4) is replaced by its
value 12. A similar thing happens with variables. After defining a variable
twelve = #12
variables can also be used in expressions, here
twentyFour = #(* 2 twelve)
the number 24 is stored in the variable twentyFour.
The name of a variable is also an expression, similar to a number or a string. It is entered as
#’twentyFour
The quote mark ’ prevents Scheme interpreter from substituting 24 for the twentyFour.
Instead, we get the name twentyFour.
This syntax will be used very frequently, since many of the layout tweaks involve assigning
(Scheme) values to internal variables, for example
\override Stem #’thickness = #2.6
This instruction adjusts the appearance of stems. The value 2.6 is put into a the thickness
variable of a Stem object. This makes stems almost twice as thick as their normal size. To
distinguish between variables defined in input files (like twentyFour in the example above), and
internal variables, we will call the latter “properties.” So, the stem object has a thickness
property.
Two-dimensional offsets (X and Y coordinates) as well as object sizes (intervals with a left
and right point) are entered as pairs. A pair2 is entered as (first . second) and, like symbols,
they must be quoted,
2
In Scheme terminology, the pair is called cons, and its two elements are called car and cdr respectively.
\override TextScript #’extra-offset = #’(1 . 2)

This assigns the pair (1, 2) to extra-offset variable of the TextScript object. This moves
the object 1 staff space to the right, and 2 spaces up.
The two elements of a pair may be arbitrary values, for example
#’(1 . 2)
#’(#t . #f)
#’("blah-blah" . 3.14159265)
A list is entered by enclosing its elements in parentheses, and adding a quote. For example,
#’(1 2 3)
#’(1 2 "string" #f)
We have been using lists all along. A calculation, like (+ 1 2) is also a list (containing
the symbol + and the numbers 1 and 2). Normally lists are interpreted as calculations, and
the Scheme interpreter substitutes the outcome of the calculation. To enter a list, we stop
evaluation. This is done by quoting the list with a quote ’ symbol. For calculations, do not use
a quote.
Inside a quoted list or pair, there is no need to quote anymore. The following is a pair of
symbols, a list of symbols and a list of lists respectively,
#’(stem . head)
#’(staff clef key-signature)
#’((1) (2))
4.2 Interpretation contexts

When music is printed, a lot of notation elements must be added to the input, which is often
bare bones. For example, compare the input and output of the following example:
cis4 cis2. g4
/> =: >
The input is rather sparse, but in the output, bar lines, accidentals, clef, and time signature
are added. LilyPond interprets the input. During this step, the musical information is inspected
in time order, similar to reading a score from left to right. While reading, the program remembers
where measure boundaries are, and what pitches need explicit accidentals. This information can
be presented on several levels. For example, the effect of an accidental is limited to a single
stave, while a bar line must be synchronized across the entire score.
Within LilyPond, these rules and bits of information are grouped in so-called Contexts.
Examples of context are Voice, Staff, and Score. They are hierarchical, for example, a Staff
can contain many Voices, and a Score can contain many Staff contexts.
Each context has the responsibility for enforcing some notation rules, creating some notation
objects and maintaining the associated properties. So, the synchronization of bar lines is handled
at Score context. The Voice may introduce an accidentals and then the Staff context maintains
the rule to show or suppress the accidental for the remainder of the measure.
For simple scores, contexts are created implicitly, and you need not be aware of them. For
larger pieces, such as piano music, they must be created explicitly to make sure that you get as
many staves as you need, and that they are in the correct order. For typesetting pieces with
specialized notation, it can be useful to modify existing or define new contexts.
Full description of all available contexts is in the program reference, see Translation ⇒
Context.
4.2.1 Creating contexts

For scores with only one voice and one staff, correct contexts are created automatically. For
more complex scores, it is necessary to create them by hand. There are three commands which
do this.
The easiest command is \new, and it also the quickest to type. It is prepended to a music
expression, for example
\new type music expression
where type is a context name (like Staff or Voice). This command creates a new context, and
starts interpreting music expression with that.
A practical application of \new is a score with many staves. Each part that should be on its
own staff, is preceded with \new Staff.
<< \new Staff { c4 c }
\new Staff { d4 d }
>>
> >
> >

Like \new, the \context command also directs a music expression to a context object, but
gives the context an extra name. The syntax is
\context type = id music
This form will search for an existing context of type type called id. If that context does not
exist yet, it is created. This is useful if the context is referred to later on. For example, when
setting lyrics the melody is in a named context
\context Voice = "tenor" music
so the texts can be properly aligned to its notes,
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenor" lyrics
Another possibility is funneling two different music expressions into one context. In the
following example, articulations and notes are entered separately,
music = \notes { c4 c4 }
arts = \notes { s4-. s4-> }
They are combined by sending both to the same Voice context,
<< \new Staff \context Voice = "A" \music
\context Voice = "A" \arts
>>
V >U
>

The third command for creating contexts is
\context type music

This is similar to \context with = id , but matches any context of type type, regardless of its
given name.
This variant is used with music expressions that can be interpreted at several levels. For
example, the \applyoutput command (see Section C.3.2 [Running a function on all layout
objects], page 188). Without an explicit \context, it is usually is applied to Voice
\applyoutput #function % apply to Voice
To have it interpreted at the Score or Staff level use these forms
\context Score \applyoutput #function
\context Staff \applyoutput #function
4.2.2 Changing context properties on the fly

Each context can have different properties, variables contained in that context. They can be
changed during the interpretation step. This is achieved by inserting the \set command in the
music,
\set context.prop = #value
For example,
R1*2
R1*2
! !
2
'
This command skips measures that have no notes. The result is that multi rests are con-
densed. The value assigned is a Scheme object. In this case, it is #t, the boolean True value.
If the context argument is left out, then the current bottom-most context (typically
ChordNames, Voice, or Lyrics) is used. In this example,
c8 c c c
\set autoBeaming = ##f
c8 c c c
> > > > > > > >

the context argument to \set is left out, and the current Voice is used.
Contexts are hierarchical, so if a bigger context was specified, for example Staff, then the
change would also apply to all Voices in the current stave. The change is applied ‘on-the-fly’,
during the music, so that the setting only affects the second group of eighth notes.
There is also an \unset command,
\set context.prop
which removes the definition of prop. This command removes the definition only if it is set in
context. In
\set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
\unset Voice.autoBeaming
the current Voice does not have the property, and the definition at Staff level remains intact.
Like \set, the context argument does not have to be specified for a bottom context.
Settings that should only apply to a single time-step can be entered easily with \once, for
example in
c4
\once \set fontSize = #4.7
c4
c4
> > >
the property fontSize is unset automatically after the second note.
A full description of all available context properties is in the program reference, see Transla-
tion ⇒ Tunable context properties.
4.2.3 Modifying context plug-ins

Notation contexts (like Score and Staff) not only store properties, they also contain plug-ins,
called “engravers” that create notation elements. For example, the Voice context contains a
Note_head_engraver and the Staff context contains a Key_signature_engraver.
For a full a description of each plug-in, see Program reference ⇒ Translation ⇒ Engravers.
Every context described in Program reference ⇒ Translation ⇒ Context. lists the engravers
used for that context.
It can be useful to shuffle around these plug-ins. This is done by starting a new context, with
\new or \context, and modifying it like this,
\new context \with {

\consists ...
\consists ...
\remove ...
\remove ...
etc.
}
..music..
where the . . . should be the name of an engraver. Here is a simple example which removes
Time_signature_engraver and Clef_engraver from a Staff context,
<< \new Staff {

f2 g
}
\new Staff \with {
\remove "Time_signature_engraver"
\remove "Clef_engraver"
} {
f2 g2
}
>>
= =
= =
In the second stave there are no time signature or clef symbols. This is a rather crude method
of making objects disappear since it will affect the entire staff. The spacing will be adversely
influenced too. A more sophisticated methods of blanking objects is shown in Section 4.3.1
[Common tweaks], page 117.
The next example shows a practical application. Bar lines and time signatures are normally
synchronized across the score. This is done by the Timing_engraver. This plug-in keeps an
administration of time signature, location within the measure, etc. By moving the Timing_
engraver engraver from Score to Staff context, we can have a score where each staff has its own
time signature.
\new Score \with {
\remove "Timing_engraver"
} <<
\new Staff \with {
\consists "Timing_engraver"
} {
\time 3/4
c4 c c c c c
}
\new Staff \with {
\consists "Timing_engraver"
} {
\time 2/4
c4 c c c c c
}
>>
3
4
> > > > > >
2
4 > > > > > >
4.2.4 Layout tunings within contexts
Each context is responsible for creating certain types of graphical objects. The settings used for
printing these objects are also stored by context. By changing these settings, the appearance of
objects can be altered.
The syntax for this is
\override context.name #’property = #value
Here name is the name of a graphical object, like Stem or NoteHead, and property is an
internal variable of the formatting system (‘grob property’ or ‘layout property’). The latter is
a symbol, so it must be quoted. The subsection Section 4.3.2 [Constructing a tweak], page 118
explains what to fill in for name, property, and value. Here we only discuss functionality of this
command.
The command
\override Staff.Stem #’thickness = #4.0
makes stems thicker (the default is 1.3, with staff line thickness as a unit). Since the command
specifies Staff as context, it only applies to the current staff. Other staves will keep their
normal appearance. Here we see the command in action:
c4
\override Staff.Stem #’thickness = #4.0
c4
c4
c4
> > > >

The \override command is executed during the interpreting phase, and changes the defini-
tion of the Stem within Staff. After the command all stems are thickened.
Analogous to \set, the context argument may be left out, causing it to default to Voice,
and adding \once applies the change during one timestep only
c4
\once \override Stem #’thickness = #4.0
c4
c4
> > >

The \override must be done before the object is started. Therefore, when altering Spanner
objects, like slurs or beams, the \override command must be executed at the moment when
the object is created. In this example,
\override Slur #’thickness = #3.0
c8[( c
\override Beam #’thickness = #0.6
c8 c])
>>>>
the slur is fatter and the beam is not. This is because the command for Beam comes after the
Beam is started. Therefore it has no effect.
Analogous to \unset, the \revert command for a context undoes a \override command;
like with \unset, it only affects settings that were made in the same context. In other words,
the \revert in the next example does not do anything.
\override Voice.Stem #’thickness = #4.0
\revert Staff.Stem #’thickness
See also
Internals: OverrideProperty, RevertProperty, PropertySet, All-backend-properties, and
All-layout-objects.
Bugs
The back-end is not very strict in type-checking object properties. Cyclic references in Scheme
values for properties can cause hangs or crashes, or both.
4.2.5 Changing context default settings

The adjustments of the previous chapters can also be entered separate from the music, in the
\paper block,
\paper {
...
\context {
\StaffContext
\set fontSize = #-2

\override Stem #’thickness
}
}
Here
\StaffContext
takes the existing definition Staff from the identifier StaffContext. This works analogously
to other contexts, so that the existing definition of Voice is in \VoiceContext.
The statements
\set fontSize = #-2
\override Stem #’thickness
affect all staves in the score.
The \set keyword is optional within the \paper block, so
fontSize = #-2
will also work.
Bugs
It is not possible to collect changes in a variable, and apply them to one \context definition by
referring to that variable.
4.2.6 Defining new contexts

Specific contexts, like Staff and Voice, are made of simple building blocks, and it is possible
to compose engraver plug-ins in different combinations, thereby creating new types of contexts.
The next example shows how to build a different type of Voice context from scratch. It
will be similar to Voice, but print centered slash noteheads only. It can be used to indicate
improvisation in Jazz pieces,
> > 3 > ad

G G
lib
G G G G <
undress

while playing :)
These settings are again done within a \context block inside a \paper block,
\paper {
\context {
...
}
}
In the following discussion, the example input shown should go on the . . . in the previous
fragment.
First, name the context gets a name. Instead of Voice it will be called ImproVoice,
\name ImproVoice
Since it is similar to the Voice, we want commands that work on (existing) Voices to remain
working. This is achieved by giving the new context an alias Voice,
\alias Voice
The context will print notes, and instructive texts
\consists Note_heads_engraver
\consists Text_engraver
but only on the center line,
\consists Pitch_squash_engraver
squashedPosition = #0
The Pitch_squash_engraver modifies note heads (created by Note_heads_engraver) and
sets their vertical position to the value of squashedPosition, in this case 0, the center line.
The notes look like a slash, without a stem,
\override NoteHead #’style = #’slash
\override Stem #’transparent = ##t
All these plug-ins have to cooperate, and this is achieved with a special plug-in, which must
be marked with the keyword \type. This should always be Engraver_group_engraver,
\type "Engraver_group_engraver"
Putting together, we get
\context {
\name ImproVoice
\type "Engraver_group_engraver"
\consists "Note_heads_engraver"
\consists "Text_script_engraver"
\consists Pitch_squash_engraver
squashedPosition = #0
\override NoteHead #’style = #’slash
\override Stem #’transparent = ##t
\alias Voice
}
Contexts form hierarchies. We want to hang the ImproVoice under Staff, just like normal
Voices. Therefore, we modify the Staff definition with the \accepts command,3
\context {
\StaffContext
\accepts ImproVoice
}
Putting both into a \paper block, like
3
The opposite of \accepts is \denies, which is sometimes when reusing existing context definitions.
\paper {
\context {
\name ImproVoice
...
}
\context {
\StaffContext
\accepts "ImproVoice"
}
}
Then the output at the start of this subsection can be entered as
\score {
a4 d8 bes8
\new ImproVoice {
c4^"ad lib" c
c4 c^"undress"
c c_"while playing :)"
}
a1
}
}
4.2.7 Which properties to change

There are many different properties. Not all of them are listed in this manual. However,
the program reference lists them all in the section Tunable-context-properties, and most
properties are demonstrated in one of the tips-and-tricks examples.
4.3 Tuning output

In the previous section, we have already touched on a command that changes layout details, the
\override command. In this section, we will look at in more detail how to use the command in
practice. First, we will give a a few versatile commands, which are sufficient for many situations.
The next section will discuss general use of \override.
4.3.1 Common tweaks

Some overrides are so common that predefined commands are provided as a short-cut, for exam-
ple, \slurUp and \stemDown. These commands are described in Chapter 3 [Notation manual],
page 31, under the sections for slurs and stems respectively.
The exact tuning possibilities for each type of layout object are documented in the program
reference of the respective object. However, many layout objects share properties, which can be
used to apply generic tweaks. We mention a few of these:
• The extra-offset property, which has a pair of numbers as value, moves around objects
in the printout. The first number controls left-right movement; a positive number will move
the object to the right. The second number controls up-down movement; a positive number
will move it higher. The units of these offsets are staff-spaces. The extra-offset property
is a low-level feature: the formatting engine is completely oblivious to these offsets.
In the following example, the second fingering is moved a little to the left, and 1.8 staff
space downwards:
\stemUp
f-5
\once \override Fingering

#’extra-offset = #’(-0.3 . -1.8)
f-5
> >
5
5
• Setting the transparent property will cause an object to be printed in ‘invisible ink’: the
object is not printed, but all its other behavior is retained. The object still takes up space,
it takes part in collisions, and slurs, and ties and beams can be attached to it.
The following example demonstrates how to connect different voices using ties. Normally,
ties only connect two notes in the same voice. By introducing a tie in a different voice,

> >>
and blanking a stem in that voice, the tie appears to cross voices:
<< {
\once \override Stem #’transparent = ##t
b8~ b8\noBeam
} \\ {
b[ g8]
} >>

> >>
• The padding property for objects with side-position-interface can be set to increase
distance between symbols that are printed above or below notes. We only give an example;
a more elaborate explanation is in Section 4.3.2 [Constructing a tweak], page 118:
c2\fermata
\override Script #’padding = #3
L
b2\fermata
L

= =
More specific overrides are also possible. The next section discusses in depth how to figure
out these statements for yourself.
4.3.2 Constructing a tweak

The general procedure of changing output, that is, entering a command like
\override Voice.Stem #’thickness = #3.0
means that we have to determine these bits of information:
• the context: here Voice.
• the layout object: here Stem.
• the layout property: here thickness

• a sensible value: here 3.0
We demonstrate how to glean this information from the notation manual and the program
reference.
The program reference is a set of HTML pages, which is part of the documentation package.
On Unix systems, it is typically in ‘/usr/share/doc/lilypond’. If you have them, it is best
to bookmark them in your webbrowser, because you will need them. They are also available
on the web: go to the LilyPond website (http://lilypond.org), click “Documentation”, select
the correct version, and then click “Program reference.”
If you have them, use the local HTML files. They will load faster, and they are exactly
matched to LilyPond version installed.
4.3.3 Navigating the program reference

Suppose we want to move the fingering indication in the fragment below:
c-2
\stemUp
f
>
>
2
If you visit the documentation of Fingering (in Section 3.7.8 [Fingering instructions],
page 56), you will notice that there is written:
See also
Program reference: FingerEvent and Fingering.
This fragments points to two parts of the program reference: a page on FingerEvent and on
Fingering.
The page on FingerEvent describes the properties of the music expression for the input -2.
The page contains many links forward. For example, it says
Accepted by: Fingering_engraver,
That link brings us to the documentation for the Engraver, the plug-in, which says
This engraver creates the following layout objects: Fingering.
In other words, once the FingerEvents are interpreted, the Fingering_engraver plug-in
will process them. The Fingering_engraver is also listed to create Fingering objects,
Lo and behold, that is also the second bit of information listed under See also in the Notation
manual. By clicking around in the program reference, we can follow the flow of information
within the program, either forward (like we did here), or backwards, following links like this:
• Fingering: Fingering objects are created by: Fingering_engraver
• Fingering_engraver: Music types accepted: fingering-event
• fingering-event: Music event type fingering-event is in Music objects of type
FingerEvent
This path goes against the flow of information in the program: it starts from the output, and
ends at the input event.
The program reference can also be browsed like a normal document. It contains a chapter
on Music definitions on Translation, and the Backend. Every chapter lists all the definitions
used, and all properties that may be tuned.
4.3.4 Layout interfaces

