Gac Méd Caracas 2021;129(3):734-746

HISTORIA Y FILOSOFÍA DE LA DOI: 10.47307/GMC.2021.129.3.21

MEDICINA

Medicine in Ancient Egypt

Medicina en el Antiguo Egipto

Aixa Müller1, Andrés Soyano2

SUMMARY and monumental constructions. In surgery, they

practiced the amputation of limbs and circumcision.
Molecular biology studies demonstrate the existence of
Knowledge of the medicine practiced in Ancient Egypt tuberculosis, malaria, schistosomiasis, taeniasis, and
is found mainly in the so-called medical papyri, of which ascariasis. They also suffered from atherosclerosis,
the oldest is the Lahun papyrus (c. 1800 b.C) which tooth decay, and other dental conditions. Cancer was
mainly reveals knowledge of gynecology and obstetrics, rare. Herbs, substances of plant origin (oils, resins,
including methods of contraception. Surgical cases, etc.), or minerals were part of the ancient Egyptian
most of them related to trauma, are dealt with in the pharmacopeia. A well-established system of medical
Edwin Smith papyrus. Specific medical and anatomical care existed, associated with a well-defined medical
terms, such as brain, fracture, and seizure, appear for hierarchy.
the first time in this treatise. Other important papyri
include the Hearst papyrus and the Ebers papyrus. Keywords: Ancient Egypt, medical papyri, Lahun
There are also valuable sources of information papyrus, Ebers papyrus, Edwin Smith papyrus,
in the study of mummies and paleopathographic mummification.
investigations. The most common types of pathologies
detected in the ancient Egyptians were trauma in
many forms that included wounds acquired in wars, RESUMEN
animal bites, and work accidents in mines, quarries,

Los conocimientos de la medicina practicada en el

Antiguo Egipto se encuentran principalmente en
los llamados papiros médicos, de los cuales el más
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47307/GMC.2021.129.3.21 antiguo es el papiro de Lahun (1800 a.C.) que revela
principalmente conocimientos de ginecología y
ORCID: 0000-0001-8421-44411
obstetricia, incluyendo tratamientos anticonceptivos.
ORCID: 0000-0002-0728-92952 En el papiro de Edwin Smith se abordan casos
quirúrgicos, casi todas víctimas de trauma. En este
1
Clínica El Ávila, Caracas; Razetti Medical School, Central tratado aparecen por primera vez términos médicos y
University of Venezuela; Member of the Venezuelan National anatómicos específicos, tales como cerebro, fractura y
Academy of Medicine, and the Venezuelan Society for the convulsión. Entre otros papiros importantes se cuenta
History of Medicine. el de Edwin Smith, el de Hearst y el de Ebers. También
2
Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research (IVIC); Member
hay valiosas fuentes de información en el estudio de
of the Venezuelan National Academy of Medicine, and the
Venezuelan Society for the History of Medicine.
las momias y en investigaciones paleopatográficas.
Los tipos de patologías más comunes detectadas en
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] los antiguos egipcios fueron trauma en muchas formas
que incluían heridas adquiridas en guerras, mordedura
de animales y accidentes laborales en minas, canteras
Recibido: 23 de mayo 2021
y en las construcciones monumentales. En cirugía
Aceptado: 19 de junio 2021

