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Gaming Motivation and Problematic Video Gaming: The Role of Needs

Frustration

Article in European Journal of Social Psychology · September 2017

DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2343

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SHORT PAPER

Gaming motivation and problematic video gaming: The role of needs

frustration
Devin J. Mills* , Marina Milyavskaya†, Nancy L. Heath‡ & Jeffrey L. Derevensky‡
* Rutgers University
† Carleton University
‡ McGill University

Correspondence Abstract
Devin J. Mills, Rutgers University School of
Social Work, Center for Gambling Studies, Motivation is often used as a predictor of a problematic style of video game
391 George Street, New Brunswick, NJ engagement, implying that individuals’ gaming undermines optimal func-
08901-1167. tioning. Drawing from recent advances in Self-Determination Theory
E-mail: [email protected] (SDT), the present study explores the links between gaming motivations,
the daily frustration of basic psychological needs, and reports of problematic
Received: 22 February 2017 video gaming (PVG). A sample of 1029 participants (72.8% male;
Accepted: 25 September 2017 M = 22.96 years; SD = 4.13 years) completed items regarding their gaming en-
gagement and gaming motivation as well as their experience of needs frustra-
https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2343
tion and PVG symptoms. Results revealed positive associations between
Keywords: gaming disorder, gaming, gaming motivations and PVG, and between daily needs frustration and
motivation, basic needs, Self-Determination PVG. Finally, after comparing several competing models, a mediational
Theory model whereby needs frustration explained the association between individ-
uals’ gaming motivation and PVG emerged as best fitting the data. The discus-
sion addresses the theoretical and practical implications of these findings in
the context of recent research.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000, experiences of needs frustration play in explaining
2017) is a widely used theory of human motivation that problematic video gaming.
emphasizes the quality versus the quantity of motiva- Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000,
tion in explaining consequences from activity engage- 2017) proposes three interrelated types of motivation
ment. SDT proposes more adaptive outcomes will underlying activity engagement that are easily applied
occur when activity engagement is freely chosen and to video games. An intrinsic motivation is guided by the
based solely on the pleasure and enjoyment of the activ- pleasure and enjoyment from video games. An
ity itself (i.e., intrinsic motivation). Studies have shown amotivation indicates that video games are perceived to
less intrinsic motivation toward gambling- or exercise- add little value to life resulting in a lack of personal in-
related activities is associated with reports of greater tention to engage in them. Between an intrinsic motiva-
gambling disorder and exercise dependence, respec- tion and an amotivation there lie four subtypes of
tively (Clarke, 2004; González-Cutre & Sicilia, 2012). extrinsic motivation. The first, integrated regulation, is
Intrinsic motivation is assumed to stem from greater sat- guided by the personal expression of self through video
isfaction of three basic psychological needs (compe- game engagement (Ryan & Deci, 2017). The second,
tence, autonomy, and relatedness) during engagement identified regulation, is characterized by the alignment
in the activity, which implies that gambling disorder of video game engagement with one’s values and goals
and exercise dependence are associated with lower (Ryan, 1995). The third, introjected regulation, indi-
needs satisfaction during engagement in related activi- cates experiencing strong internal pressures to engage
ties. However, active impediments to needs satisfaction, in video games that are beyond the control of the indi-
or needs frustration, within domains unrelated to the vidual (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Finally, the fourth, external
activity may ultimately cultivate a problematic pattern regulation, is driven by the desire to earn rewards
of activity engagement, as individuals become more re- through gaming (Ryan, 1995). In line with assumptions
liant upon the activity to satisfy these needs of SDT, the abovementioned motivations toward gam-
(Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). To date, no study has ex- ing have been found to be positively associated with
plored the contributions of both activity motivation and time spent gaming except for an amotivation toward
the experience of needs frustration in predicting prob- gaming (Lafrenière, Verner-Filion, & Vallerand, 2012).
lematic activity engagement. Therefore, within the Interwoven within SDT’s perspective on motivation is
quickly growing area of video games, the present study the role of three basic psychological needs. The three
explores the unique roles gaming motivation and needs include competence (i.e., perceiving one’s

European Journal of Social Psychology 00 (2017) 00–00 Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Motivation, need frustration, problem gaming D.J. Mills et al.

