Map Reproduction

Madhusudan Adhikari, Resource Person

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The Cartographic Process
 Map Reproduction
• Map reproduction refers to the process of creating duplicate copies
or reproductions of maps through various methods such as
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• printing,
• digital technologies, or
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• other cartographic techniques.

Map Reproduction

• The objective is to replicate existing maps accurately for:

• distribution,
• sharing, or
• preservation of geographic information for diverse purposes.
• The three most important steps in map reproduction are:
• Data Acquisition,
• Editing and Enhancement, and
• Multicopy Production
 Map Reproduction
• Map reproduction
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involves printing a map Map Compilation

in small or large
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quantities (print Original Copy/Manuscript/Draft Map

Map Reproduction

reproduction), or the
electronic duplication Editing and
of a map in digital Enhancement
form (non print
reproduction). Thematic Layers/Separated Color Sheets
• Conventional
Environment Multicopy
• Digital Environment Production

Web Maps/Digital Maps/Paper Maps

 Map Reproduction
• There are various Methods of Reproducing Maps
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• Selection of duplication process depends on

• Intended audience and purpose of the map
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• Number of copies
Map Reproduction

• Desired quality of output map

• Cost of production
• Number of color or gray tones
• Material/media to be used
• The size of map sheet
• These factors are also considered in the design phase of map as
well
• Reproduction idea: decreasing unit cost with increasing number of
copies.
 Map Reproduction
Map reproduction
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Print reproduction Non print reproduction

Map Reproduction

Manual Tracing Diazo printing Digital Maps

Woodblock Printing Xerographic printing Web Maps

Stencil Reproduction Photography Scanned Maps

Transfer Printing Inkjet/Laser Printing/Plotting Mobile Maps

Silkscreen Printing Contact printing

Blueprinting Flatbed /Offset Printing

 dilapidated

Print Reproduction
• Manual Tracing
• Skilled cartographers may reproduce maps by hand, using traditional drafting
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tools like pens, pencils, and compasses.

• Useful when very few copies are needed
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• Mostly in restoration of dilapidated (जीर्ण) maps

• Time consuming and costly
Map Reproduction

• Woodblock printing
• Involves carving a map image onto a wooden block, applying ink, and then
pressing it onto paper or fabric.
• It is historically significant method and obsolete now
• Faster then manual but less accurate and lower quality product
• Stencil Reproduction
• Stencils can be used to reproduce maps by applying ink through cut-out openings
onto a surface.
• This method is less common today but was historically used for duplicating maps.
• Faster then manual but less accurate and lower quality product
 Print Reproduction
• Transfer Printing
• Transfer printing involves transferring an image from one surface to another
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using heat or pressure.

• This method can be used for reproducing maps onto various materials.
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• Silkscreen Printing
Map Reproduction

• Silkscreen printing involves pressing ink through a mesh screen onto a mapping
surface.
• It has been used for map reproduction, particularly for limited editions or artistic
maps.
• Blueprinting/ammonia printing
• Blueprinting is a photographic process that involves exposing chemically treated
paper to light through a negative.
• It was historically used for reproducing architectural and engineering drawings,
including maps.
• is used as light sensitive chemical so it is also termed as ammonia printing.
 Chemical Process of Blueprinting
• Sensitizing the Paper:
• Blueprint paper is coated with a mixture containing a photosensitive iron salt, typically
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Ammonium ferric citrate (also known as ferric ammonium citrate or ammoniacal ferrous
citrate- (NH4)5[Fe(C6H4O7)2]), and a reducing agent, often potassium ferricyanide-
K3[Fe(CN)6]. This coating makes the paper sensitive to light.
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• Exposure to Light:
Map Reproduction

• The original map or drawing is placed over the sensitized blueprint paper, and the two
are exposed to light (generally UV). The light triggers a photochemical reaction in which
the iron salt is reduced to a ferrous state in the areas exposed to light.
• Formation of Prussian Blue:
• After exposure, the paper is developed by placing it in a chamber containing ammonia
vapor. The ammonia reacts with the ferrous ions, converting them into insoluble ferrous
ammonium citrate. This compound reacts with the remaining ferricyanide in the paper to
form Prussian blue, a blue-colored compound.
• Rinsing and Drying:
• The blueprint is then rinsed with water to remove any unreacted chemicals and dried.
The areas that were exposed to light during exposure turn blue, creating a white-on-blue
reproduction of the original drawing.
 Diazo printing
• IT is a duplication process that was historically used for reproducing architectural and engineering
drawings, including maps. It is named after the diazo compounds involved in the chemical reactions
during the process. Chemical Process:
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• Diazo Paper Preparation:

• The process begins with diazo paper, which is coated with a light-sensitive diazo compound. This compound is often
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diazonium salt.
• Exposure to UV Light:
Map Reproduction

• The original map or drawing is placed over the diazo paper, and the two are exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light. The UV
light triggers a chemical reaction in the diazo compound, leading to its decomposition.
• Formation of Diazonium Ion:
• The exposure to UV light causes the diazo compound to break down into a diazonium ion. This ion is highly reactive
and can undergo further reactions.
• Contact Printing:
• After exposure, the original map is removed, leaving a latent image on the diazo paper. The paper is then brought into
contact with a material known as the developer.
• Development:
• The developer typically contains ammonia or amine compounds. The developer reacts with the diazonium ion, resulting
in the formation of an azo dye. This dye is usually blue and becomes visible on the paper, creating a copy of the original
map.
• Fixing:
• The developed diazo print is often washed and fixed to remove any remaining diazo compounds and to stabilize the
image. This step helps prevent further reactions and ensures the permanence of the print.
 Xerographic printing
• Xerography involves exposing a document or map to light, creating
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an electrostatic image on a charged photoreceptor. Toner particles

adhere to the charged areas, forming a visible image, which is then
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transferred and fused onto paper.

Map Reproduction

1.Charging→ 2.Exposure → 3.Development → 4.Transfer → 5.Fusing

Negatively charged
tonner particles

Tonner is fixed on the

region with no -ve particles

The entire photoreceptor The irradiated region negatively-charged toner is fixed to

is negatively charged by Toner is permanently toner is absorbed prevent it from
of the photoreceptor
delivering negatively- bonded on paper and onto positively- coming off by
generates positive
charged ions using a wire copying is completed. charged paper applying heat and
charges, and
with high-voltage. negative charges pressure with a
were cancelled out. fixing roll to melt
toner into paper.
 Photography: Process camera
• Enlargement and
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Reduction
• Transparency
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Conversion
•
Map Reproduction

Negative and
Positive Production
• Halftone Screen
Production
• Color Separation for
Printing
• Proof Sheet
Production
• Photoengraving
Madhusudan Adhikari, Resource Person Photography: Process Camera
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Map Reproduction

Scheimpflug principle: The image plane of

sharpest focus passes through the line in which
the film/sensor plane and lens plane intersect.
 Photographic film
• Photographic film consists of multiple layers, each serving a specific purpose in the process of
capturing and developing images.
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Map Reproduction

Film Base: The base layer is the foundation of the film. It is usually made of a transparent material, such as
cellulose acetate or polyester. The base provides structural support for the other layers and ensures the film's
stability
Emulsion layers: Each emulsion layer contains light-sensitive silver halide crystals suspended in a gelatin matrix.
The crystals react to light exposure during the photographic process.
Anti-Halation Layer (Back Layer):Located on the back of the film opposite the emulsion layers, the anti-halation
layer prevents light from scattering within the film. It absorbs excess light that passes through the emulsion layers,
preventing unwanted reflections and halos on the final image.
Protective layer: a protective layer applied to the top of the emulsion layers. It serves to protect the emulsion from
scratches
 Photographic film
• Negative Films:
• Latent Image Formation: Negative films create a latent (invisible) image during exposure.
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This image is formed by the reduction of silver halide crystals in the film emulsion.
• Brightness Reversal: After development, a negative image is obtained where dark areas in
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the scene appear as light on the film, and vice versa.

• Processing:
Map Reproduction

• After exposure, negatives are developed to reveal the latent image.