Fingering is a layout object. Such an object is a symbol within the score. It has properties,
which store numbers (like thicknesses and directions), but also pointers to related objects. A
layout object is also called grob, which is short for Graphical Object.
The page for Fingering lists the definitions for the Fingering object. For example, the page
says
padding (dimension, in staff space):
0.6
which means that the number will be kept at a distance of at least 0.6 of the note head.
Each layout object may have several functions as a notational or typographical element. For
example, the Fingering object has the following aspects
• Its size is independent of the horizontal spacing, unlike slurs or beams
• It is a piece of text. Granted, it’s usually a very short text.
• That piece of text is typeset with a font, unlike slurs or beams.
• Horizontally, the center of the symbol should be aligned to the center of the notehead
• Vertically, the symbol is placed next to the note and the staff.
• The vertical position is also coordinated with other super and subscript symbols
Each of these aspects is captured in a so-called interface, which are listed on the Fingering
page at the bottom
This object supports the following interfaces: item-interface, self-
alignment-interface, side-position-interface, text-interface,
text-script-interface, font-interface, finger-interface, and
grob-interface.
Clicking any of the links will take you to the page of the respective object interface. Each
interface has a number of properties. Some of them are not user-serviceable (“Internal proper-
ties”), but others are.
We have been talking of ‘the’ Fingering object, but actually it does not amount to much.
The initialization file ‘scm/define-grobs.scm’ shows the soul of the ‘object’,
(Fingering
. (
(print-function . ,Text_item::print)
(padding . 0.6)
(staff-padding . 0.6)
(self-alignment-X . 0)
(self-alignment-Y . 0)
(script-priority . 100)
(font-encoding . number)
(font-size . -5)
(meta . ((interfaces . (finger-interface font-interface
text-script-interface text-interface
side-position-interface self-alignment-interface
item-interface))))
))
as you can see, Fingering is nothing more than a bunch of variable settings, and the webpage
is directly generated from this definition.
4.3.5 Determining the grob property

Recall that we wanted to change the position of the 2 in
c-2
\stemUp
f
>
>
2
Since the 2 is vertically positioned next to its note, we have to meddle with the interface
associated with this positioning. This is done using side-position-interface. The page for
this interface says
side-position-interface
Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the support).
The property direction signifies where to put the victim object relative
to the support (left or right, up or down?)
below this description, the variable padding is described as
padding (dimension, in staff space)
add this much extra space between objects that are next to
each other.
By increasing the value of padding, we can move away the fingering. The following command
inserts 3 staff spaces of white between the note and the fingering:
\once \override Fingering #’padding = #3
Inserting this command before the Fingering object is created, i.e. before c2, yields the
following result:
\once \override Fingering
#’padding = #3
c-2
\stemUp
f
>
2
>
In this case, the context for this tweak is Voice, which does not have to be specified for
\override. This fact can also be deduced from the program reference, for the page for the
Fingering_engraver plug-in says
Fingering engraver is part of contexts: . . . Voice
4.4 Fonts
4.4.1 Selecting font sizes
The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is their size. The font size of
any context can be easily changed by setting the fontSize property for that context. Its value
is a number: negative numbers make the font smaller, positive numbers larger. An example is
given below:
c4 c4 \set fontSize = #-3

f4 g4

> > > >
This command will set font-size (see below) in all layout objects in the current context. It
does not change the size of variable symbols, such as beams or slurs.
The font size is set by modifying the font-size property. Its value is a number indicating
the size relative to the standard size. Each step up is an increase of approximately 12% of the
font size. Six steps is exactly a factor two. The Scheme function magstep converts a font-size
number to a scaling factor.
LilyPond has fonts in different design sizes: the music fonts for smaller sizes are chubbier,
while the text fonts are relatively wider. Font size changes are achieved by scaling the design
size that is closest to the desired size.
The font-size mechanism does not work for fonts selected through font-name. These may
be scaled with font-magnification.
One of the uses of fontSize is to get smaller symbols for cue notes. An elaborate example
of those is in ‘input/test/cue-notes.ly’.
Predefined commands
The following commands set fontSize for the current voice:
\tiny, \small, \normalsize.
4.4.2 Font selection

Font selection for the standard fonts, TEX’s Computer Modern fonts, can also be adjusted with
a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting the object properties described below, you can select
a different font; all three mechanisms work for every object that supports font-interface:
• font-encoding is a symbol that sets layout of the glyphs. Choices include text for normal
text, braces (for piano staff braces), music (the standard music font, including ancient
glyphs), dynamic (for dynamic signs) and number for the number font.
• font-family is a symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are roman
(Computer Modern), sans, and typewriter.
• font-shape is a symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several font
shapes available for each font family. Choices are italic, caps, and upright.
• font-series is a symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several font
series for each font family and shape. Choices are medium and bold.
Fonts selected in the way sketched above come from a predefined style sheet.
The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting font-name, e.g.
\override Staff.TimeSignature
#’font-name = #"cmr17"
Any font can be used, as long as it is available to TEX. Possible fonts include foreign fonts or
fonts that do not belong to the Computer Modern font family. The size of fonts selected in this
way can be changed with the font-magnification property. For example, 2.0 blows up all
letters by a factor 2 in both directions.
See also
Init files: ‘ly/declarations-init.ly’ contains hints how new fonts may be added to LilyPond.
Bugs
No style sheet is provided for other fonts besides the TEX Computer Modern family.
4.5 Text markup

LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it with the keyword
\markup. Within markup mode, you can enter texts similar to lyrics: simply enter them,
surrounded by spaces:
c1^\markup { hello }
c1_\markup { hi there }
c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }

hello hi there, is anyone home?
< < <

hi there
The markup in the example demonstrates font switching commands. The command \bold
and \italic apply to the first following word only; enclose a set of texts with braces to apply
a command to more words:
\markup { \bold { hi there } }
For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
\markup { is \italic { anyone } home }
In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical expressions, XML
documents, and music expressions. The braces group notes into horizontal lines. Other types
of lists also exist: you can stack expressions grouped with < and > vertically with the command
\column. Similarly, \center-align aligns texts by their center lines:
c1^\markup { \column < a bbbb c > }
c1^\markup { \center-align < a bbbb c > }
c1^\markup { \line < a b c > }
a a
bbbb bbbb

c c abc
< < <

Markups can be stored in variables, and these variables may be attached to notes, like
allegro = \markup { \bold \large { Allegro } }
\notes { a^\allegro b c d }
Some objects have alignment procedures of their own, which cancel out any effects of align-
ments applied to their markup arguments as a whole. For example, the RehearsalMark is
horizontally centered, so using \mark \markup { \left-align .. } has no effect.
Similarly, for moving whole texts over notes with \raise, use the following trick:
"" \raise #0.5 raised
The text raised is now raised relative to the empty string "" which is not visible. Alterna-
tively, complete objects can be moved with layout properties such as padding and extra-offset.
See also
Init files: ‘scm/new-markup.scm’.
Bugs
Text layout is ultimately done by TEX, which does kerning of letters. LilyPond does not account
for kerning, so texts will be spaced slightly too wide.
Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
Markup texts cannot be used in the titling of the \header field. Titles are made by LaTEX,
so LaTEX commands should be used for formatting.
4.5.1 Overview of text markup commands

\bigger arg (markup)
Increase the font size relative to current setting
\bold arg (markup)
Switch to bold font-series
\box arg (markup)
Draw a box round arg
\bracket arg (markup)
Draw vertical brackets around arg.
\bracketed-y-column indices (list) args (list of markups)
Make a column of the markups in args, putting brackets around the elements marked
in indices, which is a list of numbers.
\caps arg (markup)
Set font shape to caps.
\center-align args (list of markups)
Put args in a centered column.
\char num (integer)
This produces a single character, e.g. \char #65 produces the letter ’A’.
\column args (list of markups)
Stack the markups in args vertically.
\combine m1 (markup) m2 (markup)
Print two markups on top of each other.
\dir-column args (list of markups)
Make a column of args, going up or down, depending on the setting of the
#’direction layout property.
\doubleflat
Draw a double flat symbol.
\doublesharp
Draw a double sharp symbol.
\dynamic arg (markup)
Use the dynamic font. This font only contains s, f, m, z, p, and r. When producing
phrases, like “più f”, the normal words (like “più”) should be done in a different
font. The recommend font for this is bold and italic
\fill-line markups (list of markups)
Put markups in a horizontal line of width line-width. The markups are
spaced/flushed to fill the entire line.
\finger arg (markup)
Set the argument as small numbers.
\flat
Draw a flat symbol.
\fontsize mag (number) arg (markup)
This sets the relative font size, e.g.
A \fontsize #2 { B C } D
This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
\fraction arg1 (markup) arg2 (markup)
Make a fraction of two markups.
\general-align axis (integer) dir (number) arg (markup)
Align arg in axis direction to the dir side.
\halign dir (number) arg (markup)
Set horizontal alignment. If dir is -1, then it is left-aligned, while+1 is right. Values
in between interpolate alignment accordingly.
\hbracket arg (markup)
Draw horizontal brackets around arg.
\hspace amount (number)
This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
\markup { A \hspace #2.0 B }
will put extra space between A and B, on top of the space that is normally inserted
before elements on a line.
\huge arg (markup)
Set font size to +2.
\italic arg (markup)
Use italic font-shape for arg.
\large arg (markup)
Set font size to +1.
\latin-i arg (markup)
TEST latin1 encoding.
\left-align arg (markup)
Align arg on its left edge.
\line args (list of markups)
Put args in a horizontal line. The property word-space determines the space be-
tween each markup in args.
\lookup glyph-name (string)
Lookup a glyph by name.
\magnify sz (number) arg (markup)
This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following example, the
middle A will be 10% larger:
A \magnify #1.1 { A } A
Note: magnification only works if a font-name is explicitly selected. Use \fontsize
otherwise.
\markletter num (integer)
Make a markup letter for num. The letters start with A to Z (skipping I), and
continues with double letters.
\musicglyph glyph-name (string)

This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. \musicglyph #"accidentals-0" will
select the natural sign from the music font. See Section A.3 [The Feta font], page 160
for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
\natural
Draw a natural symbol.
\normal-size-sub arg (markup)
Set arg in subscript, in a normal font size.
\normal-size-super arg (markup)
A superscript which does not use a smaller font.
\normalsize arg (markup)
Set font size to default.
\note-by-number log (number) dot-count (number) dir (number)
Construct a note symbol, with stem. By using fractional values for dir, you can
obtain longer or shorter stems.
\note duration (string) dir (number)
This produces a note with a stem pointing in dir direction, with the duration for the
note head type and augmentation dots. For example, \note #"4." #-0.75 creates
a dotted quarter note, with a shortened down stem.
\number arg (markup)
Set font family to number, which yields the font used for time signatures and finger-
ings. This font only contains numbers and some punctuation. It doesn’t have any
letters.
\override new-prop (pair) arg (markup)
Add the first argument in to the property list. Properties may be any sort of
property supported by font-interface and text-interface, for example
\override #’(font-family . married) "bla"
\raise amount (number) arg (markup)
This raises arg, by the distance amount. A negative amount indicates lowering:
c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}

9/7+
C
<
The argument to \raise is the vertical displacement amount, measured in (global)
staff spaces. \raise and \super raise objects in relation to their surrounding
markups.
If the text object itself is positioned above or below the staff, then \raise cannot be
used to move it, since the mechanism that positions it next to the staff cancels any
shift made with \raise. For vertical positioning, use the padding and/or extra-
offset properties.
\right-align arg (markup)
\roman arg (markup)
Set font family to roman.
\sans arg (markup)
Switch to the sans-serif family
\semiflat
Draw a semiflat.
\semisharp
Draw a semi sharp symbol.
\sesquiflat
Draw a 3/2 flat symbol.
\sesquisharp
Draw a 3/2 sharp symbol.
\sharp
Draw a sharp symbol.
\simple str (string)
A simple text-string; \markup { foo } is equivalent with \markup { \simple
#"foo" }.
\small arg (markup)
Set font size to -1.
\smaller arg (markup)
Decrease the font size relative to current setting
\strut
Create a box of the same height as the space in the current font.
FIXME: is this working?
\sub arg (markup)
Set arg in subscript.
\super arg (markup)
Raising and lowering texts can be done with \super and \sub:
c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }

2
E = mc
<
\teeny arg (markup)
\tiny arg (markup)
\translate offset (pair of numbers) arg (markup)
This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
A \translate #(cons 2 -3) { B C } D
This moves ‘B C’ 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down, relative to its surroundings.
This command cannot be used to move isolated scripts vertically, for the same reason
that \raise cannot be used for that.
.
\typewriter arg (markup)
Use font-family typewriter for arg.
\upright arg (markup)
Set font shape to upright.
\vcenter arg (markup)

Align arg to its center.
\word str (string)
A single word.
4.6 Global layout

The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the line breaks, and the spacing.
These all influence each other. The choice of spacing determines how densely each system of
music is set, which influences where line breaks are chosen, and thus ultimately how many pages
a piece of music takes. This section explains how to tune the algorithm for spacing.
Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first, flexible distances (“springs”)
are chosen, based on durations. All possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one
with the best results — a layout that has uniform density and requires as little stretching or
cramping as possible — is chosen. When the score is processed by TEX, each page is filled with
systems, and page breaks are chosen whenever the page gets full.
4.6.1 Setting global staff size

The Feta font provides musical symbols at eight different sizes. Each font is tuned for a different
staff size: at a smaller size the font becomes heavier, to match the relatively heavier staff lines.
The recommended font sizes are listed in the following table:
font name staff height (pt) staff height (mm) use

feta11 11.22 3.9 pocket scores
feta13 12.60 4.4
feta14 14.14 5.0
feta16 15.87 5.6
feta18 17.82 6.3 song books
feta20 17.82 7.0 standard parts
feta23 22.45 7.9
feta26 25.2 8.9
These fonts are available in any sizes. The context property fontSize and the layout property
staff-space (in StaffSymbol) can be used to tune size for individual staves. The size of
individual staves are relative to the global size, which can be set in the following manner:
#(set-global-staff-size 14)
This sets the global default size to 14pt staff height, and scales all fonts accordingly.
See also
This manual: Section 4.4.1 [Selecting font sizes], page 121.
4.6.2 Vertical spacing

The height of each system is determined automatically by LilyPond, to keep systems from
bumping into each other, some minimum distances are set. By changing these, you can put
staves closer together, and thus put more systems onto one page.
Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make staves maintain a distance, their vertical size
is padded. This is done with the property minimumVerticalExtent. It takes a pair of numbers,
so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could set
\set Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #’(-4 . 4)

This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff spaces on either side of the center
staff line. The argument of minimumVerticalExtent is interpreted as an interval, where the
center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The staff can be made larger at
the bottom by setting it to (-6 . 4).
The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff beaming work correctly,
it is necessary that the distance between staves is fixed beforehand. This is also done with a
VerticalAlignment object, created in PianoStaff. In this object the distance between the
staves is fixed by setting forced-distance. If you want to override this, use a \context block
as follows:
\paper {
\context {
\PianoStaffContext
\override VerticalAlignment #’forced-distance = #9
}
...
}
This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces, measured from the center
line of each staff.
See also
Internals: Vertical alignment of staves is handled by the VerticalAlignment object.
4.6.3 Horizontal Spacing

The spacing engine translates differences in durations into stretchable distances (“springs”) of
differing lengths. Longer durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by shortest-duration-space in the
SpacingSpanner object). The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a duration
adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by spacing-increment) of space to the note.
For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter, and 8th notes, the eighth note
is followed by 1 note head width (NHW). The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by
3 NHW, etc.
c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
c8 c4 c4 c4

= >: > >: > >: > > > > > >
Normally, spacing-increment is set to 1.2, which is the width of a note head, and shortest-
duration-space is set to 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW of space. For normal
notes, this space is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest notes are
generally followed by one NHW of space.
If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single 32th note to a score that
uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a
16th, but a 32nd, thus adding 1 NHW to every note. To prevent this, the shortest duration for
spacing is not the shortest note in the score, but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes
that are even shorter this are followed by a space that is proportional to their duration relative
to the common shortest note. So if we were to add only a few 16th notes to the example above,
they would be followed by half a NHW:
c2 c4. c8 c4. c16[ c] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
= > : > > : > > > : > > > > > >
The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every measure, the shortest
duration is determined. The most common short duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing,
with the stipulation that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than 1/8th
note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond with --verbose. These durations
may also be customized. If you set the common-shortest-duration in SpacingSpanner, then
this sets the base duration for spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th),
is set through base-shortest-duration.
In the Introduction it was explained that stem directions influence spacing. This is controlled
with stem-spacing-correction property in NoteSpacing, which are generated for every Voice
context. The StaffSpacing object (generated at Staff context) contains the same property
for controlling the stem/bar line spacing. The following example shows these corrections, once
with default settings, and once with exaggerated corrections:
> > > > > > > > > > >
> >
>
> >
Properties of the SpacingSpanner must be overridden from the \paper block, since the
SpacingSpanner is created before any property commands are interpreted.
\paper { \context {
\ScoreContext
\override SpacingSpanner #’spacing-increment = #3.0
} }
See also
Internals: SpacingSpanner, NoteSpacing, StaffSpacing, SeparationItem, and
SeparatingGroupSpanner.
Bugs
Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that changes its character
(measured in durations) halfway during the score, the part containing the longer durations will
be spaced too widely.
There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
4.6.4 Line breaking

Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such that lines look neither
cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines have similar density.
Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do this by specifying
\break. This will force a line break at this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where
there are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line, you can force an
invisible bar line by entering \bar "". Similarly, \noBreak forbids a line break at a point.
For line breaks at regular intervals use \break separated by skips and repeated with \repeat:
<< \repeat unfold 7 {
s1 \noBreak s1 \noBreak
s1 \noBreak s1 \break }
the real music
>>
This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every 4 measures, and
only there.
Predefined commands
\break, and \noBreak.
See also
Internals: BreakEvent.
4.6.5 Page layout