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practicaban la amputación de extremidades y además In particular, the Old Kingdom period is known
la circuncisión. Estudios de biología molecular as the Age of the Pyramids (1). One of the most
demuestran la existencia de tuberculosis, malaria, powerful pharaohs of this period was Zoser or
esquistosomiasis, teniasis y ascaridiasis. Se demuestra Djoser (second pharaoh of the III dynasty) who
que padecían de aterosclerosis, caries dentales y
ruled from 2665 to 2645 b.C, established the
otros padecimientos odontológicos. El cáncer era
infrecuente. Las hierbas, sustancias de origen vegetal capital of the empire in Memphis, south of the Nile
(aceites, resinas, etc.) o minerales formaron parte de delta, and ordered the construction of the famous
la farmacopea egipcia antigua. Existía un sistema stepped pyramid of Saqqara, the first large-scale
bien establecido de atención médica, asociado con stone construction that would serve as eternal
una jerarquía bien definida. rest. This was designed by the sage Imhotep,
who in addition to being an architect, was a
Palabras clave: Antiguo Egipto, papiros médicos, renowned physician who lived between 2690
papiro de Lahun, papiro de Ebers, papiro de Edwin and 2610 b.C (Figure 1). He was an important
Smith, momificación.
person, occupying the positions of the high priest
of Heliopolis and chay of the pharaoh (chay or
HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION vizier is the royal official of the highest degree
in the court). A commoner by birth, Imhotep’s
According to the criteria of most historians, the intelligence and determination enabled him to
expression Ancient Egypt refers to the civilization become Djoser’s most trusted advisor (1). After
that flourished along the Nile in the long period of his death, he was deified as the god of medicine
about 2 800 years that ends with the conquest of and wisdom, his main cult being in Memphis
Alexander the Great in 332 b.C. Some historians and Thebes.
also include the Greek or Hellenistic period that
elapsed between 332 and 30 b.C, when Egypt
became a province of the Roman Empire (1). In
general, according to conventional chronology,
ancient Egyptian history comprises 26 dynasties
grouped into the following periods:
1. Predynastic period (5000 - 3100 b.C)
2. Early dynastic (Dynasties I and II; 3100-2686
b.C)
3. Old Kingdom (Dynasties III to VIII; 2686-
2160 b.C)
4. First intermediate period (Dynasties IX to XI;
2160 - 2055 b.C)
5. Middle Kingdom (Dynasties XII to XIV; 2055
- 1650 b.C) Figure 1. Imhotep representation.
6. Second intermediate period (Dynasties XV to
XVII; 1650 - 1550 b.C)
7. New Kingdom (17th to 20th Dynasties; 1550
- 1069 b.C) DOCUMENTARY SOURCES
8. Third intermediate period (Dynasties XXI to The documentary sources of Ancient Egyptian
XXV; 1069 - 664 b.C) medicine are found mainly in the so-called
9. Late period (XXVI Dynasty and Persian rule; medical papyri, in the hieroglyphic writings found
664 - 332 b.C) in monuments, temples, tombs, and sarcophagi,
and in the accompanying drawings (1,2). These
sources are complemented by paleopathographic
or paleodiagnostic studies, carried out with

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 MEDICINE IN ANCIENT EGYPT

modern techniques of biomedical research THE LAHUN PAPYRUS

applied to human remains (mummies) from
different periods, which has made it possible The Lahun papyrus (found in the town of the
to identify the diseases they suffered and the same name in 1889) is the oldest of the medical
cause of death of mummified individuals. The papyri known to date, having been dated to around
first two sources are written with hieroglyphic 1800 b.C. (Between 1840 and 1792 b.C) (2-4);
symbols or hieratic symbols; the latter represents is primarily a gynecology and obstetrics text,
a simplification of hieroglyphs, specially adapted restored and translated by Egyptologist Griffith
for writing on papyrus. A papyrus is usually and published in 1898. In its content there are
identified with the name of its discoverer, the 17 descriptions of diseases of women with their
place where it was found, or the city or museum respective treatments (enemas, medications,
where it is kept (2). massages, etc.); it also mentions procedures
for the prognosis of fetal sex, to determine the
fertility of women as well as methods for birth
control and to promote conception, as well as
THE MEDICAL PAPYRI
the beneficial influence of music on the human
The main Egyptian literature is represented by body. The prognosis of fetal sex was carried
the hermetic books of the god Thoth, although out as follows: the pregnant woman urinated
many of them have been lost. The so-called on a stack of wheat and another of barley, if the
medical papyri (about 15 are known) are wheat germinated the concept was male, and if
fragments of these books that are in custody in the barley germinated it would be female. Birth
the main museums and libraries of the world (2). control was carried out by introducing crocodile
The most important, in order of its antiquity, are: excrement mixed with sour milk or acacia resin
into the vagina. The fertility prognosis was carried
1. The Lahun or Kahum papyrus, which deals
out by introducing garlic or onion into the vagina,
with gynecological diseases and dates from
if the next day the woman’s breath was garlic or
1820 b.C. It is kept in London (England).
onion, it indicated a fertile woman. Egyptian
2. The Edwin Smith papyrus, 1550 b.C., is kept women in Ancient Egypt gave birth squatting
in New York and deals mainly with surgery seated on a chair with a large hole and the fetus
and trauma. would fall through said hole in the floor or a table
as evidenced by low relief engravings on one
3. The Ebers papyrus, 1500 b.C., is kept in
of the walls of the Temple of Kom Ombo (2-4)
Leipzig; it is about general medicine.
Figure 2. It is kept currently in the Museum of
4. The Hearst Papyrus, dated 1450, is kept in Archeology at the University of London.
California, and deals with general medicine.
5. The Berlin Papyrus, 1200 b.C. deals with
general medicine.

