NAME: OGUNDARE TITILOPE ELIZABETH

MATRIC NO:220442

LEVEL: 300

DEPARTMENT: PHILOSOPHY

A Paper on:

ARISTOTLE'S METAPHYSICS

EXPLORING THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ARISTOTLE'S METAPHYSICS

Submitted to:

PROF. ISAAC E. UKPOKOLO

In Partial Fulfillment of Course Requirement for PHI 301: METAPHYSICS

27th Feb., 2024.

Outline:

1) What Metaphysics is

2) Aristotle's metaphysics

 Being: substance and accident

 Form and matter
 Potentiality and actuality
 The Four Causes

3) Critiques of Aristotle's metaphysics from various philosophical perspective

Abstract:
This paper delves into the core tenets of Aristotle's metaphysical philosophy from his life and background
down to his metaphysical works. It examines his understanding of being, substance, causality,
potentiality and actuality, as well as his concept of the form and matter. Through an exploration of these
fundamental concepts, we aim to elucidate Aristotle's metaphysical framework and its enduring
relevance.

Keywords: Aristotle, form, causation, substance, metaphysics.

WHAT IS METAPHYSICS?

It's important to note that we can't talk about Aristotle's metaphysics without having a brief look of the
key word "metaphysics". Philosophy as a concept or discipline consisted of four major branches of
which metaphysics is one of them. Others include, Epistemology, Ethics and Logic.

As a discipline and as a branch of philosophy, metaphysics remains a significant aspect of the discipline
of philosophy to such an extent that philosophy cannot be said to be worth its name without the study
and appreciation of the core parts that make up the discipline of philosophy.

In metaphysics, people often ask questions about the nature of reality, existence, and consciousness.
Some common questions include:

 - What is the nature of reality? Is it purely physical or are there other dimensions?
 - What is the meaning of life? Is there a purpose or ultimate goal?
 - What is the relationship between mind and body? How do thoughts and consciousness relate
to the physical world?
 - Do we have free will, or is everything predetermined? - Is there an afterlife or existence
beyond death?
 - What is the nature of time? Is it linear or does it exist outside of our perception?
 - Why are there essence rather than nothing?

Just like philosophy itself, Metaphysics doesn't have an agreeable definition. In other words, as there are
scholars, there are also different definitions of Metaphysics viewed from each scholars' perspectives or
what they believe it to be. In whichever way, we can't ignore the etymological meaning of Metaphysics
because it gives an opening to accepting other definitions.

Etymologically, Metaphysics is derived from the Greek word meta-physika, meaning "after physics or
transcending the physical". In its simplest form, metaphysics represents a science that seeks ultimate
knowledge of reality which broadly comprises ontology and cosmology. Metaphysics as is generally
understood, therefore furnishes us with knowledge of reality transcending the world of science,
common sense or the phenomenal world.

Metaphysics, a branch of philosophy whose topics in antiquity and the Middle Ages were the first causes
of things and the nature of being. It is known to be a very important branch of philosophy which deals
with fundamental questions about the nature of reality. It is a philosophical inquiry into the most basic
and general features of reality and our place in it.

Metaphysics is divided into two: (1) Ontology: the study of "being" (2) Cosmology: the study of the
universe. While cosmogony means the study of the origin of the universe.

ARISTOTLE'S METAPHYSICS

Philosophers in antiquity have actually said a lot about metaphysics and some of them include:

1. Parmenides: He explored the concept of being and argued for the existence of a single, unchanging
reality.

2. Plotinus: He developed the philosophical system known as Neoplatonism, which emphasized the
existence of a transcendent reality beyond the physical world.

3. Empedocles: who proposed the theory of the four classical elements (earth, air, fire, and water) and
explored the idea of love and strife as fundamental forces in the universe.

4. Anaximander: speculated about the origins of the universe and proposed the concept of the
"apeiron," an indefinite substance from which all things arise.

5. Plato: a philosopher from ancient Greece, explored the nature of reality and the existence of forms or
ideas beyond the physical world.

But our focus would be on ARISTOTLE. What exactly does his metaphysics entails?

Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist who was one of the greatest intellectual figures
of Western history. He was born in 384 B.C.E. in the Macedonian, town of Stagira. He died around 322
BC. He is habitually mentioned to as the “first true scientist.” His father, Nicomachus, was physician to
the King of Macedonia. Early exposure to his father’s habits of scientific observation is thought to be a
significant reason for his drifting from Plato’s idealism. He was a student of Plato and went on to
become the tutor of Alexander the Great. Aristotle made significant contributions to various fields,
including philosophy, logic, biology, ethics, and politics. His works covered a wide range of topics, and
his ideas continue to be influential in many areas of study. His philosophy emphasized the importance of
observation and empirical evidence, and he is known for his logical reasoning and systematic approach
to knowledge.

