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Topic 6

The document discusses deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, assumptions, and how to identify them in arguments. It defines arguments and their components, the two types of reasoning, and differentiates between inferences and assumptions.

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41 views26 pages

Topic 6

The document discusses deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, assumptions, and how to identify them in arguments. It defines arguments and their components, the two types of reasoning, and differentiates between inferences and assumptions.

Uploaded by

2021826386
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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6

Chapter

DEDUCTIVE REASONING,
INDUCTIVE REASONING AND
ASSUMPTIONS IN ARGUMENTS
LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:


❑Identify arguments
❑Identify deductive reasoning in arguments
❑Identify inductive reasoning in arguments
❑Identify assumptions in arguments

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–3
ARGUMENTS

❑ An argument consists of statements which form


the premise (or premises) and a conclusion.

Argument

Premise(s) Conclusion

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–4
ARGUMENTS (cont.)

Identifying Statements
❑Not all sentences are statements

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–5
ARGUMENTS (cont.)

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–6
ARGUMENTS (cont.)

Identifying Premises
❑A premise is a statement which provides specific
examples, reasons, cases or other details that
support (prove or explain) a conclusion.

❑Premises may be introduced using premise


indicators.

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–7
ARGUMENTS (cont.)

❑ Premise indicators:

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–8
ARGUMENTS (cont.)

Identifying Conclusions
❑A conclusion is the main point of a passage or text.

❑Itis a statement which is supported by the premise


(or premises).

❑Conclusions may be introduced using conclusion


indicators.

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–9
ARGUMENTS (cont.)

❑ Conclusion indicators:

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–10
ARGUMENTS (cont.)

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–11
ARGUMENTS (cont.)

However, because I am the father and I say so does not


support the claim, so it is not considered a premise to the
conclusion.

Therefore, this example is not an argument.


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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–12
IDENTIFYING DEDUCTIVE REASONING
IN ARGUMENTS

❑ There are two main types of reasoning:


– deductive
– inductive

❑ In deductive reasoning, the argument starts


from a general statement or rule (conclusion or
claim), followed by the premises on which it is
based.

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–13
IDENTIFYING DEDUCTIVE REASONING
IN ARGUMENTS (cont.)

❑ A deductive argument asserts that the


conclusion follows necessarily from the truth of
the premises.

❑ A deductive argument is valid or invalid.

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–14
IDENTIFYING DEDUCTIVE REASONING
IN ARGUMENTS (cont.)

❑This is a deductive argument since the conclusion:


– So, Ann likes salmon.
follows from the truth of the premises:
– Ann likes all fish.
– Salmon is a fish.
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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–15
IDENTIFYING DEDUCTIVE REASONING
IN ARGUMENTS (cont.)

❑This is a deductive argument since the conclusion:


– Thus, Ahmad cannot vote.
follows from the truth of the premises:
– In Malaysia, you must be 21 years old to vote.
– Ahmad is a Malaysian.
– He is 20 years old.

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–16
IDENTIFYING INDUCTIVE REASONING
IN ARGUMENTS

❑ In inductive reasoning, the premises aim to


establish or increase the possibility of its
conclusion.

❑ A conclusion derived from inductive reasoning


provides an argument which is considered to be
strong or weak.

❑ Inductive reasoning only attempts to conclude from


probability.
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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–17
IDENTIFYING INDUCTIVE REASONING
IN ARGUMENTS (cont.)

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–18
IDENTIFYING INDUCTIVE REASONING
IN ARGUMENTS (cont.)

❑However, the conclusion is only likely to be true. It is possible the


Chairman will not be late for this meeting. Then, the conclusion:
– I am quite sure he will be late for this meeting.
is false.
❑This is considered an inductive reasoning since it only attempts to
conclude from probability.

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–19
IDENTIFYING ASSUMPTIONS IN
ARGUMENTS

❑ Sometimes the author or speaker fails to present


the premises.

❑ The author assumes that the reader has available


to him/her the information or knowledge needed,
thus it need not be stated in the argument.

❑ The information that is not stated or is presupposed


by the author in the argument is called the
assumption.
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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–20
IDENTIFYING ASSUMPTIONS IN
ARGUMENTS (cont.)

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–21
IDENTIFYING ASSUMPTIONS IN
ARGUMENTS (cont.)

Note: Assumptions can also be either accurate or


inaccurate, logical or illogical, and justified or unjustified.

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–22
DIFFERENTIATE INFERENCES AND
ASSUMPTIONS IN ARGUMENTS

❑ An assumption is the missing or presupposed


information in an argument.

❑ An inference, on the other hand, is a conclusion


made based on given information.

❑ Inferences and assumptions can be either accurate


or inaccurate, logical or illogical, and justified or
unjustified.

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–23
DIFFERENTIATE INFERENCES AND
ASSUMPTIONS IN ARGUMENTS (cont.)

Inference

❑In this case, the inference may be correct.

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–24
DIFFERENTIATE INFERENCES AND
ASSUMPTIONS IN ARGUMENTS (cont.)

Assumption

❑In this case, the assumption is accurate.

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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–25
CONCLUSION

❑ Arguments
– consist of premise(s) and conclusion
❑ Two main types of reasoning in arguments
– deductive
– inductive
❑ Assumptions in arguments
– missing or presupposed information
– the inference is a conclusion based on given
information
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© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 6–26

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