Figure 2. Fragment of the Lahum papyrus (left) and squat delivery engraved on a wall of the Kom Ombo temple (right).

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THE EDWIN SMITH PAPYRUS (The sugar in the honey exerts an osmotic effect
and drains fluids from the wound and bacteria
The Edwin Smith papyrus, purchased by his do not grow on the honey). In other cases,
eponymous from an Egyptian merchant, has been surgical sutures, cauterization, splints, crutches,
dated to around 1550 b.C. It is considered the and supports were used to keep the patient erect.
oldest surgical book in the world (5-7). Its 17 Wound complications, including infection and
pages describe 48 surgical cases, most of them tetanus, are also described. As a treatment for
traumatic (fractures, dislocations, wounds), but a bleeding nose fracture, they used oil-soaked
also include observations on tumors, ulcers, linen swabs in each nostril or placed a rigid roll
abscesses, and their consequences (Figure of linen, followed by a bandage. Treatment for
3). The presentation is organized in the form clavicle and humerus fractures and reduction in
of a clinical history, where the location of the jaw dislocation are described. Smith et al. in
disease, the diagnosis, and the treatment are 1908 studied 2 mummies from V Dynasty tombs
systematically indicated (except in fatal cases). at Naga-ed-dêr with wooden splints preserved
Physiological processes such as blood return, in situ; the patients apparently died due to open
the nervous system, and the importance of the fractures (Smith 1908), one with a compound
spine as a center of control and movement are fracture of the femur treated with wooden splints
described. Methods of fracture and dislocation and another with a compound fracture of the
reduction and procedures for their containment forearm with wood bark splints. For pain, fever,
are described for the first time. The reduction of and inflammation, it mentions the decoction of
jaw dislocation is described in much the same way willow bark (giving origin after several centuries
as it is currently done. Instructions are given for to aspirin). Precise anatomical and medical terms
patients with open head wounds with an exposed such as brain, meninges, fracture, and seizure are
brain (the brain is macroscopically described with mentioned for the first time. This medical text
corrugations such as those that form in molten contains detailed anatomical observations, but
copper and somewhat softened); if blood flows shows no understanding of organ functions, along
from the nostrils and there is neck stiffness, the with the oldest known reference to breast cancer.
recommendation is that these patients should It is currently kept at the New York Academy of
not be treated. They describe complications Medicine. In summary, the text of the Edwin
after a stroke such as dragging gait or foot drop. Smith papyrus is based on the observation,
The meningeal irritation in cases of meningitis collection, and classification of the facts and
is described in the form of “stiffness” of the the application of an inductive mental process,
neck or the inability of patients to “look at their exposing the emerging surgical semiology and
shoulders”. contains a vision of the clinic, of the anatomy,
Regarding wounds and lacerations: the first of the physiology as well as the pathology and
day they were treated with bandages and dressings treatment prevalent at that time (2,5-7).
made of fresh meat and then with oil and honey

Figure 3. Fragment of the Edwin Smith papyrus (left; available at http://archive.nlh.gov.), and Edwin Smith oil painting
by Francesco Anelli, from the collection of the New-York Historical Society (right).