Aristotle has written a lot of works and his writings that we have today are based on this collection. In
General, Aristotle wrote three types of works: dialogues or other works of a popular character,
collections of scientific data and observations, and systematic treatises. His philosophy can be divided
into four main areas: 1) Logic; 2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics and
Mathematics; 3) Practical Philosophy, such as Ethics and Politics; and 4) Poetical Philosophy, covering
the study of poetry and the fine arts.
Flashback to the origin of the term "metaphysics", historians made us know that it was coined by
Adronicus of Rhodes while trying to give name to one of Aristotle's unamed work. Since there was one
with a name known as physics, Adronicus decided to call the one without a name, the one after physics
which in Greek means ta meta ta physika, hence, metaphysics. As far as Aristotle is concerned he used
the phrase 'first philosophy' to describe the subject matter of metaphysics, which concerns the first,
highest, or most of general principles of the universe.

Aristotle's metaphysics is about understanding what "being" truly means and the essential qualities that
come with it. It's considered the most fundamental science because it comes before and is needed for
all other sciences. Aristotle sees it as providing the deepest and most comprehensive understanding of
reality, focusing on the highest causes behind everything. Metaphysics tries to figure out the broad
categories that everything fits into and how they're connected. It deals with abstract ideas and seeks
truth for its own sake. This study covers everything that exists and helps shape the subject matter of
other sciences.

The metaphysics of Aristotle picked up from where his master stopped by criticizing his works.
Historians made us know that despite their great admiration from each other, Aristotle did not follow
Plato's steps at all. According to him, "Plato is dear, but truth is dearer." Aristotle had several specific
critiques of Plato's theory of Forms. One of his main criticisms was that Plato's theory seemed to
separate the world of Forms from the physical world, which Aristotle found problematic. He argued that
the Forms should be grounded in the physical world, as they are the essences or characteristics of
individual objects. Aristotle also disagreed with the idea that the Forms are the ultimate reality,
believing instead that the physical world is the primary focus of philosophical inquiry. Additionally,
Aristotle criticized Plato's theory for its lack of explanatory power, as it did not provide a clear account of
how the Forms relate to the physical world.

Aristotle's metaphysics mainly include his metaphysics of potentiality/ actuality, substance/accidents,

matter/ form, essence/ existence, and four causes/ causal powers.

BEING: SUBSTANCE AND ACCIDENT

Having dismissed Plato's extreme dualism, where then is the form located? The theory of being and
substance is a fundamental study in Aristotle's metaphysics.

Aristotle introduced the idea of substance in his writings, especially in the Categories, Physics, and
Metaphysics. His notion of substance is crucial to his metaphysics, but is complicated by the fact that he
uses the term in several interrelated ways. The Greek noun that is usually translated ‘substance’ is ousia,
a form of the verb ‘to be’. It might plausibly be translated as ‘reality’ or ‘real being’; still, the traditional
translation ‘substance’ is the onemost commonly used.

According to Aristotle's Metaphysics, substance is the ultimate reality, or the underlying category of
being on which all subcategories of being depend. The other types of reality, such as number, quality,
sequence, and position, all require a substance (like a person, house, or cat) in which to manifest
themselves. Everything that exists either is a substance or is found within a substance.
Substance is being existing in itself; accident is being existing in another as its subject. Being is known
either as something which subsists in itself without needing to be sustained by another, or as something
which needs a subject in which and by which it may exist.

Basically on Substance and Accident, they are referred to as those naturally occuring, concrete items of
the world and their properties. Hence, a substance is a thing or object (consisting of prime matter taking
the form of that particular thing), and its accidents are its properties (qualities, attributes, features),
what can be said of it (predicated of it).

For instance, Substance: Consider a cake. The substance of the cake would be its essential
characteristics that make it what it is, such as its ingredients (flour, sugar, eggs, etc.) and its fundamental
nature as a baked dessert.

Accident: Now, think about the cake's accidental properties, like its color (chocolate, vanilla, etc.), shape
(round, square, etc.), size (small, large, etc.), and taste (sweet, savory, etc.). These are qualities that can
change without altering the cake's fundamental substance.