The most basic settings influencing the spacing are indent and linewidth. They are set in the
\paper block. They control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of the
lines.
If raggedright is set to true in the \paper block, then the lines are justified at their natural
length. This useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural spacing is.
The option raggedlast is similar to raggedright, but only affects the last line of the piece.
No restrictions are put on that line. The result is similar to formatting paragraphs. In a
paragraph, the last line simply takes its natural length.
The page layout process happens outside the LilyPond formatting engine: variables control-
ling page layout are passed to the output, and are further interpreted by lilypond wrapper
program. It responds to the following variables in the \paper block. The spacing between
systems is controlled with interscoreline, its default is 16pt. The distance between the score
lines will stretch in order to fill the full page interscorelinefill is set to a positive number.
In that case interscoreline specifies the minimum spacing.
If the variable lastpagefill is defined, systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last
page. This might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the last page.
The lilypond-book command ignores lastpagefill. See Chapter 6 [lilypond-book manual],
page 140 for more information.
Page breaks are normally computed by TEX, so they are not under direct control of LilyPond.
However, you can insert commands into the ‘.tex’ output to instruct TEX where to break pages.
This is done by setting the between-systems-strings on the NonMusicalPaperColumn where
the system is broken. An example is shown in ‘input/regression/between-systems.ly’. The
predefined command \newpage also does this.
To change the paper size, there are two commands,
#(set-default-paper-size "a4")
\paper{
#(set-paper-size "a4")
}
The second one sets the size of the \paper block that it’s in.
Predefined commands
\newpage.
See also
In this manual: Section 5.1 [Invoking lilypond], page 133.
Examples: ‘input/regression/between-systems.ly’.
Internals: NonMusicalPaperColumn.
Bugs
LilyPond has no concept of page layout, which makes it difficult to reliably choose page breaks
in longer pieces.
4.7 Output details

The default output format is LaTEX, which should be run through LaTEX. Using the option
‘-f’ (or ‘--format’) other output formats can be selected also, but none of them work reliably.
Now the music is output system by system (a ‘system’ is a single line from the score, consisting
of staves belonging together). From TEX’s point of view, a system is an \hbox which contains
a lowered \vbox so that it is centered vertically on the baseline of the text. Between systems,
\interscoreline is inserted vertically to have stretchable space. The horizontal dimension of
the \hbox is given by the linewidth parameter from LilyPond’s \paper block.
After the last system LilyPond emits a stronger variant of \interscoreline only if the macro
\lilypondpaperlastpagefill is not defined (flushing the systems to the top of the page). You
can avoid that by setting the variable lastpagefill in LilyPond’s \paper block.
It is possible to fine-tune the vertical offset further by defining the macro
\lilypondscoreshift:
\def\lilypondscoreshift{0.25\baselineskip}
where \baselineskip is the distance from one text line to the next.
Here an example how to embed a small LilyPond file foo.ly into running LaTEX text
without using the lilypond-book script (see Chapter 6 [lilypond-book manual], page 140):
\documentclass{article}
\def\lilypondpaperlastpagefill{}
\lineskip 5pt
\def\lilypondscoreshift{0.25\baselineskip}
\begin{document}
This is running text which includes an example music file
\input{foo.tex}
right here.
\end{document}
The file ‘foo.tex’ has been simply produced with
lilypond-bin foo.ly
The call to \lineskip assures that there is enough vertical space between the LilyPond box
and the surrounding text lines.
Chapter 5: Invoking LilyPond 133
5 Invoking LilyPond
This chapter details the technicalities of running LilyPond.
5.1 Invoking lilypond

Nicely titled output is created through a separate program: ‘lilypond’ is a script that uses
the LilyPond formatting engine (which is in a separate program) and LaTEX to create a nicely
titled piece of sheet music, in PDF (Portable Document Format) format.
lilypond [option ]... file ...
To have lilypond read from stdin, use a dash - for file. The program supports the following
options.
-k,--keep
Keep the temporary directory with all output files. The temporary directory is
created in the current directory as lilypond.dir.
-d,--dependencies
Write Makefile dependencies for every input file.
-h,--help
Print usage help.
-I,--include=dir
Add dir to LilyPond’s include path.
-m,--no-paper
Produce MIDI output only.
--no-lily
Do not run ‘lilypond-bin’. Useful for debugging lilypond.
-o,--output=file
Generate output to file. The extension of file is ignored.
--no-pdf Do not generate (PDF) or PS.
--png Also generate pictures of each page, in PNG format.
--psgz Gzip the postscript file.
--html Make a .HTML file with links to all output files.
--preview
Also generate a picture of the first system of the score.
-s,--set=key =val
Add key= val to the settings, overriding those specified in the files. Possi-
ble keys: language, latexheaders, latexpackages, latexoptions, papersize,
pagenumber, linewidth, orientation, textheight.
-v,--version
Show version information.
-V,--verbose
Be verbose. This prints out commands as they are executed, and more information
about the formatting process is printed.
--debug Print even more information. This is useful when generating bug reports.
-w,--warranty
Show the warranty with which GNU LilyPond comes. (It comes with NO WAR-
RANTY!)
5.1.1 Titling layout

lilypond extracts the following header fields from the LY files to generate titling; an example
demonstrating all these fields is in ‘input/test/lilypond-testpage.ly’:
title The title of the music. Centered on top of the first page.
subtitle Subtitle, centered below the title.
poet Name of the poet, left flushed below the subtitle.
composer Name of the composer, right flushed below the subtitle.
meter Meter string, left flushed below the poet.
opus Name of the opus, right flushed below the composer.
arranger Name of the arranger, right flushed below the opus.
instrument
Name of the instrument, centered below the arranger.
dedication
To whom the piece is dedicated.
piece Name of the piece, left flushed below the instrument.
head A text to print in the header of all pages. It is not called header, because \header
is a reserved word in LilyPond.
copyright
A text to print in the footer of the first page. Default is to print the standard footer
also on the first page. Note that if the score consists of only a single page, the first
page is also the last page, and in this case, the tagline is printed instead of the
copyright.
footer A text to print in the footer of all but the last page.
tagline Line to print at the bottom of last page. The default text is “Engraved by LilyPond
version-number”.
5.1.2 Additional parameters

The lilypond program responds to several parameters specified in a \paper section of the input
file. They can be overridden by supplying a --set command line option.
language Specify LaTEX language: the babel package will be included. Default: unset.
Read from the \header block.
latexheaders
Specify additional LaTEX headers file.
Normally read from the \header block. Default value: empty.
latexpackages
Specify additional LaTEX packages file. This works cumulative, so you can add
multiple packages using multiple -s=latexpackages options. Normally read from
the \header block. Default value: geometry.
latexoptions
Specify additional options for the LaTEX \documentclass. You can put any valid
value here. This was designed to allow lilypond to produce output for double-sided
paper, with balanced margins and page numbers on alternating sides. To achieve
this specify twoside.
orientation
Set orientation. Choices are portrait or landscape. Is read from the \paper block,
if set.
textheight
The vertical extension of the music on the page. It is normally calculated automat-
ically, based on the paper size.
linewidth
The music line width. It is normally read from the \paper block.
papersize
The paper size (as a name, e.g. a4). It is normally read from the \paper block.
pagenumber
If set to no, no page numbers will be printed. If set to a positive integer, start with
this value as the first page number.
fontenc The font encoding, should be set identical to the font-encoding property in the
score.
5.2 Invoking the lilypond binary

The formatting system consists of two parts: a binary executable (‘lilypond-bin’), which is
responsible for the formatting functionality, and support scripts, which post-process the resulting
output. Normally, the support scripts are called, which in turn invoke the lilypond-bin binary.
However, lilypond-bin may be called directly as follows.
lilypond-bin [option ]... file ...
When invoked with a filename that has no extension, the ‘.ly’ extension is tried first. To
read input from stdin, use a dash - for file.
When ‘filename.ly’ is processed it will produce ‘filename.tex’ as output (or ‘filename.ps’
for PostScript output). If ‘filename.ly’ contains more than one \score block, then the rest of
the scores will be output in numbered files, starting with ‘filename-1.tex’. Several files can
be specified; they will each be processed independently.1
We strongly advise against making LilyPond formatting available through a web server. That
is, processing input from untrusted users, and returning the resulting PDF file. LilyPond is a
big and complex program. It was not written with security in mind. Making it available to the
outside world is a huge risk; consider the security implications of
#(system "rm -rf /")
\score {
c4^#(ly:export (ly:gulp-file "/etc/passwd"))
}
5.3 Command line options

The following options are supported:
-e,--evaluate=expr
Evaluate the Scheme expr before parsing any ‘.ly’ files. Multiple -e options may
be given, they will be evaluated sequentially. The function ly:set-option allows
for access to some internal variables. Use -e ’(ly:option-usage)’ for more infor-
mation.
1
The status of GUILE is not reset across invocations, so be careful not to change any system defaults from
within Scheme.
-f,--format=format
Output format for sheet music. Choices are tex (for TEX output, to be pro-
cessed with plain TEX, or through lilypond), pdftex for PDFTEX input, ps (for
PostScript), scm (for a Scheme dump), sk (for Sketch) and as (for ASCII-art).
This option is only for developers. Only the TEX output of these is usable for real
work.
-h,--help
Show a summary of usage.
--include, -I=directory
Add directory to the search path for input files.
-i,--init=file
Set init file to file (default: ‘init.ly’).
-m,--no-paper
Disable TEX output. If you have a \midi definition MIDI output will be generated.
-M,--dependencies
Output rules to be included in Makefile.
-o,--output=FILE
Set the default output file to FILE.
-v,--version
Show version information.
-V,--verbose
Be verbose: show full paths of all files read, and give timing information.
-w,--warranty
Show the warranty with which GNU LilyPond comes. (It comes with NO WAR-
RANTY!)
5.4 Environment variables

For processing both the TEX and the PostScript output, the appropriate environment variables
must be set. The following scripts do this:
• ‘buildscripts/out/lilypond-profile’ (for SH shells)
• ‘buildscripts/out/lilypond-login’ (for C-shells)
They should normally be sourced as part of the login process. If these scripts are not run
from the system wide login process, then you must run it yourself.
If you use sh, bash, or a similar shell, then add the following to your ‘.profile’:
. /the/path/to/ lilypond-profile
If you use csh, tcsh or a similar shell, then add the following to your ‘~/.login’:
source /the/path/to/ lilypond-login
Of course, in both cases, you should substitute the proper location of either script.
These scripts set the following variables:
TEXMF To make sure that TEX and lilypond find data files (among others ‘.tex’, ‘.mf’
and ‘.tfm’), you have to set TEXMF to point to the lilypond data file tree. A typical
setting would be
{/usr/share/lilypond/1.6.0,{!!/usr/share/texmf}}
GS_LIB For processing PostScript output (obtained with -f ps) with Ghostscript you have
to set GS_LIB to point to the directory containing library PS files.
GS_FONTPATH
For processing PostScript output (obtained with -f ps) with Ghostscript you have
to set GS_FONTPATH to point to the directory containing PFA files.
When you print direct PS output, remember to send the PFA files to the printer as
well.
The binary itself recognizes the following environment variables:
LILYPONDPREFIX
This specifies a directory where locale messages and data files will be looked up by
default. The directory should contain subdirectories called ‘ly/’, ‘ps/’, ‘tex/’, etc.
LANG This selects the language for the warning messages.
5.5 Error messages

Different error messages can appear while compiling a file:
Warning Something looks suspect. If you are requesting something out of the ordinary then
you will understand the message, and can ignore it. However, warnings usually
indicate that something is wrong with the input file.
Error Something is definitely wrong. The current processing step (parsing, interpreting,
or formatting) will be finished, but the next step will be skipped.
Fatal error
Something is definitely wrong, and LilyPond cannot continue. This happens rarely.
The most usual cause is misinstalled fonts.
Scheme error
Errors that occur while executing Scheme code are caught by the Scheme interpreter.
If running with the verbose option (-V or --verbose) then a call trace is printed of
the offending function call.
Programming error
There was some internal inconsistency. These error messages are intended to help
the programmers and debuggers. Usually, they can be ignored. Sometimes, they
come in such big quantities that they obscure other output. In this case, file a
bug-report.
If warnings and errors can be linked to some part of the input file, then error messages have
the following form
filename :lineno :columnno : message
offending input line
A line-break is inserted in offending line to indicate the column where the error was found.
For example,
test.ly:2:19: error: not a duration: 5:
\notes { c’4 e’5
g’ }
5.6 Reporting bugs

If you have input that results in a crash or an erroneous output, then that is a bug. We
try respond to bug-reports promptly, and fix them as soon as possible. For this, we need to
reproduce and isolate the problem. Help us by sending a defective input file, so we can reproduce
the problem. Make it small, so we can easily debug the problem. Don’t forget to tell which
version you use, and on which platform you run it. Send the report to [email protected].
5.7 Editor support

There is support from different editors for LilyPond.
Emacs Emacs has a ‘lilypond-mode’, which provides keyword autocompletion, indenta-
tion, LilyPond specific parenthesis matching and syntax coloring, handy compile
short-cuts and reading LilyPond manuals using Info. If lilypond-mode is not in-
stalled on your platform, then refer to the installation instructions for more infor-
mation.
VIM
For VIM (http://www.vim.org), a vimrc is supplied, along with syntax coloring
tools. For more information, refer to the installation instructions.
For both editors, there is also a facility to jump in the input file to the source of
errors in the graphical output. See Section 5.8 [Point and click], page 138.
JEdit
There exists a plugin for jEdit (http://www.jedit.org/). Refer to the plugin
website (http://lily4jedit.sourceforge.net) for more information.
5.8 Point and click

Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in the Xdvi window. This
makes it easier to find input that causes some error in the sheet music.
To use it, you need the following software:
• a dvi viewer that supports src specials:
• Xdvi, version 22.36 or newer. Available from ftp.math.berkeley.edu
(ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz).
Most TEX distributions ship with xdvik, which is always a few versions behind the
official Xdvi. To find out which Xdvi you are running, try xdvi -version or xdvi.bin
-version.
• KDVI. A dvi viewer for KDE. You need KDVI from KDE 3.0 or newer. Enable option
Inverse search in the menu Settings.
Apparently, KDVI does not process PostScript specials correctly. Beams and slurs will
not be visible in KDVI.
• an editor with a client/server interface (or a lightweight GUI editor):
• Emacs. Emacs is an extensible text-editor. It is available from
http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/. You need version 21 to use col-
umn location.
• XEmacs. XEmacs is very similar to Emacs.
• NEdit. NEdit runs under Windows, and Unix. It is available from
http://www.nedit.org.
• GVim. GVim is a GUI variant of VIM, the popular VI clone. It is available from
http://www.vim.org.
Xdvi must be configured to find the TEX fonts and music fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documen-
tation for more information.
To use point-and-click, add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file:
#(ly:set-point-and-click ’line)
When viewing, Control-Mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating spot in the ‘.ly’ file.
Control-Mousebutton 2 will show all clickable boxes.
If you correct large files with point-and-click, be sure to start correcting at the end of the
file. When you start at the top, and insert one line, all following locations will be off by a line.
For using point-and-click with Emacs, add the following In your Emacs startup file (usually
‘~/.emacs’):
(server-start)
Make sure that the environment variable XEDITOR is set to
emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
If you use XEmacs instead of Emacs, you use (gnuserve-start) in your ‘.emacs’, and set
XEDITOR to gnuclient -q +%l %f.
For using Vim, set XEDITOR to gvim --remote +%l %f, or use this argument with Xdvi’s
-editor option.
For using NEdit, set XEDITOR to nc -noask +%l %f, or use this argument with Xdvi’s -editor
option.
If can also make your editor jump to the exact location of the note you clicked. This
is only supported on Emacs and VIM. Users of Emacs version 20 must apply the patch
‘emacsclient.patch’. Users of version 21 must apply ‘server.el.patch’ (version 21.2 and
earlier). At the top of the ly file, replace the set-point-and-click line with the following line:
#(ly:set-point-and-click ’line-column)
and set XEDITOR to emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f. Vim users can set XEDITOR to
gvim --remote +:%l:norm%c| %f.
Chapter 6: lilypond-book manual 140
6 lilypond-book manual
If you want to add pictures of music to a document, you can simply do it the way you would do
with other types of pictures. The pictures are created separately, yielding PostScript pictures
or PNG images, and those are included into a LaTEX or HTML document.
lilypond-book provides a way to automate this process: this program extracts snippets of
music from your document, runs LilyPond on them, and outputs the document with pictures
substituted for the music. The line width and font size definitions for the music are adjusted to
match the layout of your document.
This procedure may be applied to LaTEX, html or Texinfo documents. A tuto-
rial on using lilypond-book is in Section 2.21 [Integrating text and music], page 28.
For more information about LaTEX The not so Short Introduction to LaTeX
(http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/lshort/english/) provides a introduction to
using LaTEX.
6.1 Integrating Texinfo and music

Music is specified like this:
@lilypond[options,go,here]
YOUR LILYPOND CODE
@end lilypond
@lilypond[options,go,here]{ YOUR LILYPOND CODE }
@lilypondfile[options,go,here]{filename }
When lilypond-book is run on it, this results in a texinfo file. We show two simple examples
here. First a complete block:
@lilypond[staffsize=26]
c’ d’ e’ f’ g’2 g’
@end lilypond
produces
= =
> > > >
Then the short version:
@lilypond[staffsize=11]{<c’ e’ g’>}
produces
>>
>
When producing texinfo, lilypond-book also generates bitmaps of the music, so you can make
a HTML document with embedded music.
6.2 Integrating LaTeX and music

For LaTEX, music is entered using
\begin[options,go,here]{lilypond}
YOUR LILYPOND CODE
\end{lilypond}
\lilypondfile[options,go,here]{filename }
or
\lilypond{ YOUR LILYPOND CODE }

Running lilypond-book yields a file that can be processed with LaTEX.
We show some examples here:
\begin[staffsize=26]{lilypond}
c’ d’ e’ f’ g’2 g’2
\end{lilypond}
produces
> > > > = =