abilities are well-matched with the activity), autonomy Ntoumanis, & Bartholomew, 2015; Gunnell, Crocker,
(i.e., perceiving actions while engaging in the activity Wilson, Mack, & Zumbo, 2013). Previous research has
are under one’s own volition), and relatedness (i.e., per- also shown that needs frustration during participation
ceiving a sense of connectedness with others through in a mandatory (e.g., school) or loved activity (e.g.,
engagement in the activity) (Ryan & Deci, 2000, sport) is associated with less intrinsic motivation toward
2017). Reporting greater satisfaction of these needs dur- the activity as well as maladaptive outcomes (Costa,
ing activity engagement is expected to concomitantly Coppolino, & Oliva, 2016; Haerens, Aelterman,
occur with a stronger intrinsic motivation (Ryan, Vansteenkiste, Soenens, & Van Petegem, 2015). How-
1995). Consistent with this assumption, Lafrenière ever, in line with Vansteenkiste and Ryan (2013), needs
et al. (2012) observed that a stronger intrinsic motiva- frustration across life domains may cultivate a depen-
tion toward gaming was associated with perceiving dence on one activity for needs satisfaction, alluding to
higher needs satisfaction during gaming. Other research a problematic style of engagement.
has demonstrated that higher game enjoyment, stron- The present study has two objectives. The first objec-
ger intentions to play, and greater time spent gaming tive sought to assess the associations among gaming mo-
are further predicted by greater needs satisfaction during tivations, daily needs frustration, and PVG. It was
video game engagement (Johnson, Gardner, & Sweetser, hypothesized that introjected regulation, external regu-
2016; Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski, 2006; Tamborini, Bow- lation, and amotivation would be positively correlated
man, Eden, Grizzard, & Organ, 2010). Therefore, needs with competence, autonomy, and relatedness frustra-
satisfaction while gaming appears to explain the appeal tion. PVG was hypothesized to be positively associated
of video games (see review by Przybylski, Rigby, & Ryan, with all six gaming motivations as well as reports of
2010), but, as shown within a recent study, does not competence, autonomy, and relatedness frustration.
meaningfully explain problematic video gaming (PVG; The second objective sought to assess how gaming
Mills, Milyavskaya, Mettler, & Heath, 2017). motivations, daily needs frustration, and PVG were re-
PVG is a pattern of video game engagement that con- lated. At present, theory and previous research offer at
tributes to maladaptive functioning in daily life (King, least three potential models explaining how these con-
Haagsma, Delfabbro, Gradisar, & Griffiths, 2013; Petry structs are related. The first model (Model A in
et al., 2014). PVG is conceptually similar to other behav- Figure 1) suggests gaming motivations and daily needs
ioral addictions such as gambling disorder and exercise frustration are best viewed as separate predictors of
dependence (Hausenblas & Symons Downs, 2002), PVG. This model is supported by the theoretical and em-
which have been found to be most strongly associated pirical evidence reviewed above. Alternatively, gaming
with an introjected regulation and amotivation. Demo- motivations may explain the link between needs frus-
graphically, PVG is more commonly reported by males tration and PVG. The second model (Model B in
than females, and by those spending large amounts of Figure 1) draws upon recent results from Lalande and
time playing video games (Jeromin, Rief, & Barke, colleagues (2017) who provided evidence that deficits
2016; Lemmens, Valkenburg, & Gentile, 2015). Re- in needs satisfaction are associated with lower life satis-
search has demonstrated that various measures of PVG faction through a stronger extrinsic motivation toward a
are associated maladaptive outcomes including depres- loved activity. The deficits in needs satisfaction, per
sion, impulsivity, conduct disorder, anxiety, and other Lalande and colleagues (2017), bring about an overreli-
psychological disorders (Bargeron & Hormes, 2017; ance toward one activity to satisfy basic needs, which
Strittmatter et al., 2015; Vadlin, Åslund, Hellström, & over time undermines the potential of an intrinsic moti-
Nilsson, 2016). Although beyond the scope of this arti- vation toward an activity. However, it is possible that
cle to discuss in detail, it is important to note that a con- experiences of needs frustration explain the link be-
sensus has not been reached regarding the criteria of tween gaming motivations and PVG. This final model
PVG or the weight that should be given to PVG as a po- (Model C in Figure 1) suggests gaming motivations con-
tential disorder (Aarseth et al., 2016; Griffiths et al., tribute to reports of PVG through increased experiences
2016; Przybylski, Weinstein, & Murayama, 2017). of needs frustration. Although this model does not have
Nonetheless, PVG represents an area in which to build as much empirical support as Model A or Model B, re-
upon previous applications of SDT to the study of cent research in a tangentially related area of study
gaming. demonstrated that perfectionism contributes to the
Recent developments in SDT suggest that needs frus- presence of eating disorders through an increase in daily
tration, or the extent to which individuals feel obstructed needs frustration (Boone, Vansteenkiste, Soenens, Van
in their pursuit of satisfying their needs in daily life der Kaap-Deeder, & Verstuyf, 2014). Conceptualiza-
(Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013), may be a more robust tions of perfectionism do parallel some of the broad
predictor of behavioral addictions such as PVG. Studies qualities of introjected regulation including an inability
show the active obstruction component that defines to control internal pressures. As such, perfectionist indi-
needs frustration is essential to predicting maladaptive viduals demonstrate a unique interaction with their en-
outcomes (e.g., depression, interpersonal sensitivity), vironment that may cultivate a greater susceptibility for
whereas low needs satisfaction that is void of any ob- experiencing needs frustration. Therefore, with regard
struction will weakly predict adaptive outcomes (e.g., to gaming motivation, Model C suggests that the inter-
life satisfaction, vitality) (Chen et al., 2015; Costa, nalization of a strong extrinsic motivation may also