By implication, the size, shape, color and taste of the cake can only be present as a feature of a thing and
not being in themselves.

This is obviously contrary to what Plato has said earlier that properties were instances in the everyday
world of universals which exist in another heavenly world of Forms. “Goodbye to the Forms, for they are
nonsense” Aristotle said.

Categories of being according to Aristotle includes; substance, quality, quantity, relation, place, time,
position, state, action, and passion.

FORM AND MATTER

What is form? What is matter?

In philosophy and physics, matter and form are two fundamental concepts used to understand the
nature of all objects and things. Matter refers to anything that occupies space and has mass, while form
describes properties of physical objects like shape, size, and structure when using mathematical models.

Understanding Aristotle's theory of forms and matter.

In his book Metaphysics, Aristotle clarified the distinction between matter and form. To Aristotle,
matter was the physical substance of things, while form was the unique nature of a thing that gave it its
identity. He described matter as an unstructured object that has not yet been actualized. This kind of
matter was known as prime matter, which was seen as potential. Form, then, was presented as the
characteristics given to matter to make an object what it is.

Many well-known philosophers, such as Plato, contemplated the idea of form and matter and their role
in the existence and essence of things. One ancient Greek philosopher who contributed significantly to
their understanding was Aristotle. In his well-known work Physics, Aristotle proposed a comprehensive
view of the natural world, in which he spoke about eidos, or form, and hyle, or matter.

Aristotle's Matter (hyle):Aristotle explained that matter is the underlying substance that's not yet
shaped, giving things the potential to take on specific forms. It's like the raw, unorganized material that
objects are made of.

Aristotle's Form (eidos): Aristotle described form as the essence or specific traits that define an object,
giving it its identity. It's the way matter is structured, arranged, and organized that makes each object
unique.

Aristotle’s understanding of Form is really a critique of Plato’s metaphysics. In his "Metaphysics," He

argued that Plato's theory of Forms is redundant, as it introduces a second world, complicating rather
than unifying the understanding of the natural world. Instead of simplifying the complexity of
experience, it adds more layers of complexity, doubling the number of entities that need explanation.

POTENTIALITY AND ACTUALITY

Potentiality, coming from the root word potential means an unrealized ability. It could also mean having
or showing the capacity to develop into something in the future. While potentiality means a quality that
can be developed to make someone or something better.

Actuality, the state of existing in reality. An instance or quality of being actual or factual.

Philosophically, “potential” indicates possession of a capacity to achieve or become something, while

“potentiality” indicates the possibility of possessing the potential.

Aristotle's theory of potentiality (dunamis) and actuality (energeia)

The concepts of matter and form can be used to understand the reality of individual
substances.However, this does not tell us the whole story. It is obvious that all earthly things (whether
they are human artifacts or natural objects) come into being and undergo change or development.

Aristotle’s concepts of potentiality and actuality are fundamental principles in his philosophy, playing a
crucial role in his analysis of motion, causality, ethics, and physiology. Potentiality refers to the inherent
possibilities or capacities that a thing possesses, while actuality represents the realization or fulfillment
of these possibilities when they become fully real. These concepts are deeply intertwined and serve as a
basis for understanding various aspects of Aristotle’s thought, including his metaphysics, natural
philosophy, and ethics

According to Aristotle, everything in the world has both actuality and potentiality. while potentiality
refers to its capacity to become something else under the right conditions, Actuality refers to the
current state or realization of something. This framework helps explain processes of change and
development, as well as the hierarchical structure of reality.
For instance, for a block of marble. Its actuality is being a solid block, but its potentiality lies in its ability
to become a sculpture. When a sculptor starts chiseling away, the marble's potentiality for being a
sculpture becomes actualized as it transforms into a work of art.

The concept of entelechy: actuality as the realization of potential

The concept of entelechy, according to Aristotle, describes actuality as the fulfillment or realization of
potential. It's like saying that something reaches its full purpose or completes its development. For
example, a caterpillar's entelechy is becoming a butterfly—its full potential is realized when it
transforms into its final form.

The role of potentiality and Actuality in Aristotle's Metaphysics

Aristotle discussed potentiality and actuality in relation to substance, causality, and being. He proposed
that a substance is a “starting-point and cause” of being, and he established a hierarchy among ways of
being, claiming that actualities are prior to and better than their corresponding potentialities.

THE FOUR CAUSES.