Then the short version:
\lilypond[staffsize=11]{<c’ e’ g’>}
produces
>>
>
The linewidth of the music will be adjust by examining the commands in the document
preamble, the part of the document before \begin{document}: lilypond-book sends these to
LaTEX to find out how wide the text is. The line width variable for the music fragments are
adjusted to the text width.
After \begin{document}, the column changing commands \onecolumn, \twocolumn com-
mands are also interpreted.
The titling from the \header section of the fragments can be imported by adding the following
to the top of the LaTEX file:
\input titledefs.tex
\def\preLilyPondExample{\def\mustmakelilypondtitle{}}
The music will be surrounded by \preLilyPondExample and \postLilyPondExample, which
are defined to be empty by default.
For printing the LaTeX document, you will need to use dvips. For producing PostScript with
scalable fonts, add the following options to the dvips command line:
-Ppdf -u +lilypond.map
PDF can then be produced with ps2pdf.
LilyPond does not use the LaTeX font handling scheme for lyrics and text markups, so if you
use characters in your lilypond-book documents that are not included in the standard US-ASCII
character set, include \usepackage[latin1]{inputenc} in the file header but do not include
\usepackage[[T1]{fontenc}. Character sets other than latin1 are not supported directly but
may be handled by explicitly specifying the font-name property in LilyPond and using the
corresponding LaTeX packages. Please consult the mailing list for more details.
6.3 Integrating HTML and music

Music is entered using
<lilypond relative=1 verbatim>
\key c \minor r8 c16 b c8 g as c16 b c8 d | g,4
</lilypond>
of which lilypond-book will produce a HTML with appropriate image tags for the music frag-
ments:
<lilypond relative=2 verbatim>

\key c \minor r8 c16 b c8 g as c16 b c8 d | g,4
</lilypond>
3 >
3 3 * > 2> > > > > > > >
For inline pictures, use <lilypond ... /> syntax, e.g.
Some music in <lilypond a b c/> a line of text.
A special feature not (yet) available in other output formats, is the <lilypondfile> tag, for
example,
<lilypondfile>trip.ly</lilypondfile>
This runs ‘trip.ly’ through lilypond (see also Section 5.1 [Invoking lilypond], page 133),
and substitutes a preview image in the output. The image links to a separate HTML file, so
clicking it will take the viewer to a menu, with links to images, midi and printouts.
6.4 Music fragment options

The commands for lilypond-book have room to specify one or more of the following options:
verbatim contents is copied into the source, enclosed in a verbatim block; followed by any text
given with the intertext option; then the actual music is displayed. This option
does not work with the short version of the music blocks:
@lilypond{ CONTENTS } and \lilypond{ CONTENTS }
filename=filename
This names the file for the printfilename option. The argument should be un-
quoted.
staffsize=ht
Sets the staff height to ht, which is measured in points.
raggedright
produces naturally spaced lines (i.e., raggedright = ##t); this works well for small
music fragments.
linewidth=size \unit
sets linewidth to size, where unit = cm, mm, in, or pt. This option affects LilyPond
output, not the text layout.
notime prevents printing time signature.
fragment
nofragment
overrides lilypond-book auto detection of what type of code is in the LilyPond
block, voice contents, or complete code.
indent=size \unit
sets indentation of the first music system to size, where unit = cm, mm, in, or pt.
This option affects LilyPond, not the text layout. For single-line fragments, the
default is to use no indentation.
For example
\begin[indent=5\cm,raggedright]{lilypond}
...
\end{lilypond}
noindent sets indentation of the first music system to zero. This option affects LilyPond, not
the text layout.
quote sets linewidth to the width of a quotation and puts the output in a quotation block.
texidoc Includes the texidoc field, if defined in the file. This is only for Texinfo output.
In Texinfo, the music fragment is normally preceded by the texidoc field from the
\header. The LilyPond test documents are composed from small ‘.ly’ files in this
way:
\header {
texidoc = "this file demonstrates a single note"
}
\score { \notes { c’4 } }
relative, relative=N
uses relative octave mode. By default, notes are specified relative to middle C. The
optional integer argument specifies the octave of the
relative, relative=N
uses relative octave mode. By default, notes are specified relative to middle C. The
optional integer argument specifies the octave of the starting note, where the default
1 is middle C.
6.5 Invoking lilypond-book

Running lilypond-book generates lots of small files that LilyPond will process. To avoid all
that garbage in the source directory use the ‘--output’ command line option, and change to
that directory before running LaTEX or ‘makeinfo’:
lilypond-book --output=out yourfile.lytex
cd out && latex yourfile.tex
lilypond-book accepts the following command line options:
‘-f format ’, ‘--format=format ’
Specify the document type to process: html, latex or texi (the default). lilypond-
book figures this out automatically.
The texi document type produces a texinfo file with music fragments in the DVI
output only. For getting images in the HTML version, the format texi-html must
be used.
‘-F filter ’, ‘--filter=filter ’
Pipe snippets through filter.
For example:
lilypond-book --filter=’convert-ly --from=2.0.0’ my-book.tely
‘--help’ Print a short help message.
‘-I dir ’, ‘--include=dir ’
Add DIR to the include path.
‘-o dir ’, ‘--output=dir ’
Place generated files in dir.
‘-P process ’, ‘--process=COMMAND ’
Process lilypond snippets using command. The default command is lilypond-bin.
‘--verbose’
Be verbose.
‘--version’
Print version information.
For LaTEX input, the file to give to LaTEX has extension ‘.latex’. Texinfo input will be
written to a file with extension ‘.texi’.
6.6 Bugs
The LaTEX \includeonly{...} command is ignored.
The Texinfo command pagesize is not interpreted. Almost all LaTEX commands that
change margins and line widths are ignored.
Only the first \score of a LilyPond block is processed.
The size of a music block is limited to 1.5 KB, due to technical problems with the Python
regular expression engine. For longer files, use \lilypondfile.
Chapter 7: Converting from other formats 145
7 Converting from other formats

Music can be entered also by importing it from other formats. This chapter documents the tools
included in the distribution to do so. There are other tools that produce LilyPond input, for
example GUI sequencers and XML converters. Refer to the website (http://lilypond.org)
for more details.
7.1 Invoking convert-ly

Convert-ly sequentially applies different conversions to upgrade a LilyPond input file. It uses
\version statements in the file to detect the old version number. For example, to upgrade all
LilyPond files in the current directory and its subdirectories, use
convert-ly -e --to=1.3.150 ‘find . -name ’*.ly’ -print‘
The program is invoked as follows:
convert-ly [option ]... file ...
The following options can be given:
-e,--edit
Do an inline edit of the input file. Overrides --output.
-f,--from=from-patchlevel
Set the level to convert from. If this is not set, convert-ly will guess this, on the
basis of \version strings in the file.
-o,--output=file
Set the output file to write.
-n,--no-version
Normally, convert-ly adds a \version indicator to the output. Specifying this option
suppresses this.
-s, --show-rules
Show all known conversions and exit.
--to=to-patchlevel
Set the goal version of the conversion. It defaults to the latest available version.
-h, --help
Print usage help.
Bugs
Not all language changes are handled. Only one output option can be specified.
7.2 Invoking midi2ly

Midi2ly translates a MIDI input file to a LilyPond source file.
MIDI (Music Instrument Digital Interface) is a standard for digital instruments: it specifies
cabling, a serial protocol and a file format. The MIDI file format is a de facto standard format
for exporting music from other programs, so this capability may come in useful when you want
to import files from a program that has no converter for its native format.
Midi2ly will convert tracks into Staff and channels into Voice contexts. Relative mode is
used for pitches, durations are only written when necessary.
It is possible to record a MIDI file using a digital keyboard, and then convert it to ‘.ly’.
However, human players are not rhythmically exact enough to make a MIDI to LY conversion
trivial. midi2ly tries to compensate for these timing errors, but is not very good at this. It is
therefore not recommended to use midi2ly for human-generated midi files.
Hackers who know about signal processing are invited to write a more robust midi2ly. midi2ly
is written in Python, using a module written in C to parse the MIDI files.
It is invoked as follows:
midi2ly [option ]... midi-file
The following options are supported by midi2ly:
-a, --absolute-pitches
Print absolute pitches.
-d, --duration-quant=DUR
Quantize note durations on DUR.
-e, --explicit-durations
Print explicit durations.
-h,--help
Show summary of usage.
-k, --key=acc [:minor ]
Set default key. acc > 0 sets number of sharps; acc < 0 sets number of flats. A minor
key is indicated by ":1".
-o, --output=file
Write output to file.
-s, --start-quant=DUR
Quantize note starts on DUR.
-t, --allow-tuplet=DUR *NUM /DEN
Allow tuplet durations DUR*NUM /DEN.
-V, --verbose
Be verbose.
-v, --version
Print version number.
-w, --warranty
Show warranty and copyright.
-x, --text-lyrics
Treat every text as a lyric.
7.3 Invoking etf2ly

ETF (Enigma Transport Format) is a format used by Coda Music Technology’s Finale product.
etf2ly will convert part of an ETF file to a ready-to-use LilyPond file.
It is invoked as follows:
etf2ly [option ]... etf-file
The following options are supported by etf2ly:
-h,--help
this help
-o,--output=FILE
set output filename to FILE
-v,--version
version information
Bugs
The list of articulation scripts is incomplete. Empty measures confuse etf2ly. Sequences of grace
notes are ended improperly sometimes.
7.4 Invoking abc2ly

ABC is a fairly simple ASCII based format. It is described at the ABC site:
http://www.gre.ac.uk/~c.walshaw/abc2mtex/abc.txt.
abc2ly translates from ABC to LilyPond. It is invoked as follows:
abc2ly [option ]... abc-file
The following options are supported by abc2ly:
-h,--help
this help
-o,--output=file
set output filename to file.
-v,--version
print version information.
There is a rudimentary facility for adding LilyPond code to the ABC source file. If you say:
%%LY voices \set autoBeaming = ##f
This will cause the text following the keyword “voices” to be inserted into the current voice
of the LilyPond output file.
Similarly,
%%LY slyrics more words
will cause the text following the “slyrics” keyword to be inserted into the current line of
lyrics.
Bugs
The ABC standard is not very “standard”. For extended features (e.g. polyphonic music)
different conventions exist.
Multiple tunes in one file cannot be converted.
ABC synchronizes words and notes at the beginning of a line; abc2ly does not.
abc2ly ignores the ABC beaming.
7.5 Invoking musedata2ly

MuseData (see http://www.musedata.org/) is an electronic library of classical music scores,
comprising at the time of writing about 800 composition dating from 1700 to 1825. The music
is encoded in so-called MuseData format. musedata2ly converts a set of MuseData files to one
.ly file, and will include a \header field if a ‘.ref’ file is supplied. It is invoked as follows:
musedata2ly [option ]... musedata-files
The following options are supported by musedata2ly:
-h,--help
print help
-o,--output=file
set output filename to file
-v,--version
version information
-r,--ref=reffile
read background information from ref-file reffile
Bugs
‘musedata2ly’ converts only a small subset of MuseData.
7.6 Invoking mup2ly

Mup (Music Publisher) is a shareware music notation program by Arkkra Enterprises. Mup2ly
will convert part of a Mup file to LilyPond format. It is invoked as follows:
mup2ly [option ]... mup-file
The following options are supported by mup2ly:
-d,--debug
show what constructs are not converted, but skipped.
-D, --define=name [=exp]
define macro name with opt expansion exp
-E,--pre-process
only run the pre-processor
-h,--help
print help
-o,--output=file
write output to file
-v,--version
version information
-w,--warranty
print warranty and copyright.
Bugs
Only plain notes (pitches, durations), voices, and staves are converted.
Chapter 7: Unified index 149
Unified index
# \cadenzaOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
#(set-accidental-style ’piano-cautionary) . . . 50 \caesura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
\clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
\context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
’ \deminutum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
\descendens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
\divisioMaior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
\divisioMaxima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
( \divisioMinima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
\dorian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
(begin * * * *) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 \dotsBoth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
(end * * * *) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 \dotsDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
\dotsUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
, \dynamicBoth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
\dynamicDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 \dynamicUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
\emptyText . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
. \f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
\fatText . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 \ff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
\fff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
/ \ffff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
\finalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 \flexa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
/+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 \fp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
\germanChords. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
\glissando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
? \grace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 \header in LaTEX documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
\hideNotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
\hideStaffSwitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
[ \inclinatum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 \ionian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
\key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
\locrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
] \lydian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 \lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
\lyricsto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
\major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
\mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 \melisma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
\melismaEnd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
\mf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
\ \minor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
\"! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 \mixolydian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
\< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 \mp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
\> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 \newpage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
\aeolian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 \noBreak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
\alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 \normalsize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
\arpeggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71 \notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
\arpeggioBoth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 \oneVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 46
\arpeggioBracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 \oriscus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
\arpeggioDown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 \override . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
\arpeggioUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 \p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
\ascendens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 \partial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
\auctum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 \pes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
\autoBeamOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 \phrasingSlurBoth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
\autoBeamOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 \phrasingSlurDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
\bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 \phrasingSlurUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
\break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 \phrygian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
\cadenzaOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 \pp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
\ppp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 1
\property, in \lyrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 15ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
\quilisma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
\relative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
\repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 A
\rfz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 ABC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
\scriptBoth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 AbsoluteDynamicEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
\scriptDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 accacciatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
\scriptUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
\semiGermanChords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 accents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
\set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 accessing Scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
\setEasyHeads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 acciaccatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 57
\sf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, 91
\sff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Accidental engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
\sfz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 AccidentalPlacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
\shiftOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 91
Accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
\shiftOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
additions, in chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
\shiftOnn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
adjusting output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
\shiftOnnn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Adjusting slurs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
\showStaffSwitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 adjusting staff symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
\slurBoth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 All-backend-properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
\slurDotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 All-layout-objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
\slurDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 allowBeamBreak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
\slurSolid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 alto clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
\slurUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 ambiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 75
\small . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 ambitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
\sp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Ambitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
\spp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Ambitus engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
\stemBoth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 anacruse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
\stemDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 anacrusis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
\stemUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 appoggiatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 57
\stropha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Arkkra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
\super . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Arpeggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\tempo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Arpeggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
\tieBoth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 ArpeggioEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
\tieDotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
articulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
\tieDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Articulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
\tieSolid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
ASCII-art output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
\tieUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
aug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
\time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 auto-knee-gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
\times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 autobeam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
\tiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 autoBeaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
\transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 autoBeamSettings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
\tupletBoth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 AutoChangeMusic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
\tupletDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 automatic beam generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
\tupletUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Automatic beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
\unHideNotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 automatic beams, tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
\virga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 automatic part combining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
\virgula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Automatic staff changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
\voiceFour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 46 automatic syllable durations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
\voiceOne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 46
\voiceThree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
\voiceTwo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 B
Backend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
| balloon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Banter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38, 43
bar check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Bar check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Bar lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
~ bar lines at start of system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 bar lines, putting symbols on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
bar lines, symbols on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 clefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