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 MEDICINE IN ANCIENT EGYPT

THE EBERS PAPYRUS a laxative: castor oil, figs, and dates. Infestation
with tapeworms was treated with an infusion
The Ebers Papyrus, the best known and most of pomegranate root (it is known now that the
extensive of the Egyptian medical papyri, is in the alkaloids present in this infusion paralyze the
Library of the University of Leipzig. Its name nervous system of the tapeworm and promote its
comes from the German Egyptologist George expulsion). Ulcers and stomach ailments were
Moritz Ebers, who acquired it in 1872; It is 20.25 treated with yeast. Cases of ocular pathology
m long and 30 cm wide with 108 columns or are mentioned: chalazion and stye, blindness,
pages, each containing 20-22 lines of hieratic trachoma, pterygium, blepharitis, ectropion,
writing (8). It was written around 1536 b.C. in the trichinosis, ocular hemorrhages, corneal
reign of Amenhotep I (18th Dynasty), it contains leukoma, corneal ulcers and scars, cataracts, and
877 sections on medicine with mention of some conjunctivitis. Figure 4 shows the painting of a
700 drugs. It deals with diseases of the eyes, of doctor extracting a supposed foreign body from
the skin, of the extremities, and the respiratory, the eye of a patient with an ophthalmological
digestive, and urinary systems, as well as the first instrument. This is the treatment of a labor
sketch of clinical depression and dementia and of problem, and it must have occurred frequently
the various treatments of these affections, which in the workers who built the pyramids, temples,
in many cases include religious invocations. and monuments. The painting is in the tomb
Some of the plant products mentioned in of the sculptor Ipuy, in Deir el-Medina located
the Ebers papyrus for their medicinal effect south of Sheikh Abd el Qurna. The sculptor of
are saffron, myrrh, aloe, castor leaves, lily Ramses II captured a series of scenes of what
extract, poppy juice, coniferous resin, hemp, today we understand as work accidents in the
and frankincense. Raw garlic was prescribed catafalque of Ipuy.
for asthma and bronchopulmonary conditions, Regarding treatments with drugs of mineral
onions to treat gastrointestinal problems and for origin, natron (a mineral formed by sodium
colds, coriander against flatulence and cystitis, carbonate and bicarbonate and sodium sulfate
cumin against flatulence and in a poultice with and chloride), common salt, malachite, and lapis
wheat flour and water against joint pain, cumin lazuli are mentioned; the latter is not absorbed,
with lard as an anal suppository for anal itching, and its use was restricted to ocular pathologies (8).
basil for the heart, aloe for parasites, belladonna
for insomnia and pain, colchicine for rheumatism,
cardamom as a digestive, and garlic and onion
to increase physical strength. The leaves of
many plants, such as willow, sycamore, and
acacia, and tree resins were used in poultices.
The papyrus also mentioned drug treatments
of animal origin such as honey, milk, blood,
urine, placenta, bile, fat, meat, and liver extract;
animal excrement from cats, birds, crocodiles,
and also human excrement was used in medical
treatments. Honey was mainly for internal use
although was also recommended for the treatment
of open wounds for its anti-inflammatory and
healing effect. One remedy for gray hair was
an extract of cat’s placenta, and fat from lion,
hippopotamus, crocodile, cat, snake, and other Figure 4. Physician extracting a foreign body from the eye
animals were prescribed against baldness. Animal of a patient (painting on the catafalque of Ipuy, a sculptor,
fat was also used to make ointments in the hope in Deir el-Medina).
of transferring some desirable characteristics
of the animal. Ass penis prepared as a powder
is mentioned for the treatment of impotence (a
precursor to today’s Viagra). They are used as