European Journal of Social Psychology 00 (2017) 00–00 Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
D.J. Mills et al. Motivation, need frustration, problem gaming

Fig. 1: Proposed models depicting the associations among gaming motivations, needs frustration, and problematic gaming

contribute to the experience of daily needs frustration The final sample included 1029 participants (72.8%
because it represents how individuals might interact male; M = 22.96 years; SD = 4.13 years). On average,
with their environment similar to reports of participants spend 19.70 hours (SD = 15.34 hours) per
perfectionism. week gaming. Participants were from the United States
Other models beyond the three outlined above were (46.4%), Canada (33.1%), as well as various European
considered, but were not found to have justification in (12.2%) and Asian (3.4%) countries. Most participants
existing theory or available evidence resulting in their (64%) reported they were presently enrolled at a post-
exclusion. Given the previously mentioned links to secondary institution.
PVG, gender and time spent gaming were included as
covariates. Measures

Problematic video gaming. The 9-item Internet

Methods Gaming Disorder Scale (IDGS; Lemmens et al., 2015)
was used to assess PVG. Participants rated the frequency
Participants they experienced each item over the last year using an
altered 6-point scale ranging from almost never (1) to al-
Ethical approval from McGill University was given prior most always (6). Internal consistency was acceptable
to recruitment, and all participants provided their in- (α = .85).
formed consent before beginning the online question-
naire. In total, 1802 participants were recruited Needs frustration. Bartholomew, Ntoumanis,
through online social networks (e.g., Facebook, Reddit) Ryan, and Thøgersen-Ntoumani’s (2011) Psychological
and research forums (e.g., Psychological Research on the Need Thwarting Scale (PNTS) was adapted to assess
Net), email invitations, and flyers. The dataset was needs frustration in daily life. The original scale consists
reviewed for duplicate IP addresses in which the earliest of three 4-item subscales assessing the frustration of
response was retained with the latter responses ex- each psychological need. An item from the relatedness
cluded (n = 59). Further, participants less than 18 years subscale (REL2) was not included in the question-
(n = 43) or over 35 years (n = 61) were excluded, as this naire due to a previous study finding it was confusing
range corresponded with significant portion of video and ultimately did not load highly onto its respective
game users (Entertainment Software Association, factor (Mills et al., 2017). Participants used the same
2016). Additionally, 251 participants did not complete 6-point scale as the IDGS to rate how frequently they
the online survey and were thus excluded. Finally, experience each item in their life. Internal consistency
359 participants were excluded for responding to an at- was acceptable for the competence (α = .82), auton-
tention item incorrectly, or responding “No” to the omy (α = .88), and relatedness (α = .89) frustration
question, “Do you play video games most days of the subscales.
week”, suggesting they are not frequent video game
users. Comparisons of gender, age, and time spent gam- Gaming motivation scale. Lafrenière et al. (2012)
ing were conducted between those included and those developed the 18-item Gaming Motivation Scale
excluded, which did not reveal any significant differ- (GAMS) to assess users’ motivation toward gaming.
ences (p > .05). The scale includes 6 three-item subscales that assess