bar numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
bar-line-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Cluster spanner engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
barCheckSynchronize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 ClusterNoteEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
baritone clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
BarLine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 ClusterSpanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
BarNumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 ClusterSpannerBeacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
base-shortest-duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 83
bass clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 coda on bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
BassFigure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Coda Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
BassFigureEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 coloring, syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Basso continuo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 combine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 command line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
beams and line breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
beams, by hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 common-shortest-duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
beams, kneed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Completion heads engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 40
beams, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 composer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
beats per minute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 condensing rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
between staves, distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 context definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
bibliographic information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 crescendo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 60
bigger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 CrescendoEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
bitmap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 cross staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
blackness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 cross staff stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
block comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 cross staff voice, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
bold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 cue notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 currentBarNumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
brace, vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 custodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 custos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
bracket, vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Custos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
bracketed-y-column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Custos engraver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
BreakEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
breaking lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 D
breaking pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 decrescendo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 60
BreathingSign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53, 97 DecrescendoEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
BreathingSignEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53, 97 defaultBarType . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
broken arpeggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 defining markup commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
bug report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 dim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 diminuendo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
dir-column. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
direction, of dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
C distance between staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
call trace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 distance between staves in piano music . . . . . . . . . . 67
caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 divisio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
cautionary accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 divisiones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
CCARH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 documents, adding music to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
center-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 DotColumn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
char. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
choral score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 doubleflat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
choral tenor clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 DoublePercentRepeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
chord entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 doublesharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
chord mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 downbow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
chord names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 80 DrumNoteEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
chordNameExceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 drums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 65
ChordNames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 87, 111 DrumStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 67
chordNameSeparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 DrumVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 67
chordNoteNamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 DrumVoices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
chordRootNamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 23, 80 DVI driver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 DVI file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Chords mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 dvilj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
chords, jazz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 dvips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 141
Clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 dynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
DynamicLineSpanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 font size, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 font size, texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 font switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
DynamicText . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
font-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
font-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
E font-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
easy notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 font-style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 fontsize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 foot marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
emacs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 footer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Emacs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138, 139 foreign languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Emacs mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
four bar music. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Engraved by LilyPond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 25
Engraver group engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
engraving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 french clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
enigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Frenched scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
entering notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Frenched staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
error messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
errors, message format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
ETF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
G
evaluating Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 general-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
exceptions, chord names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 ghostscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 137
expanding repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Glissando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59, 60
expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
extender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 GlissandoEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
extender line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 grace notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 57
ExtenderEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 GraceMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59, 184
extending lilypond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 grand staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
extra-offset. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 GrandStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 82
graphical object descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
F Gregorian square neumes ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
fatal error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 grob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
FDL, GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . 192 grob-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
fermata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 GS FONTPATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
fermata on bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 GS LIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
fermata on multi-measure rest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 GUILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
fermatas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 104
GVim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
FiguredBass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 103
file searching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
fill-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Finale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 H
finalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Hairpin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
finding graphical objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
finger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Hairpin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
finger change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Hal Leonard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
finger-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 halign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
FingerEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 119 hbracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
fingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 56 header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Fingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 119, 120
hiding objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
fingering-event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Fingering engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119, 121 Hiding staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
flageolet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Horizontal bracket engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 HorizontalBracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 hspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
FoldedRepeatedMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 html . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
follow voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 HTML, music in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
followVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
hufnagel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
font magnification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122, 123 huge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
font selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 HyphenEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
font size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 hyphens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
I lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
idiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 lowering text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
ImproVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 LyricCombineMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
indent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 LyricEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
indent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 LyricEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 LyricExtender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
installing LilyPond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 LyricHyphen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
instrument names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 48, 71
InstrumentName . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
internal documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 119 Lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72, 73, 74, 87, 111, 167
international characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 lyrics and melodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
interscoreline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 LyricText. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
interscorelinefill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 LyricText. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
invisible objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Invisible rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
invoking dvips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 M
Invoking LilyPond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
italic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 magnification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
item-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 magnify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
maj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
majorSevenSymbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
J manual staff switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
jargon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 marcato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
jazz chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
MarkEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
markletter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
K markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
KDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 markup text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
KDVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 measure lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Key signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 measure numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
key signature, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 measure repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
KeyChangeEvent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 measure, partial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
keySignature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Measure grouping engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
KeySignature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 91 MeasureGrouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
kneed beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Medicaea, Editio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
melisma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 72
Melisma translator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
L mensural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
LANG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Mensural ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Mensural ligature engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
large . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
lastpagefill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 metronome marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
latex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 MetronomeChangeEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
LaTEX, music in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 mezzosoprano clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
latin-i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 MIDI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 136, 145
latin1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 MIDI block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 minimumFret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
lead sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 modern style accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Lead sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 modern-cautionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
left-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 modern-voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Ligature bracket engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 modern-voice-cautionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
LigatureBracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 modes, editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 modifiers, in chords. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
lilypond-book and titling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 mordent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
lilypond-internals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 moving text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
lilypond-mode for Emacs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 multi measure rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
LILYPONDPREFIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 MultiMeasureRest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 MultiMeasureRestEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
line breaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
line comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 MultiMeasureRestNumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
line-column-location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 MultiMeasureRestText . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
line-location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 MultiMeasureTextEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
linewidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 multiple voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
LISP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Mup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
MuseData . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 P
Music classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Music entry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
music expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 page breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Music expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 page layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131, 134
Music properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 page size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Music Publisher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 paper block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
musical symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 paper file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
musicglyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 paper size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
musicological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 papersize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
parenthesized accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
part combiner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
N PartCombineMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Partial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
name of singer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
partial measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 43
natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
PDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
NEdit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138, 139
PDFTeX output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
no-reset accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Pedals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
non-empty texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
percent repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Non-guitar tablatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
PercentRepeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
NonMusicalPaperColumn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
PercentRepeatedMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
normal-size-sub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
percussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 65
normal-size-super . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Petrucci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
normalsize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 phrasing brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
notation, explaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 phrasing marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 phrasing slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 52
Note entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 phrasing, in lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
note grouping bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 PhrasingSlur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
note heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 PhrasingSlurEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
note names, Dutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 piano accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Note specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 PianoPedalBracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
note-by-number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 PianoStaff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 67
note-collision-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176, 177, 178 PianoStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Note heads engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 116 PianoStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 129
NoteCollision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 46 pickup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
NoteColumn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
NoteEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Pitch names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
NoteEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183, 184 Pitch squash engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116, 170
NoteGroupingEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
NoteHead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 pixmap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
NoteHead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 188 point and click . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
NoteSpacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 polymetric scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 polyphony. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 45
number of staff lines, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 portato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
PostScript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
PostScript output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
O prall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
prall, down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
octavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 prall, up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 prallmordent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
optical spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 prallprall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
options, command line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 preview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
organ pedal marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 preview image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
ornaments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54, 57 printing chord names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
ottava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 printing postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
OttavaBracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Program reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
outline fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Programming error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
output format, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
override . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 PropertySet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
OverrideProperty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Q self-alignment-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
quarter tones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 semi-flats, semi-sharps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
QuoteMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 semiflat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
quotes, in lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 semisharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
SeparatingGroupSpanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
SeparationItem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
R SequentialMusic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
sesquiflat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 sesquisharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 set-accidental-style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
raise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 setting object properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
raising text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 sharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Recording group engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 shorten measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
regular line breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 side-position-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
regular rhythms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 signature line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
regular spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Rehearsal marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 SimultaneousMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
RehearsalMark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 123 singer’s names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Relative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Sketch output. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
relative octave specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Skip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
reminder accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 SkipEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
removals, in chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 SkipMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
RemoveEmptyVerticalGroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 skipTypesetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
removing objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
repeat bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
repeatCommands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
repeatCommands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 SlurEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
RepeatedMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
RepeatedMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 slurs versus ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 small . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
RepeatSlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 smaller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
reporting bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 snippets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33, 91 SoloOneEvent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
RestCollision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 SoloTwoEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
RestEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 91 soprano clef. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Rests, multi measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
reverseturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 source specials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
RevertProperty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 space between staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
RhythmicStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Space note. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
right-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 spaces, in lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
roman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
root of chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 spacing-spanner-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179, 180
SpacingSpanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129, 130
SpacingSpanner, overriding properties . . . . . . . . . . 130
S SpanBar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 specials, source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
sans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Square neumes ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
SATB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 staccatissimo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Scalable fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 staccato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 55
Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 107 Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 40, 45, 50, 54, 68
Scheme dump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Scheme error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Staff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 87, 96, 109, 111
Scheme, in-line code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 109, 111, 164, 166 Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 116, 130, 145, 164
screen shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 staff distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 staff group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
script on multi-measure rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 staff lines, setting number of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
ScriptEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 staff lines, setting thickness of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54, 56 Staff notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
search in manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 staff size, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
search path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 staff switch, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 68
segno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 83 staff switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
segno on bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Staff, multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Staff.midiInstrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 thumbnail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133, 142

StaffGroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
StaffGroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82, 83 Tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
StaffSpacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
StaffSymbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 128
stanza number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 TieEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
start of system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
staves per page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Time signature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 time signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94, 188 TimeScaledMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
stem, cross staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 TimeSignature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 95
stem-spacing-correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Timing engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 166
stemLeftBeamCount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
stemRightBeamCount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 tiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
StemTremolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 134
StemTremolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 titling and lilypond-book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
stopped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 titling in THML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
StringNumberEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 trace, Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
strut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
translate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
sub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
subbass clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 translating text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
subdivideBeams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
subscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 transparent objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
super . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
superscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 TransposedMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
sus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
transposition of pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
SustainPedal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 transposition, instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
syntax coloring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 transposition, MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
SystemStartBar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 treble clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
SystemStartBrace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 tremolo beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
SystemStartBracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 tremolo marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
TremoloEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
T TremoloEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
tremoloFlags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Tab note heads engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Tablatures basic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 trill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
TabStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 77 triplets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 36
TabVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Tunable-context-properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
tag line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 tuning automatic beaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
teeny. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 tuplet formatting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Tempo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 TupletBracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
tenor clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
tenuto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 tupletNumberFormatFunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 tuplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 36
texi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 turn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
texinfo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 tweaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Texinfo, music in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 type1 fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
TEXMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 typeset text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
text items, non-empty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
typewriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
text markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
text on multi-measure rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 typography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 4
Text scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Text spanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
text-balloon-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 U
text-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 126
text-script-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 UnfoldedRepeatedMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
textheight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 UnisonoEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
TextScript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 UntransposableMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
TextScriptEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
upbow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
TextSpanEvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
TextSpanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 upright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
thickness of staff lines, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 URL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
thumb marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 using the manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
V VoiceFollower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
varbaritone clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 voices, more – on a staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
varcoda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 VoltaBracket. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 VoltaRepeatedMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Vaticana, Editio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
VaticanaStaffContext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
VaticanaVoiceContext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 W
vcenter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
vertical spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128, 131 website . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
VerticalAlignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 whichBar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Viewing music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 White mensural ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
vim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 whole rests for a full measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Vim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 word . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
violin clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Writing parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
VocalName . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 45
Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68, 72, 74
X
Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 xdvi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Voice . . . . . . . . . . 86, 87, 90, 97, 98, 106, 109, 110, 111 Xdvi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 138
Voice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 XEDITOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 116, 118, 121, 130, 145 XEmacs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Appendix A: Notation manual details 158
Appendix A Notation manual details
A.1 Chord name chart
3 / 3 3
Ignatzek (default) C Cm C+ Co
Alternative C C 3 C 5 C 3 5
<< 3 <<< / << 3 3 <<<

< <
/ 3 3 /
3
3 3 3 3
Def C7 Cm7 CM Co7 CmM/ 5
Alt C7 C7 3 C 7 C 3 5 7 C 3 5 7
3 << 3< << 3 35 <<<< <

5
<< 3 <<< << 3 3 <<<
/ /
/ 3 / / / 3 3
Def C7/ 5 CmM CM/ 5 Co/
Alt C7 5 C 3 7 C 5 7 C7 3 5
/ 3 <<< < / <<< 3 33 <<<

10
< 3 <<< < <
3 3
Def C6 Cm6 C9 Cm9
Alt C6 C 36 C9 C9 3
<<< 3 <<< 3 <<

3 <<<<
14
< << 3 <<<
3 3
3 3 3 3 3
Def Cm13 Cm11 Cm7/ 5/9 C7/ 9
C13 3 C11 3 C9 3 5 C7 9
<<
Alt
< <
33 <<< 3 <<< <
3 33 <<< 3 3 <<<
18
< 3 << < <<

/ /
/ /
Def C7/ 9 C11 C7/ 11 C13
C7 9 C11 C9 11 C13
<<
Alt
/< < /<

3 <<< 3 <<< 3 <<< 3 <<<
22
< << << <<
/ 3 / / / /
/ 3 / / / /
3
3
Def C7/ 11/ 13 C7/ 5/ 9 C7/ 9/ 11 C7/ 13
C9 11 13 C7 5 9 C7 9 11 C11 13
/ 3 <<< 3 <<
Alt
3 <<< 3 / / <<< / 3 / <<<< 3 <<<

26
< << << <<
/
/ /
3 3 3
3 3 3
Def C7/ 9/ 13 C7/ 11 CM/9 C7/ 13
C11 9 13 C9 11 C9 7 C11 13
3< 3 <<
Alt
3 3 <<< /<
3 <<< << 3 <<<
30
<< << << <<

< <
/ /
3 3 3
3 3 3
Def C7/ 9/ 13 C7/ 9/13 CM/9 CM/13
C11 9 13 C13 9 C9 7 C13 7
3< < <<
Alt
3 3 <<< 33 <<< << <<

34
<< << << <<

< < < <
/
/ /
3
3
Def CM/ 11 C7/ 9/13 Csus4 C7/sus4
C9 7 11 C13 9 C add4 5 C add4 5 7
<<
Alt
/ <<
<<< 3 3 <<< 3 <<<
38
< << <<< <
3
Def C9/sus4 Cadd9 Cmadd11
Alt C add4 5 7 9 C add9 C 3 add11
< < <

3 <<<
42
< 3 <<<
< <<
A.2 MIDI instruments
"acoustic grand" "contrabass" "lead 7 (fifths)"
"bright acoustic" "tremolo strings" "lead 8 (bass+lead)"
"electric grand" "pizzicato strings" "pad 1 (new age)"

"honky-tonk" "orchestral strings" "pad 2 (warm)"
"electric piano 1" "timpani" "pad 3 (polysynth)"
"electric piano 2" "string ensemble 1" "pad 4 (choir)"
"harpsichord" "string ensemble 2" "pad 5 (bowed)"
"clav" "synthstrings 1" "pad 6 (metallic)"
"celesta" "synthstrings 2" "pad 7 (halo)"
"glockenspiel" "choir aahs" "pad 8 (sweep)"
"music box" "voice oohs" "fx 1 (rain)"
"vibraphone" "synth voice" "fx 2 (soundtrack)"
"marimba" "orchestra hit" "fx 3 (crystal)"
"xylophone" "trumpet" "fx 4 (atmosphere)"
"tubular bells" "trombone" "fx 5 (brightness)"
"dulcimer" "tuba" "fx 6 (goblins)"
"drawbar organ" "muted trumpet" "fx 7 (echoes)"
"percussive organ" "french horn" "fx 8 (sci-fi)"
"rock organ" "brass appendixsection" "sitar"
"church organ" "synthbrass 1" "banjo"
"reed organ" "synthbrass 2" "shamisen"
"accordion" "soprano sax" "koto"
"harmonica" "alto sax" "kalimba"
"concertina" "tenor sax" "bagpipe"
"acoustic guitar (nylon)" "baritone sax" "fiddle"
"acoustic guitar (steel)" "oboe" "shanai"
"electric guitar (jazz)" "english horn" "tinkle bell"
"electric guitar (clean)" "bassoon" "agogo"
"electric guitar (muted)" "clarinet" "steel drums"
"overdriven guitar" "piccolo" "woodblock"
"distorted guitar" "flute" "taiko drum"
"guitar harmonics" "recorder" "melodic tom"
"acoustic bass" "pan flute" "synth drum"
"electric bass (finger)" "blown bottle" "reverse cymbal"
"electric bass (pick)" "shakuhachi" "guitar fret noise"
"fretless bass" "whistle" "breath noise"
"slap bass 1" "ocarina" "seashore"
"slap bass 2" "lead 1 (square)" "bird tweet"
"synth bass 1" "lead 2 (sawtooth)" "telephone ring"
"synth bass 2" "lead 3 (calliope)" "helicopter"
"violin" "lead 4 (chiff)" "applause"
"viola" "lead 5 (charang)" "gunshot"
"cello" "lead 6 (voice)"
A.3 The Feta font

The following symbols are available in the Feta font and may be accessed directly using text
markup such as g^\markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-segno" }, see Section 4.5 [Text markup],
! rests-0 # rests-0o
page 123.
" rests-1
$ rests-1o % rests--3 & rests--2
' rests--1 ( rests-2 ) rests-2classical
* rests-3 + rests-4 , rests-5

- rests-6 . rests-7 / accidentals-2
0 accidentals-1 1 accidentals-3 2 accidentals-0
3 accidentals--2 4 accidentals--1 5 accidentals--4
6 accidentals--3 7 accidentals-4 8 accidentals-rightparen
9 accidentals-leftparen : dots-dot ; noteheads--1
< noteheads-0 = noteheads-1 > noteheads-2
? noteheads-0diamond @ noteheads-1diamond A noteheads-2diamond
B noteheads-0triangle C noteheads-1triangle D noteheads-2triangle
E noteheads-0slash F noteheads-1slash G noteheads-2slash
H noteheads-0cross I noteheads-1cross J noteheads-2cross
K noteheads-2xcircle LO scripts-ufermata M scripts-dfermata
QN scripts-dlongfermata P scripts-ulongfermata
S scripts-dverylongfermata
R scripts-uverylongfermata
scripts-ushortfermata scripts-dshortfermata
T scripts-thumb U scripts-sforzato V scripts-staccato

W scripts-ustaccatissimo X scripts-dstaccatissimo Y scripts-tenuto
Z scripts-uportato [ scripts-dportato \ scripts-umarcato
] scripts-dmarcato ^ scripts-open _ scripts-stopped
` scripts-upbow a scripts-downbow b scripts-reverseturn
c scripts-turn d scripts-trill e scripts-upedalheel
f scripts-dpedalheel g scripts-upedaltoe h scripts-dpedaltoe
i scripts-flageolet j scripts-segno k scripts-coda
l scripts-varcoda m scripts-rcomma n scripts-lcomma
o scripts-rvarcomma p scripts-lvarcomma q scripts-arpeggio
r scripts-trill-element s scripts-arpeggio-arrow--1 t scripts-arpeggio-arrow-1
u scripts-trilelement v scripts-prall w scripts-mordent
x scripts-prallprall y scripts-prallmordent z scripts-upprall
{ scripts-upmordent | scripts-pralldown } scripts-downprall
~ scripts-downmordent Ä scripts-prallup scripts-lineprall
scripts-caesura

flags-u3 flags-u4
flags-d3

flags-u5 flags-u6
flags-ugrace flags-dgrace flags-d4

flags-d5 clefs-C
flags-d6
clefs-C change clefs-F clefs-F change
clefs-G clefs-G change clefs-percussion

clefs-percussion change clefs-tab clefs-tab change
timesig-C4/4 timesig-C2/2 pedal-*
pedal-- pedal-. pedal-P
pedal-d pedal-e pedal-Ped
accordion-accDiscant accordion-accDot ¡ accordion-accFreebase
¢¥accordion-accStdbase ¦ £ accordion-accBayanbase ¤ accordion-accOldEE
§ solfa-2do
¨ solfa-0re © solfa-1re ª solfa-2ro
solfa-0do solfa-1do
« solfa-0me ¬ solfa-1me solfa-2me

® solfa-0fa ¯ solfa-1fau ° solfa-2fau
± solfa-1fad ² solfa-2fad ³ solfa-0la
´ solfa-1la µ solfa-2la ¶ solfa-0te
· solfa-1te ¸ solfa-2te
! rests--3neo mensural " rests--2neo mensural # rests--1neo mensural
$ rests-0neo mensural % rests-1neo mensural & rests-2neo mensural
' rests-3neo mensural ( rests-4neo mensural ) rests--3mensural
* rests--2mensural + rests--1mensural , rests-0mensural
- rests-1mensural . rests-2mensural / rests-3mensural
0 rests-4mensural 1 noteheads-lneo mensural 2 noteheads--3neo mensural
3 noteheads--2neo mensural 4 noteheads--1neo mensural 5 noteheads-0neo mensural
6 noteheads-0harmonic 7 noteheads-1neo mensural 8 noteheads-2neo mensural
9 noteheads-lmensural : noteheads--3mensural ; noteheads--2mensural
< noteheads--1mensural = noteheads-0mensural > noteheads-1mensural
? noteheads-2mensural @ noteheads-vaticana punctum A noteheads-vaticana punctum cavum
B noteheads-vaticana linea punctum C noteheads-vaticana linea punctum cavum D noteheads-va
E noteheads-vaticana lpes F noteheads-vaticana vlpes G noteheads-vaticana upes
H noteheads-vaticana vupes I noteheads-vaticana plica J noteheads-vaticana epiphonus
K noteheads-vaticana vepiphonus L noteheads-vaticana reverse plica M noteheads-vaticana inner
N noteheads-vaticana cephalicus O noteheads-vaticana quilisma P noteheads-solesmes incl parv
Q noteheads-solesmes auct asc R noteheads-solesmes auct desc S noteheads-solesmes incl auctu