• The film is then fixed to remove unexposed silver halide crystals, leaving behind a negative image.
• Additional processes involve washing and drying the negative.
• Direct Positive Films:
• Latent Image Formation: Direct positive films create a positive image during exposure.
The exposed areas become darker, similar to the final image.
• No Reversal: There is no need for an additional reversal step in the processing; the image
appears as a positive from the start.
• Processing:
• After exposure, direct positive films are developed to reveal the positive image directly.
• No additional reversal step is needed, simplifying the processing compared to negative films.
• The film is fixed, washed, and dried for final use.
 Photographic film Processing
• Manual and Automatic
• There are eight steps:
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1. Exposure:
• The photographic process begins with the exposure of light-sensitive emulsion to light. This emulsion typically consists of gelatin
containing light-sensitive silver halide crystals, such as silver bromide or silver chloride.
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2. Capture of Photons:
• When light hits the emulsion, photons interact with the silver halide crystals. This interaction causes a chemical change in the crystals,
Map Reproduction

forming latent image centers.

3. Development:
• The exposed film or photographic paper is processed through a series of chemical baths. The development process involves treating the
film with a developer solution. The developer reacts with the exposed silver halide crystals, reducing them to metallic silver. This process
transforms the latent image into a visible image.
4. Stop Bath:
• After development, the film is rinsed in a stop bath solution to halt the development process. The stop bath contains an acid that
neutralizes the alkaline developer, preventing further development.
5. Fixing:
• The fixed bath is the next step, where the film is immersed in a fixing solution. The fixing solution dissolves the unexposed and
undeveloped silver halide crystals, leaving only the developed silver on the film. This makes the image permanent and light-resistant.
6. Washing:
• The film is thoroughly washed to remove residual chemicals from the development and fixing processes. Proper washing is essential to
prevent deterioration over time.
7. Drying:
• Once washed, the film is dried. It can then be cut into individual frames for printing or scanning.
 Map Reproduction
Madhusudan Adhikari, Resource Person
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 Map Reproduction
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• Printing/Plotting the digital map.
Inkjet/Laser Printing/Plotting
Madhusudan Adhikari, Resource Person Contact Printing
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Map Reproduction

• Any original with line tone, continuous tone and half tone
in opaque/transparent base
• Both in-contact and out-contact possible
• Direct positive/ negative film possible
• Applicable for
• Transparency Conversion
• Negative and Positive Production
• Image inversion (RR->WR and vice versa)
 Contact Printing
If original is RR positive and the film is coated with If original is RR negative and the film is coated with
negative emulsion the copy will be: negative emulsion the copy will be:
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• RR negative out contact printing • RR positive out contact printing

• WR negative in contact printing • WR positive in contact printing
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If original is RR negative and film is coated with direct

Map Reproduction

If original is RR positive and film is coated with direct

positive emulsion copy will be: positive emulsion copy will be:
• RR positive out contact printing • RR negative out contact printing
• WR positive in contact printing • WR negative in contact printing

If original is WR positive and film is coated with If original is WR negative and film is coated with
negative emulsion copy will be: negative emulsion copy will be:
• WR negative out contact printing • WR positive out contact printing
• RR negative in contact printing • RR positive in contact printing
If original is WR positive and film is coated with If original is WR negative and film is coated with
direct positive emulsion copy will be: direct positive emulsion copy will be:
• WR positive out contact printing • WR negative out contact printing
• RR positive in contact printing • RR negative in contact printing
 Map Reproduction
Madhusudan Adhikari, Resource Person
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Conventional Environment
 Map Reproduction
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 Map Registration
• The basic problem of multi color map preparation
is register, i.e., making the colors print exactly
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where they should.

• To facilitate register, small crosses, called register
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marks, are placed on the four margins of every

plate (drawing) of the copy in exactly the same
Map Reproduction

place on each.
• Alternate way is “Mechanical registration” which
involves using physical guides, pins, or notches or
punch holes and studs on the map sheets and
printing equipment. These guides help align and
position each sheet precisely during the
reproduction process.
• Sometimes T-bar with adjustable pins can be used
to align different map sheets precisely. The pins are
placed at key points on each sheet, and the T-bar
helps ensure that these points match across all
sheets.
 Quality of materials
• Dimensional stability of printing paper
• The larger the drawing and the reproduction the more important is the use of
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dimensionally stable materials.