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THE BROOKLIN PAPYRUS Zaki et al. in 2010 studied 204 skeletons and
2 287 long bones from the Giza Cemetery and
The Brooklyn Papyrus is a medical papyrus found a mummy with limb amputation dating
dealing with medicine and ophidiology; it has from the III-VI Dynasty (2700-2190 BC) and the
been dated around 450 b.C and is preserved second case of another skeleton with ulna and
in the Brooklyn Museum in New York. It radius amputation (10). It is interesting to note
describes 21 snakes, their characteristics, habits, that in the temple of Edfu (dedicated to Horus,
the appearance of the bite, and its effects, such equivalent to the Greek Apollo), located in the
as fever for 7 to 11 days, weakness, tremors, homonymous city that was known as Apolinópolis
tetanization, eye muscle spasms, bleeding, and Magna during the Hellenistic period, a bas-relief
inflammation. The papyrus also describes the represents the amputation of a leg as a testimony
prognosis of patients according to the species to the practice of this surgical method in Ancient
of snake involved. Survival was conditioned Egypt (Figura 5). This temple is the second largest
by the number of days after the bite and the temple in Egypt after that of Karnak and one of
treatment. Uncontrollable emesis was a sign the best-preserved. In the Egyptian Museum of
of poor prognosis. The treatment was usually Cairo, a prosthesis that replaces the big toe of a
local with drugs, herbs, and spells, incision of the foot, found in Thebes, in the year 2000 is exhibited
wound with a knife several times the first day to (Figure 6). The skull of Pharaoh Seqenenrade of
remove necrotic tissue and alleviate the edema, the 17th Dynasty from 1600 b.C is also exhibited
and then they applied salt or natron and bandage. there. The skull shows a perforation. By using
The onion was widely used, associated with an X-rays, it was shown that there was bone growth
invocation to Horus, God of Heaven, and the around the perforation indicating that the pharaoh
origin of life; they also invoked Serket, goddess lived at least several months after the accident,
of scorpions with powers over snakebites (2). probably treated by doctors (Figure 7).
Open wounds were often treated with honey,
but sepsis was one of the most common causes
of death (2).

THE PRACTICE OF SURGERY

Surgery was widely practiced in Ancient Egypt
as demonstrated by Dupras et al. in 2009 when they
reported four cases of amputation in mummies
discovered in Dayr al-Barshā, an important
necropolis and quarry of the First Intermediate Figure 5. Bas-relief of the amputation of a leg, on a wall
of the Temple of Edfu.
Period and the Middle Kingdom (9). Two of the
cases are of individuals who have amputations in
both feet, one through the metatarsophalangeal
joints and the other a transmetatarsal amputation.
They show the particular pattern of healing and
pseudoarthrosis formation where the metatarsal
heads are shown to have fused. Another case
represents a healed amputation of the left ulna
near the elbow, dating from the Old Kingdom
and another mummy with the distal end of the
right humerus amputated, but given the multiple
fractures that this mummy had, the individual must
have died from trauma. All four cases support
the hypothesis that the ancient Egyptians used
amputation as a therapeutic surgical treatment, Figure 6. Prosthesis for replacing the big toe of a foot was
especially in cases of trauma (9). found in Thebes in 2000.

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 MEDICINE IN ANCIENT EGYPT

In the temple of Kom Ombo (dedicated to the

gods Horus and Sobek, located 45 Km north of
Aswan), the destination of thousands of pilgrims
who consulted Horus, the healer, about their
health, there is a bas-relief representing ancient
surgical instruments such as bone saws, suction
cups, knives and scalpels, retractors, lancets,
chisels, and dental tools (Figure 8).
The tomb or mastaba of Ankh-Mahor, visir or
chatty (“First after the Pharaoh”, “Overseer of the
Great House”) during the reign of Pharaoh Teti
of the VI Dynasty, located in the necropolis in
Saqqara, is known as the tomb of the physician
Figure 7. Skull of Pharaoh Seqenenre (17th Dynasty, 1600
because it includes famous surgical scenes:
b.C), showing a perforation.
operation of a toe, a thumb, and circumcision.

Figure 8. Surgical instruments from Ancient Egypt were carved into the Kom Ombo temple wall (left) and temple facade
(right).

The best-known images are found on the door

of the Hall of Columns. There is the bas-relief
of the circumcision of a boy destined for the
priesthood, an initiation ritual that included the
shaving of the entire body (11; Figure 9). The
tomb also shows multiple scenes with artisans
at work, jewelry, metallurgy, sculptures, funeral
rites, and dancing women). Traumas because
of industrial accidents were frequent in mines,
quarries, and in the construction of tombs in the
necropolis, war wounds, animal bites, fever,
burns, itching, stings, pain.
Figure 9. Representation of circumcision in an adolescent
in a bas-relief in the tomb of the physician Ankh-Mahor
in Saqqara.