European Journal of Social Psychology 00 (2017) 00–00 Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Motivation, need frustration, problem gaming D.J. Mills et al.

intrinsic motivation, amotivation, and each of the four were made to IGDS to confirm a single factor solution,
subtypes of extrinsic motivation toward gaming (i.e., in- both the PNTS and the GAMS required further steps.
tegrated regulation, identified regulation, introjected First, an item from the competence subscale of the PNTS
regulation, external regulation). Each item was rated was excluded due to loading poorly onto its respective
on a 7-point scale ranging from not agree at all (1) to very factor. Following its removal, the present data were
strongly agree (7). Internal consistencies were all above found to fit the expected 3-factor solution. The revised
.70 for each subscale, except for the intrinsic motivation 3-item competence subscale was found to have ade-
subscale (α = .60). quate internal consistency (α = .89). Second, following
several steps that resulted in not confirming the 6-factor
Analytical Strategy solution for the GAMS, the entire intrinsic motivation
subscale was excluded. Several steps were taken includ-
Statistical analyses were conducted using MPlus version ing an exploratory factor analysis with Promax rotation
7.4 with missing values estimated by full information as well as confirmatory factor analysis with the remain-
maximum likelihood (Muthén & Muthén, 2015). Bi- ing 15 items. In the end, four unique factors were iden-
variate correlations with a Bonferroni modified alpha tified with adequate internal consistency: Integrated-
(p < .001) were conducted to assess the associations Identified Regulation (α = .88), Introjected Regulation
among gaming motivations, daily needs frustration, (α = .74), External Regulation (α = .70), and
and PVG (Objective 1). Fit indices were calculated to as- Amotivation (α = .87). The interested reader is encour-
sess the fit of the present data to each of the proposed aged to review the online supplemental material for fur-
models within Figure 1 (Objective 2). Goodness-of-fit ther explanation of these steps. Not surprisingly,
was determined by values of .08 or lower for root mean participants recruited from gaming-specific Reddit
square error of approximation (RMSEA), near or above streams reported greater time spent gaming, stronger
.95 for both comparative fit index (CFI) and Tucker- motivations toward gaming, and higher PVG than par-
Lewis Index (TLI), and less than .06 for standardized ticipants recruited using other methods (p < .05).
root mean squared residual (SRMR) (Hu & Bentler, Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations of
1999; Kline, 2016). Additionally, Akaike’s information the included instruments.
criterion (AIC) and Bayesian information criterion
(BIC) were used to compare models with lower values Primary Analyses
suggesting greater parsimony (Kline, 2016;
Wagenmakers, 2007). Prior to conducting these analy- The first objective was to assess the associations among
ses, the underlying factor structure of each measure gaming motivations, daily needs frustration, and PVG.
was confirmed with the present data. The input and Bivariate correlations (see Table 1) largely supported
output of the preliminary and primary analyses as well expected associations. Specifically, PVG was positively
as the individual items for each of the measures are pro- associated with each of the four gaming motivations as
vided as online supplemental material. well as competence, autonomy, and relatedness frustra-
tion. Furthermore, competence, autonomy, and relat-
Results edness frustration were positively associated with
introjected regulation and amotivation; however, exter-
Preliminary Analyses nal regulation was not associated with needs frustration.
The second objective assessed how gaming motiva-
A complete description of the steps taken to confirm tions, daily needs frustration, and PVG were related. Av-
each of the measures is provided in the online supple- erage scores for the four gaming motivations, daily
mental material. Although only minor modifications frustration of each basic need, and PVG were included