T noteheads-solesmes stropha U noteheads-solesmes stropha aucta V noteheads-solesmes oriscu
W noteheads-medicaea inclinatum X noteheads-medicaea punctum Y noteheads-medicaea rvirg
Z noteheads-medicaea virga [ noteheads-hufnagel punctum \ noteheads-hufnagel virga
] noteheads-hufnagel lpes ^ clefs-vaticana do _ clefs-vaticana do change
` clefs-vaticana fa a clefs-vaticana fa change b clefs-medicaea do
c clefs-medicaea do change d clefs-medicaea fa e clefs-medicaea fa change
f clefs-neo mensural c g clefs-neo mensural c change h clefs-petrucci c1
i clefs-petrucci c1 change j clefs-petrucci c2 k clefs-petrucci c2 change
l clefs-petrucci c3 m clefs-petrucci c3 change n clefs-petrucci c4
o clefs-petrucci c4 change p clefs-petrucci c5 q clefs-petrucci c5 change
r clefs-mensural c s clefs-mensural c change t clefs-petrucci f
u clefs-petrucci f change v clefs-mensural f w clefs-mensural f change
x clefs-petrucci g y clefs-petrucci g change z clefs-mensural g
{ clefs-mensural g change | clefs-hufnagel do } clefs-hufnagel do change
~ clefs-hufnagel fa clefs-hufnagel fa change clefs-hufnagel do fa
clefs-hufnagel do fa change custodes-hufnagel-u0 custodes-hufnagel-u1
custodes-hufnagel-u2 custodes-hufnagel-d0 custodes-hufnagel-d1
custodes-hufnagel-d2 custodes-medicaea-u0 custodes-medicaea-u1
custodes-medicaea-u2 custodes-medicaea-d0 custodes-medicaea-d1
custodes-medicaea-d2 custodes-vaticana-u0 custodes-vaticana-u1
custodes-vaticana-u2 custodes-vaticana-d0 custodes-vaticana-d1
custodes-vaticana-d2 custodes-mensural-u0 custodes-mensural-u1
custodes-mensural-u2 custodes-mensural-d0 custodes-mensural-d1
custodes-mensural-d2 accidentals-medicaea-1 accidentals-vaticana-1
accidentals-vaticana0 accidentals-mensural1 accidentals-mensural-1
accidentals-hufnagel-1 flags-mensuralu03 ¡ flags-mensuralu13
¢ flags-mensuralu23
¥ flags-mensurald23
¦ £ flags-mensurald03 § ¤ flags-mensuralu14
flags-mensurald13
¨
flags-mensuralu04
¬© ª
flags-mensuralu24 flags-mensurald04 flags-mensurald14
« flags-mensurald24
®
flags-mensuralu05 flags-mensuralu15
flags-mensuralu25
¯² flags-mensurald05 °³ flags-mensurald15
± flags-mensurald25
´
flags-mensuralu06 flags-mensuralu16
µ flags-mensurald06 ¶ flags-mensurald16
flags-mensuralu26
¸ timesig-mensural4/4 ¹ timesig-mensural2/2
· flags-mensurald26
º timesig-mensural3/2 » timesig-mensural6/4 ¼ timesig-mensural9/4
½ timesig-mensural3/4 ¾ timesig-mensural6/8 ¿ timesig-mensural9/8
À timesig-mensural4/8 Á timesig-mensural6/8alt Â timesig-mensural2/4
Ã timesig-neo mensural4/4 Ä timesig-neo mensural2/2 Å timesig-neo mensural3/2
Æ timesig-neo mensural6/4 Ç timesig-neo mensural9/4 È timesig-neo mensural3/4
É timesig-neo mensural6/8 Ê timesig-neo mensural9/8 Ë timesig-neo mensural4/8
Ì timesig-neo mensural6/8alt Í timesig-neo mensural2/4 Î scripts-ictus
Ï scripts-uaccentus Ð scripts-daccentus Ñ scripts-usemicirculus
Ò scripts-dsemicirculus Ó scripts-circulus Ô scripts-augmentum
Ö scripts-dsignumcongruentiae
Õ scripts-usignumcongruentiae
A.4 All context properties
aDueText (string)
Text to print at a unisono passage.
alignBassFigureAccidentals (boolean)
If true, then the accidentals are aligned in bass figure context.
allowBeamBreak (boolean)
If true allow line breaks for beams over bar lines.
associatedVoice (string)
Name of the Voice that has the melody for this Lyrics line.
autoAccidentals (list)
List of different ways to typeset an accidental.
For determining when to print an accidental, several different rules are tried. The
rule that gives the highest number of accidentals is used. Each rule consists of
context: In which context is the rule applied. For example, if context is Score
then all staves share accidentals, and if context is Staff then all voices
in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
octavation:
Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current octave.
Valid choices are
‘same-octave:’
This is the default algorithm. Accidentals are typeset if
the note changes the accidental of that note in that octave.
Accidentals lasts to the end of the measure and then as
many measures as specified in the value. I.e. 1 means to
the end of next measure, -1 means to the end of previous
measure (that is: no duration at all), etc. #t means forever.
‘any-octave:’
Accidentals are typeset if the note is different from the pre-
vious note on the same pitch in any octave. The value has
same meaning as in same-octave.
laziness
Over how many bar lines the accidental lasts. If laziness is -1 then the
accidental is forget immediately, and if laziness is #t then the accidental
lasts forever.
autoBeamSettings (list)
Specifies when automatically generated beams should begin and end. See Sec-
tion 3.5.2 [Setting automatic beam behavior], page 48 for more information.
autoBeaming (boolean)
If set to true then beams are generated automatically.
autoCautionaries (list)
List similar to autoAccidentals, but it controls cautionary accidentals rather than
normal ones. Both lists are tried, and the one giving the most accidentals wins. In
case of draw, a normal accidental is typeset.
automaticBars (boolean)
If set to true then bar lines will not be printed automatically; they must be explicitly
created with \bar command. Unlike the \cadenza keyword, measures are still
counted. Bar generation will resume according to that count if this property is
unset.
barAlways (boolean)
If set to true a bar line is drawn after each note.
barCheckSynchronize (boolean)
If true then reset measurePosition when finding a barcheck.
barNumberVisibility (procedure)
Procedure that takes an int and returns whether the corresponding bar number
should be printed
bassFigureFormatFunction (procedure)
Procedure that is called to produce the formatting for a BassFigure grob. It takes
a list of BassFigureEvents, a context, and the grob to format.
beatGrouping (list)
List of beatgroups, e.g., in 5/8 time ’(2 3).
beatLength (moment)
The length of one beat in this time signature.
chordChanges (boolean)
Only show changes in chords scheme?
chordNameExceptions (list)
Alist of chord exceptions. Contains (chord . markup) entries.
chordNameExceptionsFull (list)
Alist of chord exceptions. Contains (chord . markup) entries.
chordNameExceptionsPartial (list)
Alist of partial chord exceptions. Contains (chord . (prefix-markup suffix-markup))
entries.
chordNameFunction (procedure)
The function that converts lists of pitches to chord names.
chordNameSeparator (markup)
The markup object used to separate parts of a chord name.
chordNoteNamer (procedure)
Function that converts from a pitch object to a text markup. Used for single pitches.
chordRootNamer (procedure)
Function that converts from a pitch object to a text markup. Used for chords.
clefGlyph (string)
Name of the symbol within the music font.
clefOctavation (integer)
Add this much extra octavation. Values of 7 and -7 are common.
clefPosition (number)
Where should the center of the clef symbol go, measured in half staff spaces from
the center of the staff.
connectArpeggios (boolean)
If set, connect arpeggios across piano staff.
createKeyOnClefChange (boolean)
Print a key signature whenever the clef is changed.
createSpacing (boolean)
Create StaffSpacing objects? Should be set for staves.
crescendoSpanner (symbol)
Type of spanner to be used for crescendi. One of: ‘hairpin’, ‘line’, ‘dashed-line’,
‘dotted-line’. If unset, hairpin type is used.
crescendoText (markup)
Text to print at start of non-hairpin crescendo, i.e.: ‘cresc.’
currentBarNumber (integer)
Contains the current barnumber. This property is incremented at every bar line.
decrescendoSpanner (symbol)
See crescendoSpanner.
decrescendoText (markup)
Text to print at start of non-hairpin decrescendo, i.e.: ‘dim.’
defaultBarType (string)
Sets the default type of bar line. See whichBar for information on available bar
types.
This variable is read by Timing_engraver at Score level.
drumPitchTable (hash table)

A table mapping percussion instruments (symbols) to pitches.
drumStyleTable (hash table)
A hash table containing mapping drums to layout settings. Predefined values:
‘drums-style’, ‘timbales-style’, ‘congas-style’, ‘bongos-style’ and
‘percussion-style’.
The layout style is a hash table, containing the drum-pitches (e.g. the symbol
‘hihat’) as key, and a list (notehead-style script vertical-position) as values.
explicitClefVisibility (procedure)
‘break-visibility’ function for clef changes.
explicitKeySignatureVisibility (procedure)
‘break-visibility’ function for explicit key changes. ‘\override’ of
‘#’break-visibility’ will set the visibility for normal (i.e. at the start of the
line) key signatures.
extraNatural (boolean)
Whether to typeset an extra natural sign before accidentals changing from a non-
natural to another non-natural.
extraVerticalExtent (pair of numbers)
extra vertical extent, same format as minimumVerticalExtent
fingeringOrientations (list)
List of symbols, containing ‘left’, ‘right’, ‘up’ and/or ‘down’. This list determines
where fingerings are put relative to the chord being fingered.
followVoice (boolean)
if set, note heads are tracked across staff switches by a thin line
fontSize (number)
The relative size of all grobs in a context.
forceClef (boolean)
Show clef symbol, even if it has not changed. Only active for the first clef after the
property is set, not for the full staff.
harmonicAccidentals (boolean)
If set, harmonic notes in chords get accidentals.
highStringOne (boolean)
Whether the 1st string is the string with highest pitch on the instrument. This used
by the automatic string selector for tab notation.
ignoreMelismata (boolean)
Ignore melismata for this Lyrics line.
instr (markup)
See instrument
instrument (markup)
The name to print left of a staff. The instrument property labels the staff in the
first system, and the instr property labels following lines.
instrumentEqualizer (procedure)
Function taking a string (instrument name), and returning a (min . max) pair of
numbers for the loudness range of the instrument.
instrumentTransposition (pitch)
Define the transposition of the instrument. This is used to transpose the MIDI
output, and \quotes.
keyAccidentalOrder (list)
Alist that defines in what order alterations should be printed. The format is (name
. alter), where name is from 0 .. 6 and alter from -1, 1.
keySignature (list)
The current key signature. This is an alist containing (name . alter) or ((octave
. name) . alter). where name is from 0.. 6 and alter from -4 (double flat) to 4
(double sharp).
majorSevenSymbol (markup)
How should the major 7th be formatted in a chord name?
markFormatter (procedure)
Procedure taking as arguments context and rehearsal mark. It should return the
formatted mark as a markup object.
measureLength (moment)
Length of one measure in the current time signature.
measurePosition (moment)
How much of the current measure have we had. This can be set manually to create
incomplete measures.
melismaBusyProperties (list)
List of properties (symbols) to determine whether a melisma is playing. Set-
ting this property will influence how lyrics are aligned to notes. For example, if
set to #’(melismaBusy beamMelismaBusy), only manual melismata and manual
beams are considered. Possible values include melismaBusy, slurMelismaBusy,
tieMelismaBusy, and beamMelismaBusy
metronomeMarkFormatter (procedure)
How to produce a metronome markup. Called with 2 arguments, event and context.
middleCPosition (number)
Place of the middle C, measured in half staffspaces. Usually determined by looking
at clefPosition and clefGlyph.
midiInstrument (string)
Name of the MIDI instrument to use
midiMaximumVolume (number)
Analogous to midiMinimumVolume.
midiMinimumVolume (number)
Sets the minimum loudness for MIDI. Ranges from 0 to 1.
minimumFret (number)
The tablature auto string-selecting mechanism selects the highest string with a fret
at least minimumFret
minimumVerticalExtent (pair of numbers)
minimum vertical extent, same format as verticalExtent
ottavation (string)
If set, the text for an ottava spanner. Changing this creates a new text spanner.
pedalSostenutoStrings (list)
See pedalSustainStrings.
pedalSostenutoStyle (symbol)
see pedalSustainStyle.
pedalSustainStrings (list)
List of string to print for sustain-pedal. Format is (up updown down), where each
of the three is the string to print when this is done with the pedal.
pedalSustainStyle (symbol)
A symbol that indicates how to print sustain pedals: text, bracket or mixed (both).
pedalUnaCordaStrings (list)
See pedalSustainStrings.
pedalUnaCordaStyle (symbol)
see pedalSustainStyle.
printKeyCancellation (boolean)
Print restoration alterations before a key signature change.
printOctaveNames (boolean)
Print octave marks for the NoteNames context.
recordEventSequence (procedure)
When Recording_group_engraver is in this context, then upon termination of the
context, this function is called with current context and a list of music objects.
The list of contains entries with start times, music objects and whether they are
processed in this context.
rehearsalMark (integer)
The last rehearsal mark printed.
repeatCommands (list)
This property is read to find any command of the form (volta . x ), where x is a
string or #f
restNumberThreshold (number)
If a multimeasure rest takes less than this number of measures, no number is printed.
skipBars (boolean)
If set to true, then skip the empty bars that are produced by multimeasure notes
and rests. These bars will not appear on the printed output. If not set (the default)
multimeasure notes and rests expand into their full length, printing the appropriate
number of empty bars so that synchronization with other voices is preserved.
@lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
r1 r1*3 R1*3 \\property Score.skipBars= ##t r1*3 R1*3
@end lilypond
skipTypesetting (boolean)
When true, all no typesetting is done, speeding up the interpretation phase. This
speeds up debugging large scores.
soloADue (boolean)
set Solo/A due texts in the part combiner?
soloIIText (string)
text for begin of solo for voice “two” when part-combining.
soloText (string)
text for begin of solo when part-combining.
squashedPosition (integer)
Vertical position of squashing for Pitch_squash_engraver.
stanza (markup)
Stanza ‘number’ to print before the start of a verse. Use in Lyrics context.
stemLeftBeamCount (integer)
Specify the number of beams to draw on the left side of the next note. Overrides
automatic beaming. The value is only used once, and then it is erased.
stemRightBeamCount (integer)
See stemLeftBeamCount.
stringOneTopmost (boolean)
Whether the 1st string is printed on the top line of the tablature.
stringTunings (list)
The tablature strings tuning. It is a list of the pitch (in semitones) of each string
(starting with the lower one).
subdivideBeams (boolean)
If set, multiple beams will be subdivided at beat positions by only drawing one
beam over the beat.
systemStartDelimiter (symbol)
Which grob to make for the start of the system/staff? Set to SystemStartBrace,
SystemStartBracket or SystemStartBar.
tablatureFormat (procedure)
Function formatting a tab note head; it takes a string number, a list of string tunings
and Pitch object. It returns the text as a string.
timeSignatureFraction (pair of numbers)
pair of numbers, signifying the time signature. For example #’(4 . 4) is a 4/4 time
signature.
timing (boolean)
Keep administration of measure length, position, bar number, etc? Switch off for
cadenzas.
tonic (pitch)
The tonic of the current scale
tremoloFlags (integer)
Number of tremolo flags to add if no number is specified.
tupletNumberFormatFunction (procedure)
Function taking a music as input, producing a string. This function is called to
determine the text to print on a tuplet bracket.
tupletSpannerDuration (moment)
Normally a tuplet bracket is as wide as the \times expression that gave rise to it.
By setting this property, you can make brackets last shorter. Example
@lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
context Voice \times 2/3 {
property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
c-[8 c c-] c-[ c c-]
}
@end lilypond
.
verticalAlignmentChildCallback (procedure)
What callback to add to children of a vertical alignment. It determines what pro-
cedure is used on the alignment itself.
verticalExtent (pair of numbers)
Hard coded vertical extent. The format is a pair of dimensions, for example, this
sets the sizes of a staff to 10 (5+5) staffspaces high.
\set Staff.verticalExtent = #’(-5.0 . 5.0)
This does not work for Voice or any other context that doesn’t form a vertical group.
vocNam (markup)
Name of a vocal line, short version.
vocalName (markup)
Name of a vocal line.
voltaOnThisStaff (boolean)
Normally, volta brackets are put only on the topmost staff. Setting this variable
will create a bracket on this staff as well.
voltaSpannerDuration (moment)
This specifies the maximum duration to use for the brackets printed for
\alternative. This can be used to shrink the length of brackets in the situation
where one alternative is very large.
whichBar (string)
This property is read to determine what type of bar line to create.
Example:
\set Staff.whichBar = "|:"
This will create a start-repeat bar in this staff only. Valid values are described in
bar-line-interface.
A.5 Layout properties