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INFECTIOUS AND PARASITIC DISEASES confirmed by Miller et al. in 1982 in Nakht in a

dissected non-embalmed mummy (18).
It has been possible to demonstrate the
existence of tuberculosis among the ancient Malaria was detected in 4000-year-old
Egyptians; signs of Pott’s disease have been mummies in Abydos. Plasmodium falciparum
observed in a high proportion of mummies. DNA was identified in bone tissue by PCR
Accurate evidence of tuberculosis has been (amplification of a 134 bp fragment) in 2 of
demonstrated by PCR (polymerase chain 91 mummies. Smallpox, diarrhea, dysentery,
reaction) of bacterial DNA (12-16). Figure 10 typhoid, jaundice, and relapsing fever were
shows the mummy of priest Ammon of Nes- responsible for many deaths (21) (Figure 11).
Perenhep, with signs of vertebral spondylitis and
secondary cold abscess in the right psoas muscle.

Figure 11. PCR amplification of a 134 bp fragment of

ancient Plasmodium falciparum DNA in an Egyptian
Figure 10. Remains of the Egyptian priest Ammon (21th mummy. Lane 1, molecular marker; Lanes 10 and 11,
Dynasty) showing signs of Pott’s disease. 2 negative controls. One (lane 6) of 8 samples shows a
positive amplification product (arrow). The specificity of
the product was verified by sequencing. (Nerlich A.G.
Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;4:8).
The existence of schistosomiasis or bilharziasis,
a parasitic infection caused by trematodes of
the genus Schistosoma, has been proven in
Ancient Egypt (17-20). The most important
species in human pathology are S. haematobium Smallpox was another prevalent disease in
(responsible for urogenital disease), S. mansoni, Ancient Egypt. The earliest evidence of the
and S. japonicum (responsible for intestinal and disease dates from the time of Pharaoh Ramses
liver disease). Schistosomiasis was a common V, who died unexpectedly young after a 4-year
cause of anemia, female infertility, susceptibility reign, according to radiological studies, in 1157
to other diseases, and ultimately death. The Ebers b.C. His mummy in the Cairo Museum shows
Papyrus addresses some aspects of the disease pockmarks (22).
and in two columns discusses the treatment Trichinosis was present, affecting pigs and
and prevention of bleeding in the urinary tract humans. The ancient Egyptians suffered from
(hematuria). The Hearst Papyrus cites the tapeworm infestation as evidenced by the mummy
therapeutic effect of antimony disulfide. The of Nakht, a twentieth dynasty weaver, and was
first archaeological evidence of the existence found infested with the tapeworm Trichinella
of schistosomiasis in Ancient Egypt was the spiralis which causes cysticercosis; schistosome
discovery of calcified eggs, in 1910 by Sir Marc infestation was also detected in this mummy.
Armand Ruffer, pioneer of paleopathology and