Table 1. Correlation matrix presenting the associations among gender, hours spent gaming, problematic video gaming, gaming motivations, and needs
frustration

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Gender (Males = 1; Females = 2) -

2. Hours Gaming .26*** -
3. Problematic Video Gaming .04 .24*** -
4. Integrated-Identified .10*** .36*** .38*** -
5. Introjected .02 .24*** .65*** .47*** -
6. External .07 .19*** .36*** .38 .42*** -
7. Amotivation .03 .12*** .48*** .04*** .50*** .13 -
8. Competence Frustration .20*** .03 .36*** .12*** .35*** .09 .29*** -
9. Autonomy Frustration .15*** .04 .37*** .11*** .33*** .10 .31*** .73*** -
10. Relatedness Frustration .20*** .01 .28*** .08 .28*** .03 .27*** .76*** .67*** -
Mean - 19.71 2.19 3.15 1.93 3.52 1.94 2.71 2.63 2.48
Standard Deviation - 15.33 0.84 1.44 1.14 1.51 1.33 1.28 1.62 1.32

***p < .001 (Bonferroni adjusted alpha).

European Journal of Social Psychology 00 (2017) 00–00 Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
D.J. Mills et al. Motivation, need frustration, problem gaming

as observed variables within the planned path analyses. tration (Introjected Regulation: β = .03, p = .01,
Time gaming and gender were included as covariates; 95CI[.01, .05]; Amotivation: β = .02, p = .01, 95CI[.01,
however, several paths were excluded given the non- .04]). All other effects are included in the online supple-
significant associations observed in Table 1. First, the mental material.
pathways from time gaming to competence, autonomy,
and relatedness frustration were excluded from the pro- Discussion
posed models. Second, the pathways from gender to
PVG, introjected regulation, external regulation, and The present study investigated the roles of both gaming
amotivation were excluded from the proposed models. motivations and daily needs frustration in explaining
An acceptable fit was found for each model (see PVG. As expected, gaming motivations and daily needs
Table 2); however, Model C was found to have the low- frustration are positively associated with PVG. These as-
est AIC, which suggested it is the preferred model sociations are consistent with work in other areas of
(Kline, 2016). Moreover, using an equation the pro- study (Boone et al., 2014; Clarke, 2004; Costa et al.,
vided by Wagenmakers (2007), the differences in BIC 2016; González-Cutre & Sicilia, 2012; Symons Downs,
revealed “strong” evidence that Model C is a more par- Savage, & DiNallo, 2013). However, in building upon
simonious model compared to Model A and Model B. In previous research, the present findings are the first to
fact, according to Wagenmakers’ equation, Model C is show that the experience of daily autonomy frustration
30.4 times more likely than Model A and 28.2 times partially mediates the association between both
more likely than Model B. As shown in Figure 2, the re- introjected regulation of and amotivation toward gam-
sults of this model show all four gaming motivations are ing and PVG. The discussion focuses on these two spe-
directly associated with PVG. In addition to these direct cific motivations to help explain PVG.
effects, positive indirect effects for introjected regulation Introjected regulation implies that the drive to engage
and amotivation were found through autonomy frus- in video games is facilitated by uncontrollable internal

Table 2. Fit statistics for the proposed models presented in Figure 1 explaining the roles of gaming motivations and the frustration of basic needs in
explaining problematic video gaming
2
χ df CFI TLI SRMR RMSEA [90CI] AIC BIC

Model A 42.51 11 .99 .96 .04 .05 [.04, .07] 32569.42 32835.98
Model B 40.13 11 .99 .96 .04 .05 [.03, .07] 32567.79 32834.35
,
Model Ca b 20.72 11 1.00 .99 .01 .03 [.01, .05] 32547.07 32813.63

a
Indicates the lowest AIC of all the models.
b
Indicates the lowest BIC of all the models.