X-extent (pair of numbers)
Hard coded extent in X direction.
X-extent-callback (procedure)
Procedure that calculates the extent of this object. If this value is set to #f, the
object is empty in the X direction. The procedure takes a grob and axis argument,
and returns a number-pair.
X-offset-callbacks (list)
A list of functions determining this objects’ position relative to its parent. The last
one in the list is called first. The functions take a grob and axis argument.
Y-extent (pair of numbers)
See X-extent.
Y-extent-callback (procedure)
see X-extent-callback.
Y-offset-callbacks (list)
see X-offset-callbacks.
accidentals (list)
List of alteration numbers.
align-dir (direction)
Which side to align? -1: left side, 0: around center of width, 1: right side.
arch-angle (number)
Turning angle of the hook of a system brace
arch-height (dimension, in staff space)
Height of the hook of a system brace.
arch-thick (number)
Thickness of the hook of system brace.
arch-width (dimension, in staff space)
Width of the hook of a system brace.
arpeggio-direction (direction)
If set, put an arrow on the arpeggio squiggly line.
attachment (pair)
Pair of symbols indicating how a slur should be attached at the ends. The format is
’(left-type . right-type), where both types are symbols. The values of these symbols
may be alongside-stem, stem, head or loose-end.
attachment-offset (pair)
cons of offsets, ’(left-offset . right-offset). This offset is added to the attachments
to prevent ugly slurs. [fixme: we need more documentation here].
auto-knee-gap (dimension, in staff space)
If a gap is found between note heads where a horizontal beam fits that is larger than
this number, make a kneed beam.
avoid-note-head (boolean)
If set, the stem of a chord does not pass through all note heads, but starts at the
last note head.
axes (list) list of axis numbers. In the case of alignment grobs, this should contain only one
number.
balloon-original-callback (procedure)
The original stencil drawer to draw the balloon around.
balloon-padding (dimension, in staff space)
Text to add to help balloon
balloon-text (markup)
Text to add to help balloon
balloon-text-offset (pair of numbers)
Where to put text relative to balloon.
balloon-text-props (list)
Font properties for balloon text.
bar-size (dimension, in staff space)
size of a bar line.
bar-size-procedure (procedure)
Procedure that computes the size of a bar line.
base-shortest-duration (moment)
Spacing is based on the shortest notes in a piece. Normally, pieces are spaced as if
notes at least as short as this are present.
baseline-skip (dimension, in staff space)

Distance between base lines of multiple lines of text.
beam-thickness (dimension, in staff space)
thickness, measured in staffspace.
beam-width (dimension, in staff space)
width of the tremolo sign.
beamed-extreme-minimum-free-lengths (list)
list of extreme minimum free stem lengths (chord to beams) given beam multiplicity.
beamed-lengths (list)
list of stem lengths given beam multiplicity .
beamed-minimum-free-lengths (list)
list of normal minimum free stem lengths (chord to beams) given beam multiplicity.
beamed-stem-shorten (list)
How much to shorten beamed stems, when their direction is forced. It is a list, since
the value is different depending on the number flags/beams.
beaming (pair)
Pair of number lists. Each number list specifies which beams to make. 0 is the
central beam, 1 is the next beam toward the note etc. This information is used to
determine how to connect the beaming patterns from stem to stem inside a beam.
beautiful (number)
number that dictates when a slur should be de-uglyfied. It correlates with the
enclosed area between noteheads and slurs. A value of 0.1 yields only undisturbed
slurs, a value of 5 will tolerate quite high blown slurs.
before-line-breaking-callback (procedure)
This procedure is called before line breaking, but after splitting breakable items at
potential line breaks.
between-cols (pair)
Where to attach a loose column to
between-system-string (string)
string to dump between two systems. Useful for forcing page breaks.
bracket-flare (pair of numbers)
A pair of numbers specifying how much edges of brackets should slant outward.
Value 0.0 means straight edges
bracket-thick (number)
width of a system start bracket.
bracket-visibility (boolean or symbol)
This controls the visibility of the tuplet bracket. Setting it to false will prevent
printing of the bracket. Setting the property to ’if-no-beam will make it print
only if there is no beam associated with this tuplet bracket.
break-align-orders (hash table)
Defines the order in which prefatory matter (clefs, key signatures) appears. The
format is a vector of length 3, where each element is one order for end-of-line,
middle of line, and start-of-line respectively. An order is a list of symbols.
For example, clefs are put after key signatures by setting
\override Score.BreakAlignment #’break-align-orders = #(make-vector 3

’(span-bar
breathing-sign
staff-bar
key
clef
time-signature))
break-align-symbol (symbol)
This key is used for aligning and spacing breakable items.
break-glyph-function (procedure)
This function determines the appearance of a bar line at the line break. It takes a
glyph and break-direction and returns the glyph at a line break.
break-visibility (procedure)
A function that takes the break direction and returns a cons of booleans containing
(transparent . empty). The following variables are predefined: all-visible,
begin-of-line-visible, end-of-line-visible, begin-of-line-invisible,
end-of-line-invisible, all-invisible.
breakable (boolean)
Can this object appear at a line break, like clefs and bar lines?
c0-position (integer)
An integer indicating the position of middle C.
cautionary (boolean)
Is this a cautionary accidental?
cautionary-style (symbol)
How to print cautionary accidentals. Choices are smaller or parentheses.
collapse-height (dimension, in staff space)
Minimum height of system start delimiter. If equal or smaller, the bracket is re-
moved.
common-shortest-duration (moment)
The most common shortest note length. This is used in spacing. Enlarging this will
set the score tighter.
concaveness-gap (dimension, in staff space)
A beam is printed horizontally if its concaveness-gap is larger than this value. The
concaveness-gap is the distance of an inner note head to the line between two outer
note heads.
concaveness-threshold (number)
A beam is printed horizontally if its concaveness is bigger than this threshold.
Concaveness is calculated as the sum of the vertical distances of inner note heads
that fall outside the interval of the two outer note heads, to the vertically nearest
outer note head, divided by the square of the inner notes involved.
control-points (list)
List of 4 offsets (number-pairs) that form control points for the tie/slur shape.
damping (integer)
Amount of beam slope damping. 0: no, 1: yes, 100000: horizontal beams.
dash-fraction (number)
Size of the dashes, relative to dash-period. Should be between 0.0 (no line) and 1.0
(continuous line).
dash-period (number)
the length of one dash + white space. If negative, no line is drawn at all.
dashed (number)
number representing the length of the dashes.
dir-function (procedure)
The function to determine the direction of a beam. Choices include:
beam-dir-majority
number count of up or down notes
beam-dir-mean
mean center distance of all notes
beam-dir-median.
mean center distance weighted per note
direction (direction)
Up or down, left or right?
dot-count (integer)
The number of dots.
duration-log (integer)
The 2-log of the note head duration, i.e. 0=whole note, 1 = half note, etc.
edge-height (pair)
A pair of number specifying the heights of the vertical edges ’(left-height . right-
height).
edge-text (pair)
A pair specifying the texts to be set at the edges ’(left-text . right-text).
enclose-bounds (number)
How much of the bound a spanner should enclose: +1 = completely, 0 = center, -1
not at all.
expand-limit (integer)
maximum number of measures expanded in church rests.
extra-X-extent (pair of numbers)
A grob is enlarged in X dimension by this much.
extra-Y-extent (pair of numbers)
See extra-Y-extent.
extra-offset (pair of numbers)
A pair representing an offset. This offset is added just before outputting the symbol,
so the typesetting engine is completely oblivious to it.
extremity-function (procedure)
A function that calculates the attachment of a slur-end. The function takes a slur
and direction argument and returns a symbol.
extremity-offset-alist (list)
The offset adds to the centre of the note head, or stem.
Format: alist (attachment stem-dir*dir slur-dir*dir) -> offset.
flag-count (number)
The number of tremolo beams.
flag-style (symbol)
a string determining what style of flag-glyph is typeset on a Stem. Valid options
include () and mensural. Additionally, "no-flag" switches off the flag.
flag-width-function (procedure)
Procedure that computes the width of a half-beam (a non-connecting beam.).
font-encoding (symbol)
The font encoding is the broadest category for selecting a font. Options include:
music, number, text, math, braces, dynamic
font-family (symbol)
The font family is the broadest category for selecting text fonts. Options include:
sans, roman
font-magnification (number)
Magnification of the font, when it is selected with font-name.
font-name (string)
Specifies a file name (without extension) of the font to load. This setting override
selection using font-family, font-series and font-shape.
font-series (symbol)
Select the series of a font. Choices include medium, bold, bold-narrow, etc.
font-shape (symbol)
Select the shape of a font. Choices include upright, italic, caps.
font-size (number)
The font size, compared the ‘normal’ size. 0 is style-sheet’s normal size, -1 is smaller,
+1 is bigger. Each step of 1 is approximately 12% larger, 6 steps are exactly a factor
2 larger. Fractional values are allowed.
force-hshift (number)
This specifies a manual shift for notes in collisions. The unit is the note head width
of the first voice note. This is used by note-collision-interface.
forced-distance (dimension, in staff space)
A fixed distance between object reference points in an alignment.
fraction (pair of numbers)
Numerator and denominator of a time signature object.
french-beaming (boolean)
Use French beaming style for this stem. The stem will stop at the innermost beams.
full-size-change (boolean)
Don’t make a change clef smaller.
gap (dimension, in staff space)
Size of a gap in a variable symbol.
gap-count (integer)
Number of gapped beams for tremolo.
glyph (string)
a string determining what (style) of glyph is typeset. Valid choices depend on the
function that is reading this property.
glyph-name (string)
a name of character within font.
glyph-name-procedure (procedure)
Return the name of a character within font, to use for printing a symbol.
grace-space-factor (number)
Space grace notes at this fraction of the spacing-increment.
grow-direction (direction)
Crescendo or decrescendo?
hair-thickness (number)
Thickness of the thin line in a bar line.
height (dimension, in staff space)
Height of an object in staffspace.
height-limit (dimension, in staff space)
Maximum slur height: the longer the slur, the closer it is to this height.
horizontal-shift (integer)
An integer that identifies ranking of note-column for horizontal shifting. This is
used by note-collision-interface.
kern (dimension, in staff space)
Amount of extra white space to add. For bar line, this is the amount of space after
a thick line.
knee (boolean)
Is this beam kneed?
knee-spacing-correction (number)
Factor for the optical correction amount for kneed beams. Set between 0 for no
correction and 1 for full correction.
layer (number)
The output layer [0..2]: layers define the order of printing objects. Objects in lower
layers are overprinted by objects in higher layers.
ledger-line-thickness (pair of numbers)
The thickness of ledger lines: it is the sum of 2 numbers. The first is the factor for
line thickness, and the second for staff space. Both contributions are added.
left-padding (dimension, in staff space)
The amount of space that is put left to a group of accidentals.
left-position (number)
Vertical position of left part of spanner.
length (dimension, in staff space)
User override for the stem length of unbeamed stems.
lengths (list)
Default stem lengths. The list gives a length for each flag-count.
line-count (integer)
The number of staff lines.
measure-count (integer)
The number of measures for a multimeasure rest.
measure-length (moment)
Length of a measure. Used in some spacing situations.
merge-differently-dotted (boolean)
Merge note heads in collisions, even if they have a different number of dots. This
normal notation for some types of polyphonic music.
merge-differently-headed (boolean)
Merge note heads in collisions, even if they have different note heads. The smaller
of the two heads will be rendered invisible. This used polyphonic guitar notation.
The value of this setting is used by note-collision-interface .
minimum-X-extent (pair of numbers)
Minimum size of an object in X dimension, measured in staff space.
minimum-Y-extent (pair of numbers)
See minimum-Y-extent.
minimum-distance (dimension, in staff space)
Minimum distance between rest and notes or beam.
minimum-length (dimension, in staff space)
Try to make a spanner at least this long. This requires an appropriate routine for
the spacing-procedure property.
minimum-space (dimension, in staff space)
Minimum distance that the victim should move (after padding).
neutral-direction (direction)
Which direction to take in the center of the staff.
neutral-position (number)
Position (in half staff spaces) where to flip the direction of custos stem.
new-accidentals (list)
List of (pitch . accidental ) pairs.
no-spacing-rods (boolean)
Items with this property do not cause spacing constraints.
no-stem-extend (boolean)
If set, notes with ledger lines do not get stems extending to the middle staff line.
non-default (boolean)
Set for manually specified clefs.
note-names (hash table)
Vector of strings containing names for easy-notation note heads.
number-visibility (boolean or symbol)
Like bracket-visibility, but for the number.
old-accidentals (list)
List of (pitch . accidental ) pairs.
padding (dimension, in staff space)
Add this much extra space between objects that are next to each other.
penalty (number)
Penalty for breaking at this column. 10000 or more means forbid linebreak, -10000
or less means force linebreak. Other values influence linebreaking decisions as a real
penalty.
pitch-max (pitch)
Top pitch for ambitus.
pitch-min (pitch)
Bottom pitch for ambitus.
positions (pair)
Pair of staff coordinates (left . right ), where both left and right are in the staff-
space unit of the current staff.
print-function (procedure)
Function taking grob as argument, returning a Stencil object.
ratio (number)
Parameter for slur shape. The higher this number, the quicker the slur attains it
height-limit.
remove-first (boolean)
Remove the first staff of a orchestral score?
right-padding (dimension, in staff space)
Space to insert between note and accidentals.
right-position (number)
Vertical position of right part of spanner.
script-priority (number)
A sorting key that determines in what order a script is within a stack of scripts.
self-alignment-X (number)
Specify alignment of an object. The value -1 means left aligned, 0 centered, and 1
right-aligned in X direction. Values in between may also be specified.
self-alignment-Y (number)
like self-alignment-X but for Y axis.
shorten-pair (pair of numbers)
The lengths to shorten a text-spanner on both sides, for example a pedal bracket
shortest-duration-space (dimension, in staff space)
Start with this much space for the shortest duration. This is expressed in spacing-
increment as unit. See also spacing-spanner-interface.
shortest-playing-duration (moment)
The duration of the shortest playing here.
shortest-starter-duration (moment)
The duration of the shortest note that starts here.
side-relative-direction (direction)
Multiply direction of direction-source with this to get the direction of this object.
slope (number)
The slope of this object.
slope-limit (number)
Set slope to zero if slope is running away steeper than this.
space-alist (list)
A table that specifies distances between prefatory items, like clef and time-signature.
The format is an alist of spacing tuples: (break-align-symbol type . distance ),
where type can be the symbols minimum-space or extra-space.
space-function (procedure)
Calculate the vertical space between two beams. This function takes a beam grob
and the maximum number of beams.
spacing-increment (number)
Add this much space for a doubled duration. Typically, the width of a note head.
See also spacing-spanner-interface.
spacing-procedure (procedure)
Procedure for calculating spacing parameters. The routine is called after before-
line-breaking-callback.
stacking-dir (direction)
Stack objects in which direction?
staff-padding (dimension, in staff space)
Maintain this much space between reference points and the staff. Its effect is to
align objects of differing sizes (like the dynamic p and f) on their baselines.
staff-position (number)
Vertical position, measured in half staff spaces, counted from the middle line.
staff-space (dimension, in staff space)
Amount of space between staff lines, expressed in global staffspace.
staffline-clearance (dimension, in staff space)
How far away ties keep from staff lines.
stem-attachment-function (procedure)
A function that calculates where a stem attaches to the note head? This is a fallback
when this information is not specified in the font. The function takes a grob and
axis argument, and returns a (x . y) pair, specifying location in terms of note head
bounding box.
stem-end-position (number)
Where does the stem end (the end is opposite to the support-head.
stem-shorten (list)
How much a stem in a forced direction should be shortened. The list gives an
amount depending on the number of flags/beams.
stem-spacing-correction (number)
Optical correction amount for stems that are placed in tight configurations. For
opposite directions, this amount is the correction for two normal sized stems that
overlap completely.
stroke-style (string)
set to "grace" to turn stroke through flag on.
style (symbol)
This setting determines in what style a grob is typeset. Valid choices depend on the
print-function that is reading this property.
text (markup)
Text markup. See Section 4.5 [Text markup], page 123.
thick-thickness (number)
Bar line thickness, measured in linethickness.
thickness (number)
Bar line thickness, measured in linethickness.
thin-kern (number)
The space after a hair-line in a bar line.
threshold (pair of numbers)

(min . max), where min and max are dimensions in staff space.
transparent (boolean)
This is almost the same as setting print-function to #f, but this retains the
dimensions of this grob, which means that grobs can be erased individually.
when (moment)
Global time step associated with this column happen?
width (dimension, in staff space)
The width of a grob measured in staff space.
word-space (dimension, in staff space)
space to insert between lyrics or words in texts.
x-gap (dimension, in staff space)
The horizontal gap between note head and tie.
y-free (dimension, in staff space)
The minimal vertical gap between slur and note heads or stems.
y-offset (dimension, in staff space)
Extra vertical offset for ties away from the center line.
zigzag-length (dimension, in staff space)
The length of the lines of a zigzag, relative to zigzag-width. A value of 1 gives
60-degree zigzags.
zigzag-width (dimension, in staff space)
The width of one zigzag-squiggle. This number will be adjusted slightly so that the
glissando line can be constructed from a whole number of squiggles.
Appendix B: Literature list 182
Appendix B Literature list

If you need to know more about music notation, here are some interesting titles to read.
The source archive includes a more elaborate BibTEX bibliography of over 100 entries in
‘Documentation/bibliography/’. It is also available online from the website.
Ignatzek 1995
Klaus Ignatzek, Die Jazzmethode für Klavier. Schott’s Söhne 1995. Mainz, Ger-
many ISBN 3-7957-5140-3.
A tutorial introduction to playing Jazz on the piano. One of the first chapters
contains an overview of chords in common use for Jazz music.
Gerou 1996
Tom Gerou and Linda Lusk, Essential Dictionary of Music Notation. Alfred Pub-
lishing, Van Nuys CA ISBN 0-88284-768-6.
A concise, alphabetically ordered list of typesetting and music (notation) issues
which covers most of the normal cases.
Read 1968
Gardner Read, Music Notation: a Manual of Modern Practice. Taplinger Publish-
ing, New York (2nd edition).
A standard work on music notation.
Ross 1987 Ted Ross, Teach yourself the art of music engraving and processing. Hansen House,
Miami, Florida 1987.
This book is about music engraving, i.e. professional typesetting. It contains di-
rections on stamping, use of pens and notational conventions. The sections on
reproduction technicalities and history are also interesting.
Schirmer 2001
The G.Schirmer/AMP Manual of Style and Usage. G.Schirmer/AMP, NY, 2001.
(This book can be ordered from the rental department.)
This manual specifically focuses on preparing print for publication by Schirmer. It
discusses many details that are not in other, normal notation books. It also gives a
good idea of what is necessary to bring printouts to publication quality.
Stone 1980
Kurt Stone, Music Notation in the Twentieth Century Norton, New York 1980.
This book describes music notation for modern serious music, but starts out with a
thorough overview of existing traditional notation practices.
Appendix C: Interfaces for programmers 183
Appendix C Interfaces for programmers
C.1 Programmer interfaces for input