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 MEDICINE IN ANCIENT EGYPT

It has been observed in ancient Egyptian tombs

drawings of men with male genitalia suggestive
of filariasis. Illustrations possibly depicting
elephantiasis (23) can be seen at the funerary
temple of Queen Hatshepsut (1501-1480 BC)
near Luxor. In the scrotum skin of the mummy
of the priest Natsef-Amun (XIX Dynasty), found
in the Nesyamun Museum in Leeds, England, the
presence of filariae was reported.
The ancient Egyptians suffered from
strongyloidiasis infestation as demonstrated
by the presence of Strongyloides stercoralis
larvae in the intestinal wall of Asru’s mummy
(21st Dynasty), which is in the Manchester Figure 12. Computerized axial tomography (CAT) of the
Museum (24). The intestines of the mummy spine of an Egyptian mummy.
had been placed between her legs and not in
the canopic jars, as was customary. They found
evidence of Ascaris lumbricoides infestation in
the PUM II mummy (24), which is housed in the In Ancient Egypt, congenital diseases, or
Museum of Archeology and Anthropology of the malformations such as a sixth toe, spina bifida,
University of Pennsylvania, USA. and achondroplasia have been shown in some
The ancient Egyptians probably suffered from mummies (24). Figure 14 shows the sculpture
polio. The papyrus of the priest Rom shows a of the dwarf Seneb, priest of the funeral cults of
drawing in which he makes an offering; it is Khufu with his priestess wife of normal height
observed that his right leg shows a lesion that and two children. Seneb presented disharmonic
could represent the oldest testimony of this hypochondroplasia dwarfism as observed in the
disease. proportion of the limbs and the trunk. He was
an official of the pharaoh’s court, head of the
wardrobe dedicated to the cult of Cheops, and in
charge of the funeral cults of Khufu. In Figure
OTHER DISEASES 15 we have a bas-relief with Seneb receiving
Pulmonary silicosis from breathing airborne reports from the scribes. This bas-relief is found in
sand particles was a probable cause of lung Seneb’s tomb in Giza. It is important to emphasize
disease and death (25). The ancient Egyptians that the dwarves of Ancient Egypt were highly
suffered from hernias and hydroceles and there respected and appreciated and some of them could
was also malnutrition (26). Cancer was extremely occupy high positions in the government (27-29).
rare (26); however, a team of researchers, Thompson et al. (30) and Allam et al. (31)
including a group of anthropologists from the detected arteriosclerosis in mummies from
University of Granada, has discovered the oldest Ancient Egypt by computerized axial tomography.
cases of breast cancer and multiple myeloma in The authors of the investigation of atherosclerosis
two mummies found in the necropolis of Qubbet considered the presence of atherosclerosis as
el Hawa, near Aswan. Both belonged to the ruling positive if they visualized a calcified plaque in
class, or at least were wealthy, of the families of the arterial wall or calcifications along its course
the Egyptian governors of Elephantine, present- by tomography. Thus, they detected 34 % of
day Aswan. A mummy with metastatic prostate 137 mummies and 38 % of 76 non-mummified
carcinoma has also been reported. Figure 12 Egyptians with atherosclerosis (31,32). Vascular
shows the computed axial tomography of the calcifications have also been detected in the
column of a 2150-year-old mummy, preserved mummies of Ramses II, who died at the age of 90,
in a museum in Lisbon. A mummy from 2200 Ramses III, Ramses V, and Ramses VI. Regarding
b.C with breast carcinoma was discovered in the the relationship between diet and atherosclerosis
Aswan necropolis (26). in Ancient Egypt, it has been established that the

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Figure 15. Seneb receiving reports from the scribes. Bas-

Figure 13. The priest Rom making an offering; his lameness relief of the Tomb of Seneb in Giza.
could be the oldest testimony of polio. Copy of a vignette
dated around 1403-1365 b.C.

In Egyptian mummies, dental alterations such

as cavities, ablation of the occlusal surfaces,
infection of the dental roots and alveoli with
abscess formation, and periapical cysts have been
detected (34). In some cases, the spread of chronic
infection to the bone causing osteomyelitis has
been observed, with the possible occurrence
of septicemia. The mummies of the pharaohs
Amenophis III and Ramses II show teeth in
poor condition; that of Ramses II presents
large cavities within the maxilla due to bone
reabsorption caused by the infection. Figure 16
shows a denture with ablation of occlusal faces
in a young mummy from 2100 b.C, and in Figure
17, a denture with deep cavities.

Figure 14. Representation of Seneb, dwarf priest of the

funeral cults of Khufu with his priestess wife of normal
height and two children.

diet consisted of beef, wild birds, goose, bread,

fruits, vegetables, bread, cereals such as barley
or wheat, onion, lettuce, eggs, cakes, wine, and
beer. The diet consisted of more than 50 % fat
of the saturated type. The ancient Egyptians of
Figure 16. Denture with ablation of the occlusal surfaces
the lower classes followed a vegetarian diet while
in the mummy of a young man (2100 b.C).
royalty consumed high levels of fat (32,33).

Gac Méd Caracas 743

 MEDICINE IN ANCIENT EGYPT

“the great mother goddess”, symbol of strength

and power. She was considered the goddess of
war and revenge, but also the goddess of healing.