Fig. 2: Path estimates for Model C. Correlations among the four gaming motivations as well as the frustration of each basic psychological need were
not included for simplicity. Dash lines represent non-significant estimates. Significant estimates are indicated by a solid line and an (*). Confidence
intervals (95%) are provided in parentheses. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

European Journal of Social Psychology 00 (2017) 00–00 Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Motivation, need frustration, problem gaming D.J. Mills et al.

pressures, which resemble withdrawal-like symptoms through a strong disengagement in environments unre-
such as anxiety or irritability when unable to play lated to gaming resulting in an active avoidance of such
(Ryan, 1995). Per SDT, these pressures stem from a environments. PVG is strongly related to the perception
contingent self-worth that is strongly attached to the that the online gaming community is the only place in
activity, indicating engagement in the activity is an which one is valued and appreciated (Liu & Peng,
attempt to prove oneself. A recent study demonstrated 2009). Indeed, these perceptions speak to a key compo-
that although each of the four types of extrinsic motiva- nent embedded within the introjected regulation of
tion as well as amotivation were positively correlated gaming engagement as well as the control gaming has
with a strong attachment of self-esteem to video game over amotivated individuals. Strong beliefs that one is
engagement, introjected regulation of gaming engage- only valued within a gaming community will result in
ment correlated highly (r > .70) with the pursuit of indi- disengagement as well as greater aggression in both
vidual validation through gaming (Beard & Wickham, gaming and non-gaming environments. This increased
2016). As such, introjected regulated video game users aggression may bring about an exclusionary response
are compelled to play video games problematically due from non-gaming environments. Future research is
to the role gaming has on their perception of self, imply- needed to assess for a recursive association, whereby
ing a larger issue surrounding problematic gaming perceptions of being valued only online stem from ex-
cognitions (see work by King & Delfabbro, 2014, 2016). periences of needs frustration. An important implication
On the other hand, amotivation represents a percep- of Liu and Peng’s (2009) finding is that enthusiastic but
tion that gaming does not provide value to one’s life, otherwise healthy users likely feel valued and appreci-
culminating in a lack of personal intention in gaming ated in other areas of their life beyond gaming (e.g.,
engagement (Ryan, 1995). Although further research work, school, friendships), limiting the control gaming
is needed, helplessness within the present context likely has on their life. As shown in another study using ado-
refers to an awareness of the negative consequences of lescents, it is likely this stems from a lack of daily needs
gaming engagement, but an inability to stop or manage frustration experienced within a key domain (Yu, Li, &
gaming engagement. As such, the link between Zhang, 2015).
amotivation toward gaming and PVG parallels the link An interesting finding within the present study was
between feeling “addicted” to gaming and PVG that only autonomy frustration mediated the links
(Männikkö, Billieux, Nordström, Koivisto, & introjected regulation and amotivation toward gaming
Kääriäinen, 2017; Rehbein, Kliem, Baier, Mößle, & and PVG. Autonomy frustration is critical in facilitating
Petry, 2015). Further, the strong correlation between the development of a contingent or fragile self-esteem
introjected regulation and amotivation suggests the (Deci & Ryan, 1995). Caution should be taken in
helplessness in effectively managing gaming engage- interpreting the present results as suggesting that com-
ment may stem from strong internal pressures to en- petence and relatedness frustration do not contribute
gage in gaming, which are coming into conflict with a to PVG. Rather, competence and relatedness frustration
heightened awareness that gaming no longer adds value were found to contribute to PVG through a decline in
to other life domains and may even be undermining subjective well-being (Mills et al., 2017). As such, these
quality of life (Ryan & Deci, 2017). findings highlight the unique role motivations toward
Importantly, both introjected regulation and gaming may play in undermining daily autonomy satis-
amotivation predicted increased frustration of all three faction, which contributes to a strong attachment of
basic needs; however, current theory does not explicitly self-esteem onto gaming engagement resulting in
address how these motivations might facilitate greater greater PVG.
needs frustration. Only two studies have shown a medi- Finally, it should be noted that both integrated-
ational role of needs frustration in explaining the pres- identified regulation and external regulation predicted
ence of a problematic behavior, and both used reports PVG, but were not associated with needs frustration.
of perfectionism as a predictor of needs frustration This suggests that enthusiastic but otherwise healthy
within a sport-specific context (Costa et al., 2016) or in video game users who perceive gaming (1) provides
daily life (Boone et al., 2014). Results demonstrated that personal expression (i.e., integrated regulation) and
perfectionism contributed to a problematic behavior (2) is in alignment with values and goals (i.e., identified
(e.g., binge eating, exercise dependence) through an in- regulation) are likely to report some symptoms of PVG
crease in needs frustration. Although the strong uncon- (Charlton & Danforth, 2007), which is similar to the
trolled internal pressures to engage in video games conceptualization of a harmonious passion (Vallerand,
parallel some of the broad elements of perfectionism, 2010). On the other hand, external regulation, which
the overlap with amotivation is less clear. It is possible relates to being motivated to collect various rewards
that perfectionistic individuals feel “addicted” to behav- (e.g., leveling up, in-game awards), is not surprisingly
ing a specific way and helpless to change their behavior. related to PVG, as these elements will often relate di-
This overlap between introjected regulation and rectly to a surface-level appeal of gaming. However,
amotivation with perfectionism does not explain how these characteristics by themselves will likely not facili-
needs frustration is facilitated. tate a sustained PVG.
One possible way in which introjected regulation and Several limitations should be noted. First, the use of
amotivation facilitate greater daily needs frustration is self-report data assumes participants correctly