C.1.1 Input variables and Scheme
The input format supports the notion of variable: in the following example, a music expression
is assigned to a variable with the name traLaLa.
traLaLa = \notes { c’4 d’4 }
There is also a form of scoping: in the following example, the \paper block also contains a
traLaLa variable, which is independent of the outer \traLaLa.
\paper { traLaLa = 1.0 }
In effect, each input file is a scope, and all \header, \midi and \paper blocks are scopes
nested inside that toplevel scope.
Both variables and scoping are implemented in the GUILE module system. An anonymous
Scheme module is attached to each scope. An assignment of the form
is internally converted to a Scheme definition
(define traLaLa Scheme value of ‘‘\notes ... ’’ )
This means that input variables and Scheme variables may be freely mixed. In the following
example, a music fragment is stored in the variable traLaLa, and duplicated using Scheme. The
result is imported in a \score by means of a second variable twice:
#(define newLa (map ly:music-deep-copy

(list traLaLa traLaLa)))
#(define twice
(make-sequential-music newLa))
\score { \twice }
In the above example, music expressions can be ‘exported’ from the input to the Scheme inter-
preter. The opposite is also possible. By wrapping a Scheme value in the function ly:export, a
Scheme value is interpreted as if it were entered in LilyPond syntax: instead of defining \twice,
the example above could also have been written as
...
\score { #(ly:export (make-sequential-music newLa)) }
C.1.2 Internal music representation

When a music expression is parsed, it is converted into a set of Scheme music objects. The
defining property of a music object is that it takes up time. Time is a rational number that
measures the length of a piece of music, in whole notes.
A music object has three kinds of types:
• music name: Each music expression has a name, for example, a note leads to a NoteEvent,
and \simultaneous leads to a SimultaneousMusic. A list of all expressions available is in
the internals manual, under Music expressions.
• ‘type’ or interface: Each music name has several ‘types’ or interface, for example, a note is
an event, but it is also a note-event, a rhythmic-event and a melodic-event.
All classes of music are listed in the internals manual, under Music classes.
• C++ object: Each music object is represented by a C++ object. For technical reasons,
different music objects may be represented by different C++ object types. For example, a
note is Event object, while \grace creates a Grace_music object.
We expect that distinctions between different C++ types will disappear in the future.
The actual information of a music expression is stored in properties. For example, a
NoteEvent has pitch and duration properties that store the pitch and duration of that note.
A list of all properties available is in the internals manual, under Music properties.
A compound music expression is a music object that contains other music objects in its
properties. A list of objects can be stored in the elements property of a music object, or
a single ‘child’ music object in the element object. For example, SequentialMusic has its
children in elements, and GraceMusic has its single argument in element. The body of a
repeat is in element property of RepeatedMusic, and the alternatives in elements.
C.1.3 Manipulating music expressions

Music objects and their properties can be accessed and manipulated directly, through the \apply
mechanism. The syntax for \apply is
\apply #func music
This means that the scheme function func is called with music as its argument. The return
value of func is the result of the entire expression. func may read and write music properties
using the functions ly:music-property and ly:music-set-property!.
An example is a function that reverses the order of elements in its argument:
#(define (rev-music-1 m)
(ly:music-set-property! m ’elements (reverse
(ly:music-property m ’elements)))
m)
\score { \notes \apply #rev-music-1 { c4 d4 } }

> >
The use of such a function is very limited. The effect of this function is void when applied to
an argument which is does not have multiple children. The following function application has
no effect:
\apply #rev-music-1 \grace { c4 d4 }
In this case, \grace is stored as GraceMusic, which has no elements, only a single element.
Every generally applicable function for \apply must – like music expressions themselves – be
recursive.
The following example is such a recursive function: It first extracts the elements of an
expression, reverses them and puts them back. Then it recurses, both on elements and element
children.
#(define (reverse-music music)
(let* ((elements (ly:music-property music ’elements))
(child (ly:music-property music ’element))
(reversed (reverse elements)))
; set children
(ly:music-set-property! music ’elements reversed)
; recurse
(if (ly:music? child) (reverse-music child))
(map reverse-music reversed)
music))
A slightly more elaborate example is in ‘input/test/reverse-music.ly’.
Some of the input syntax is also implemented as recursive music functions. For example, the
syntax for polyphony
<<a \\ b>>
is actually implemented as a recursive function that replaces the above by the internal equivalent
of
<< \context Voice = "1" { \voiceOne a }
\context Voice = "2" { \voiceTwo b } >>
Other applications of \apply are writing out repeats automatically
(‘input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly’), saving keystrokes (‘input/test/music-box.ly’)
and exporting LilyPond input to other formats (‘input/test/to-xml.ly’)
See also
‘scm/music-functions.scm’, ‘scm/music-types.scm’, ‘input/test/add-staccato.ly’,
‘input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly’, and ‘input/test/music-box.ly’.
C.2 Markup programmer interface

C.2.1 Markup construction in scheme
The markup macro builds markup expressions in Scheme while providing a LilyPond-like syntax.
For example,
(markup #:column (#:line (#:bold #:italic "hello" #:raise 0.4 "world")
#:bigger #:line ("foo" "bar" "baz")))
is equivalent to:
\markup \column < { \bold \italic "hello" \raise #0.4 "world" }
\bigger { foo bar baz } >
This example exposes the main translation rules between regular LilyPond markup syntax and
scheme markup syntax, which are summed up is this table:
LilyPond Scheme
\command #:command
\variable variable
{ ... } #:line ( ... )
\center-align < ... > #:center ( ... )
string "string"
#scheme-arg scheme-arg
Besides, the whole scheme language is accessible inside the markup macro: thus, one may use
function calls inside markup in order to manipulate character strings for instance. This proves
useful when defining new markup commands (see Section C.2.2 [Markup command definition],
page 186).
Bugs
One can not feed the #:line (resp #:center, #:column) command with a variable or the result
of a function call. E.g.:
(markup #:line (fun-that-returns-markups))
is illegal. One should use the make-line-markup (resp make-center-markup, make-column-
markup) function instead:
(markup (make-line-markup (fun-that-returns-markups)))
C.2.2 Markup command definition

New markup commands can be defined with the def-markup-command scheme macro.
(def-markup-command (command-name paper props arg1 arg2 ...)
(arg1-type? arg2-type? ...)
..command body..)
The arguments signify
argi ith command argument
argi-type? a type predicate for the ith argument
paper the ‘paper’ definition
props a list of alists, containing all active properties.
As a simple example, we show how to add a \smallcaps command, which selects TEX’s small
caps font. Normally, we could select the small caps font as follows:
\markup { \override #’(font-shape . caps) Text-in-caps }
This selects the caps font by setting the font-shape property to #’caps for interpreting
Text-in-caps.
To make the above available as \smallcaps command, we have to define a function using
def-markup-command. The command should take a single argument, of markup type. Therefore,
the start of the definition should read
(def-markup-command (smallcaps paper props argument) (markup?)
What follows is the content of the command: we should interpret the argument as a markup,
i.e.
(interpret-markup paper ... argument)
This interpretation should add ’(font-shape . caps) to the active properties, so we substitute
the following for the . . . in the above example:
(cons (list ’(font-shape . caps) ) props)
The variable props is a list of alists, and we prepend to it by consing a list with the extra setting.
Suppose that we are typesetting a recitative in an opera, and we would like to define a
command that will show character names in a custom manner. Names should be printed with
small caps and translated a bit to the left and top. We will define a \character command that
takes into account the needed translation, and uses the newly defined \smallcaps command:
#(def-markup-command (character paper props name) (string?)
"Print the character name in small caps, translated to the left and
top. Syntax: \\character #\"name\""
(interpret-markup paper props
(markup "" #:translate (cons -4 2) #:smallcaps name)))
There is one complication that needs explanation: texts above and below the staff are moved
vertically to be at a certain distance (the padding property) from the staff and the notes. To
make sure that this mechanism does not annihilate the vertical effect of our #:translate, we
add an empty string ("") before the translated text. Now the "" will be put above the notes,
and the name is moved in relation to that empty string. The net effect is that the text is moved
to the upper left.
The final result is as follows:
\score {
\notes { \fatText
c’’^\markup \character #"Cleopatra"
e’^\markup \character #"Giulio Cesare"
}
}
>
CLEOPATRA GIULIO CESARE
>
We have used the caps font shape, but suppose that our font that does not have a small-caps
variant. In that case, we have to fake the small caps font, by setting a string in upcase, with
the first letter a little larger:
#(def-markup-command (smallcaps paper props str) (string?)
"Print the string argument in small caps."
(interpret-markup paper props
(make-line-markup
(map (lambda (s)
(if (= (string-length s) 0)
s
(markup #:large (string-upcase (substring s 0 1))
#:translate (cons -0.6 0)
#:tiny (string-upcase (substring s 1)))))
(string-split str #\Space)))))
The smallcaps command first splits its string argument into tokens separated by spaces
((string-split str #\Space)); for each token, a markup is built with the first letter made
large and upcased (#:large (string-upcase (substring s 0 1))), and a second markup built
with the following letters made tiny and upcased (#:tiny (string-upcase (substring s 1))).
As LilyPond introduces a space between markups on a line, the second markup is translated to
the left (#:translate (cons -0.6 0) ...). Then, the markups built for each token are put in
a line by (make-line-markup ...). Finally, the resulting markup is passed to the interpret-
markup function, with the paper and props arguments.
C.3 Contexts for programmers

C.3.1 Context evaluation
Contexts can be modified during interpretation with Scheme code. The syntax for this is
\applycontext function
function should be a Scheme function taking a single argument, being the context to apply
it to. The following code will print the current bar number on the standard output during the
compile:
\applycontext
#(lambda (x)
(format #t "\nWe were called in barnumber ~a.\n"
(ly:context-property x ’currentBarNumber)))
C.3.2 Running a function on all layout objects

The most versatile way of tuning an object is \applyoutput. Its syntax is
\applyoutput proc
where proc is a Scheme function, taking three arguments.
When interpreted, the function proc is called for every layout object found in the context,
with the following arguments:
• the layout object itself,
• the context where the layout object was created, and
• the context where \applyoutput is processed.
In addition, the cause of the layout object, i.e. the music expression or object that was
responsible for creating it, is in the object property cause. For example, for a note head, this
is a NoteHead event, and for a Stem object, this is a NoteHead object.
Here is a function to use for \applyoutput; it blanks note-heads on the center-line:
(define (blanker grob grob-origin context)
(if (and (memq (ly:grob-property grob ’interfaces)
note-head-interface)
(eq? (ly:grob-property grob ’staff-position) 0))
(set! (ly:grob-property grob ’transparent) #t)))

Appendix D: Cheat sheet 189
Appendix D Cheat sheet
Syntax Description Example
1 2 8 16 durations < = > >

c4. c4.. augmentation dots >: >::
> > >

> > > >
cdefgab scale
fis bes alteration /> 3>

\clef treble \clef bass clefs
\time 3/4 \time 4/4 time signature 3

4
r4 r8 rest ( *
> >
d~d tie
3 3
\key es \major key signature 3
>
note’ raise octave >
>
>
note, lower octave
>
c( d e) slur > >
> > > >

c$ c( d) e$ phrasing slur
a8[ b] beam >>

<
<< \new Staff ... >> more staves

<
U V
c-> c-. articulations > >
c\mf c\sfz dynamics > >

mf sfz
a\< b\! crescendo > > >

a\> b\! decrescendo > > >
>
<> chord >
> = = =
\partial 8 upstep

>>>
3
\times 2/3 {f g a} triplets
>>

\grace grace notes
\lyrics { twinkle } entering lyrics

\new Lyrics printing lyrics twinkle
twinkle
> >
twin -- kle lyric hyphen
twin kle
>>
3 3 >> >>
>
\chords { c:dim f:maj7 } chords
\context ChordNames printing chord names

Co FM
>> >>
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Appendix E: GNU Free Documentation License 192
Appendix E GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.1, March 2000
c 2000 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Copyright °
59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies

of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
0. PREAMBLE
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other written document free
in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute
it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this
License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not
being considered responsible for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of “copyleft”, which means that derivative works of the document
must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License,
which is a copyleft license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free
software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the
same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals;
it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published
as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is
instruction or reference.
1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
This License applies to any manual or other work that contains a notice placed by the copy-
right holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. The “Document”,
below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is
addressed as “you”.
A “Modified Version” of the Document means any work containing the Document or a
portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or translated into another
language.
A “Secondary Section” is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document
that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document to
the Document’s overall subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall
directly within that overall subject. (For example, if the Document is in part a textbook
of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship
could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of
legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them.
The “Invariant Sections” are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as
being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released
under this License.
The “Cover Texts” are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or
Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License.
A “Transparent” copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a
format whose specification is available to the general public, whose contents can be viewed
and edited directly and straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed
of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor,
and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of
formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file
format whose markup has been designed to thwart or discourage subsequent modification
by readers is not Transparent. A copy that is not “Transparent” is called “Opaque”.
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ascii without markup,
Texinfo input format, LaTEX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD,
and standard-conforming simple HTML designed for human modification. Opaque formats
include PostScript, PDF, proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by propri-
etary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not
generally available, and the machine-generated HTML produced by some word processors
for output purposes only.
The “Title Page” means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages
as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the title page.
For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, “Title Page” means the
text near the most prominent appearance of the work’s title, preceding the beginning of the
body of the text.
2. VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or noncom-
mercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying
this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no
other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical measures
to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute.
However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large
enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly
display copies.
3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies of the Document numbering more than 100, and the Docu-
ment’s license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry,
clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-
Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as
the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words
of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in
addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of
the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other
respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put the
first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto
adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100,
you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque
copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a publicly-accessible computer-network location
containing a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material, which
the general network-using public has access to download anonymously at no charge using
public-standard network protocols. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably
prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that
this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one
year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or
retailers) of that edition to the public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before
redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an
updated version of the Document.
4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions
of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely
this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing
distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In
addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the
Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any, be
listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous
version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for
authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five of
the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has less than
five).
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the
publisher.
D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copy-
right notices.
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public
permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form
shown in the Addendum below.
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover
Texts given in the Document’s license notice.
H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
I. Preserve the section entitled “History”, and its title, and add to it an item stating at
least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the
Title Page. If there is no section entitled “History” in the Document, create one stating
the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then
add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a
Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the
Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the “History”
section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four
years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to
gives permission.
K. In any section entitled “Acknowledgments” or “Dedications”, preserve the section’s
title, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor
acknowledgments and/or dedications given therein.
L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their
titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.
M. Delete any section entitled “Endorsements”. Such a section may not be included in the
Modified Version.
N. Do not retitle any existing section as “Endorsements” or to conflict in title with any
Invariant Section.
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as
Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your
option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to
the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version’s license notice. These titles must be
distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section entitled “Endorsements”, provided it contains nothing but endorse-
ments of your Modified Version by various parties—for example, statements of peer review
or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up
to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified
Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added
by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes
a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the
same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the
old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to
use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version.
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under
the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the
combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical
Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant
Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section
unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or
publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to
the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections entitled “History” in the various original
documents, forming one section entitled “History”; likewise combine any sections entitled
“Acknowledgments”, and any sections entitled “Dedications”. You must delete all sections
entitled “Endorsements.”
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under
this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with
a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this
License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually
under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document,
and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.
7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent
documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, does not as a
whole count as a Modified Version of the Document, provided no compilation copyright is
claimed for the compilation. Such a compilation is called an “aggregate”, and this License
does not apply to the other self-contained works thus compiled with the Document, on
account of their being thus compiled, if they are not themselves derivative works of the
Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then
if the Document is less than one quarter of the entire aggregate, the Document’s Cover Texts
may be placed on covers that surround only the Document within the aggregate. Otherwise
they must appear on covers around the whole aggregate.
8. TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the
Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations
requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations
of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant
Sections. You may include a translation of this License provided that you also include the
original English version of this License. In case of a disagreement between the translation
and the original English version of this License, the original English version will prevail.
9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly
provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute
the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License.
However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not
have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Doc-
umentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to
the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See
http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document
specifies that a particular numbered version of this License “or any later version” applies
to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified
version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software
Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may
choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.
E.0.1 ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document
and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page:
Copyright (C) year your name.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with the Invariant Sections being list their titles, with the
Front-Cover Texts being list, and with the Back-Cover Texts being list.
A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ‘‘GNU
Free Documentation License’’.
If you have no Invariant Sections, write “with no Invariant Sections” instead of saying which
ones are invariant. If you have no Front-Cover Texts, write “no Front-Cover Texts” instead of
“Front-Cover Texts being list”; likewise for Back-Cover Texts.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing
these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General
Public License, to permit their use in free software.

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GNU LilyPond

The music typesetter

(For LilyPond version 2.2.6)

3.2.1 Relative octaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4 Changing defaults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.3.2 Constructing a tweak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

5 Invoking LilyPond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

6 lilypond-book manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

7 Converting from other formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Unified index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Appendix A Notation manual details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Appendix B Literature list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Appendix C Interfaces for programmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Appendix D Cheat sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Appendix E GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . 192

Notes to version 2.2

Henle (2000) Bärenreiter (1950) LilyPond Feta font (2003)

1.2 Automated engraving

• Finally, we continually refine the formatting algorithms, so we need a flexible approach to

3 > > >>> > 3 > > 3>

> >>> > 3>

1.3 What symbols to engrave?

 > > > > > >>>>>

  >  > > > > > >

1.5 Example applications

 2 > > > > =

> > >  2 > 2 > / >> 2 > 

1.6 About this manual

2.1 First steps

 > > > > > > >

 < = > > >

Add a dot ‘.’ after the duration to get a dotted note

 =: > >: >

The clef can be set using the \clef command

 > =: > > > (

Time signatures and other timing commands

2.2 Running LilyPond

2.3 More about pitches

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2.4 Entering ties

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2.5 Automatic and manual beams

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> 3> * >

2.6 Octave entry

/// >: > > > >

/// >: > > > >

Larger intervals are made by adding octavation quotes.

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2.7 Music expressions explained

> > > >

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2.8 More staves

The command \new introduces a “notation context.” A notation context is an environment

We can now typeset a melody with two staves

= > = > > > > > > > =:

 =: > > >

2.9 Adding articulation marks to notes

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For more information on

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