EMBALMING AND MUMMIFICATION

Embalming or mummification is the process
or procedure used for the conservation or
preservation of human remains or other animal
species, counteracting the natural process of
decomposition or putrefaction. It can occur
naturally or be the result of an artificial process
Figure 17. Jaw from an Egyptian tomb (3000 years b.C). (36-38). The Egyptians’ belief in the immortality
of the pharaohs led to the embalming and
mummification process, as a way to preserve
their integrity in the afterlife, a procedure that
was extended to other people, and in general, to
Treatments for inflamed gums with a mixture whoever could pay for it. Mummification was
of cumin, frankincense, and onion are mentioned performed in Egypt from ancient times to the
in some of the medical papyri. They used opium Christian era, in an effort to preserve the body
for severe toothaches. Holes were sometimes for use in the afterlife with the Ka (life force) and
drilled in the jaw to drain abscesses. But tooth the Ba (personality) (39). Death was considered
extraction was rarely practiced. not the end of this life but an interruption to
move to a better life. They thought that the soul
of the deceased traveled to the afterlife where it
would meet Osiris, God of Death, and lord of a
MEDICAL ORGANIZATION
paradisiac region (Aaru), with eternally fertile
In Ancient Egypt, the term to name the fields, abundant food, and recreations such as
physicians was Sun-Nu, which meant “the man of hunting and fishing. After this transitory life,
those who suffers or are sick” (1,35). At the time the person went to another more permanent life,
of Pharaoh Zoser and his physician Imhotep there better than Egypt, an underground region called
was a medical organization in which the following Campo de Larus or Campo Reds, ruled by Osiris
classes of doctors could be distinguished: where the deceased could live with the gods;
for this transit to occur the physical body was
El’wn (ordinary physician)
indispensable (40,41).
Imyr swnw (supervisor of physicians)
In the Predynastic Era, about 6 000 years ago,
Wrswnw (Chief Physicians) the corpses were buried in the desert, wrapped
in animal skins, under conditions that favored
Smsw swnw (oldest of physician)
the desiccation of the bodies and their natural
Shdswnw (Medical Inspector) mummification. From the observation of this
Imy-rt-swny (director of physicians) phenomenon and the belief in another life for
the soul of the deceased, the process of artificial
Physicians were specialized in Ancient Egypt, mummification began. The Egyptian word for
and in principle, there was a distinction between mummy was Sah; the modern word mummy is
doctors (using drugs or invocations) and surgeons. believed to come from the words “muum” and
Sekhetnankh was a word applied to a doctor “mumia”, from Persian and Arabic, respectively,
treating nasal diseases, and Iry was the name for which mean wax, resin, or bitumen. Bitumen,
the royal doctor of the intestines. There were which is found naturally and abundantly in much
also exorcist doctors, who healed by means of of this region, was used in the mummification
charms and amulets. The surgeons considered process at first sporadically. During the dynastic
themselves as priests of the goddess Sekhmet, period, the use of the process increased. For this,

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 MÜLLER A, SOYANO A

a wide variety of substances were used such as CONCLUSIONS

acacia oil, pistachio tree resin, frankincense,
natron (a mineral that contains sodium carbonate),
honey, herbs, cedar oil, gum, etc. The Greek The Egyptian papyri, as well as the pictorial
historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus, (484 - 425 representations of temples and funerary
b.C) wrote that embalmers formed an organized monuments of Ancient Egypt, demonstrate the
group with different functions in the various existence of important medical knowledge as
stages of mummification. After the mourning well as a hierarchical professional organization
that lasted 3 to 4 days, the relatives handed over of medicine. Although such knowledge is
the corpse for mummification and the embalmers closely related to magical-religious practices and
proceeded to thoroughly clean it with plenty of supernatural conceptions and can be considered
water and then perfume it. In a second stage, rudimentary, they constitute a first approach
they proceeded to extract the brain and eviscerate to the development of a more rational medical
the trunk. The cranial cavity was filled with practice that arises mainly in the Greek culture
a resinous fluid from conifers, beeswax, and of the pre-Christian era, whose top representative
scented vegetable oils. Only the heart, the seat is Hippocrates. Therefore, it can be considered
of the soul, and the kidneys were left inside the that the practice of medicine in Ancient Egypt
corpse or were put in their place after embalming. and the organization of the knowledge acquired
One of the embalmers marked on the left side of empirically represent one of the fundamental
the abdomen the place where the abdominal cavity bases on which Western medicine will develop.
had to be opened with a sharp stone to extract
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