European Journal of Social Psychology 00 (2017) 00–00 Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
D.J. Mills et al. Motivation, need frustration, problem gaming

interpreted each item and responded truthfully; how- 11 Gaming Disorder proposal. Journal of Behavioral Addic-
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the perspective of SDT. Future research is needed to re- Ntoumani, C. (2011). Psychological need thwarting in
the sport context: Assessing the darker side of athletic ex-
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Beard, C. L., & Wickham, R. E. (2016). Gaming-contingent
causality. However, the data-driven approach taken is
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a strength of the present study as it compared a set of
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Although speculative, it is possible that clinicians might Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being.
see changes in individuals’ gaming patterns by directly Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848.
addressing their motivations toward gaming through Carmody, J., & Baer, R. A. (2008). Relationships between mind-
motivational interviewing (Miller & Rollnick, 2013). fulness practice and levels of mindfulness, medical and psy-
Further, a recent study has shown a small but significant chological symptoms and well-being in a mindfulness-
reduction of the association between needs frustration based stress reduction program. Journal of Behavioral Medicine,
and ill-being for those reporting higher dispositional 31(1), 23–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-007-9130-7
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liams, 2015), a quality of consciousness that may be in- and high engagement in the context of online game
creased through targeted training during interventions playing. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 1531–1548.
(Brown & Ryan, 2003; Carmody & Baer, 2008). As https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2005.07.002
these are speculative suggestions, research is needed to Chen, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Beyers, W., Boone, L., Deci, E.
provide evidence of their merits within a clinical study. L., Van der Kaap-Deeder, J., … Verstuyf, J. (2015). Basic
Furthermore, research should explore whether the link psychological need satisfaction, need frustration, and need
between needs frustration and PVG depends on the type strength across four cultures. Motivation and Emotion, 39(2),
of video games one primarily plays. 216–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9450-1
Clarke, D. (2004). Impulsiveness, locus of control, motivation
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Conflict of Interest
319–345. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-004-4578-7
Costa, S., Coppolino, P., & Oliva, P. (2016). Exercise depen-
The authors declare that there are no potential conflicts
dence and maladaptive perfectionism: The mediating role
of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
of basic psychological needs. International Journal of Mental
and/or publication of this article.
Health and Addiction, 14(3), 241–256. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11469-015-9586-6
Acknowledgements Costa, S., Ntoumanis, N., & Bartholomew, K. J. (2015).
This research was supported by an internal develop- Predicting the brighter and darker sides of interpersonal re-
ment grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities lationships: Does psychological need thwarting matter?
Research Council (SSHRC) that was awarded to the lead Motivation and Emotion, 39(1), 11–24. 10.1007/s11031-
author by his host institution, McGill University. 014-9427-0
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Human autonomy: The
Supporting information basis for true self-esteem. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy,
agency, and self-esteem (pp. 31–51). New York: Springer.
Entertainment Software Association (2016). 2016: Sales, de-
Additional Supporting Information may be found on-
mographic, and usage data: Essential facts about the com-
line in the supporting information tab for this article.
puter and video game industry. http://essentialfacts.
theesa.com/Essential-Facts-2016.pdf
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