• Plastics (Vinylite) are stable, and some drawing papers and tracing papers can be
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used in the smaller sizes. If drawing papers or tracing papers are used, care must
Map Reproduction

be taken that the grain of the paper runs in the same direction on each overlay or
plate, so that if expansion or contraction does take place it will be more nearly
uniform on each.
• The quality of ink used
• Inks should exhibit consistent color throughout the print run
• Ink should have sufficient color density to achieve vibrant and rich colors
• Inks with appropriate drying times are essential for efficient offset printing
• Proper adhesion is essential for achieving sharp and durable prints
• Inks should be compatible with the printing plates used in the offset printing
process. They should transfer smoothly from the plate to the rubber blanket and
then onto the substrate without issues like plate scumming or ink buildup.
 Printing plate materials
• Printing plates can be made up of materials such as paper, plastic, and metal for different printing
processes.
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• 1. Paper Plates:
• Made from paper or paperboard materials.
• Used for short-run, cost-effective printing jobs.
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• Typically used for simple, one-color designs.

• Limited durability and not suitable for extended use.
Map Reproduction

• Limited budget or one-time use applications.

• 2. Plastic Plates:
• Made from various plastic materials, including polyester and photopolymer.
• Photopolymer Plates: Light-sensitive plates used in flexography, letterpress, and some offset printing applications.
• Photopolymer plates offer high resolution and image detail.
• Polyester Plates: Used in lithography and screen printing.
• Polyester plates are durable and can withstand longer print runs.
• Suitable for various printing processes from short to medium print runs.
• 3. Metal Plates:
• Typically made from aluminum or steel.
• Aluminum Plates: Commonly used in offset printing.
• Aluminum plates are lightweight and cost-effective.
• Steel Plates: Used for gravure, letterpress, and some specialty printing applications.
• Steel plates offer durability and are suitable for longer print runs.
• Can be chemically treated for enhanced printing capabilities.
• High-quality and high-volume printing jobs.
 Choice of Printing plates
• The choice of printing plate material depends on the specific requirements of the
printing job
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• Print Run Length:

• Paper and plastic plates are often used for shorter print runs due to their cost-effectiveness.
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• Metal plates, especially aluminum, are preferred for longer print runs where durability and
consistency are essential.
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• Image Detail:
• Plastic plates, especially photopolymer plates, can offer high resolution and intricate image
detail.
• Metal plates, particularly aluminum, are capable of reproducing detailed images, making
them suitable for various applications.
• Cost:
• Paper and plastic plates are generally more economical, making them suitable for budget-
conscious or short-run projects.
• Metal plates, while often more expensive upfront, may offer cost savings over the long term for
high-volume jobs due to their durability.
• Plate Life and Reusability:
• Paper and some plastic plates are typically designed for single-use or limited reuse.
• Metal plates, particularly steel, can be more durable and may withstand multiple uses.
 Printing plate types
1. Intaglio Printing:
• Intaglio refers to printing methods where the image is incised into the printing plate, and the ink is held
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in the incised areas.

• Engraving: Image is incised into the plate using a tool called a burin.
• Etching: Plate is coated with an acid-resistant substance, and the image is drawn or etched into the
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coating. The plate is then etched with acid.

• Dry point: Image is incised into the plate without the use of acid.
Map Reproduction

• Applications: Banknotes, stamps, fine art prints.

2. Surface (planar) Printing:
• Surface printing methods transfer the image from the printing plate's surface to the substrate.
• Image is drawn on a flat surface (stone or metal plate) with a grease-based substance.
• Water and ink are applied, and the ink adheres to the drawn image which is transferred to an
intermediate surface (rubber blanket) before being applied to the final substrate.
• Applications: Maps, Magazines, newspapers, packaging, posters.
3. Relief Printing:
• The raised areas of the printing plate carry the ink, which is then transferred to the substrate.
• Woodcut: Image is carved into a block of wood, and the raised areas hold the ink.
• Linocut: Similar to woodcut but uses linoleum instead of wood.
• Letterpress: Raised image areas on a plate or type are inked and pressed onto paper.
• Applications: Art prints, book printing (historically).
Madhusudan Adhikari, Resource Person Flatbed/offset Printing

Steps in the Printing

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Process:
Map Reproduction

1. Photographing the
original (the copy).
2. Processing the
negative.
3. Making the plate.
4. Presswork.
 Map Reproduction
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Offset press
 Map Reproduction
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