Aristotle's causal framework: material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause

Another important work of Aristotle is that of the principle of causality. Apparently, he was not the first
thinker to embark on the journey of discovering the cause of the world around us. From time
immemorial, his predecessors starting from the three milesians were believed to have started this
investigation. Only that they barely touched or merely have a firm grasp of the causal investigation.

Aristotle believed that for us to have a full grasp of something, understanding its cause is very
important. In other words, To understand a changing world, Aristotle says, we must understand the
causes that operate in the world and in order to have this knowledge, Aristotle introduced the four
causes. To grasp the four causes, we must consider them within the context of change. Things transform
from one state to another, involving both matter and form. Matter is the material stuff, while form
shapes it into specific entities with particular purposes or goals,

known as telos.

Aristotle believed that understanding the "why" of things is the goal of inquiry, which involves
identifying their causes or 'aitiai'. He argued that to fully explain something, we need to consider its
various causes: formal, final, efficient, and material. These causes help us understand the reasons
behind phenomena and their purpose.

• The material cause: The material cause, refers to the substance or matter out of which something is
made or generated. For example, wood can become various objects like a table or chair, while bronze
can become a statue. Matter persists through change, but it doesn't imply formlessness; rather, it's
relative to the form it can potentially take on.
• The formal cause: “the form”, “the account of what-it-is-to-be”. The formal cause is the shape or
structure that defines the essence of something. It's what makes something distinct and determines
what it is. For example, the shape of a chair or the mathematical ratio defining an octave. Matter always
has a form, and they're connected in a way that one complements the other.

• The efficient cause: “the primary source of the change or rest”. The efficient cause is what initiates a
process or change, like a father causing the birth of a child or a person deciding not to attend classes. It's
the agent responsible for starting motion or transformation. While the origin of change is usually
physical, Aristotle notes that in nature, it can be internal, as nature has its own inherent principles of
motion and change. For example, a baker is external to the bread she bakes, but the flour and the shape
of the bread are not external to it.

• The final cause: “the end, that for the sake of which a thing is done”. The final cause is the purpose or
goal for which something is made or done. It's the reason behind an action or creation, answering
questions like "Why are you exercising?" or "Why are you eating?" The end, or telos, is closely linked to
the function of a thing. For example, the purpose of teeth in an animal's mouth is for survival. Aristotle
also states that in natural things, the end is identical to the form. For instance, an oak tree's ultimate
purpose is simply to be an oak tree. Thus, all change is the process of a particular matter successively
being shaped by different forms until the final stage is reached.

CRITIQUES OF ARISTOTLE'S METAPHYSICS FROM VARIOUS PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES

Even though Aristotle’s metaphysics is credible and influential till today, there are some critiques against
his works.

Teleological Focus: Critics question Aristotle's heavy reliance on final causes and teleology to explain
natural phenomena, suggesting it may not align well with modern scientific understanding.

Essentialism: Aristotle's belief in essentialism, where objects have fixed qualities defining their essence,
faces criticism from existentialist and post-structuralist philosophies advocating for contingency and the
absence of fixed essences.

In conclusion, Aristotle's metaphysics delves into the fundamental aspects of existence, exploring
concepts like substance, form, potentiality, and causality. His ideas continue to influence modern
thought, providing insights into the nature of reality and the underlying principles governing the
universe. By examining Aristotle's metaphysical framework, we gain a deeper understanding of the
complexities of existence and the interconnectedness of all things. His emphasis on causality and
purpose sheds light on the underlying reasons behind phenomena, encouraging further exploration and
inquiry into the mysteries of the cosmos. Overall, Aristotle's metaphysics remains a cornerstone of
philosophical inquiry, offering timeless wisdom and profound insights into the nature of being.
References

Aristotle on Causality

Aristotle's Substance, Themes in Ancient and Modern Philosophy, ed. by J. G.Hernandez (Kendall-Hunt,
2009

ANYANWU, Franklin Okechukwu, An exposition of aristotle’s idea of causation. University of

Portharcourt

Cf. J. I Omoregbe, Metaphysics Without Tears (Lagos: Joja Educational Research and Publishers Ltd.,
1999), p.xi

Dr. Jayanta Kumar Dash, western political philosophy. Core-XI

William F. Lawhead, The Voyage of Discovery. A historical introduction to philosophy, Fourth edition
Other online resources

Ask a philosopher Aristotle's Substance and accident August 13, 2019. Retrieved from
https://shorturl.at/mqxKU accessed on 27th Feb., 2024.
Heather Wilburn, AN INTRODUCTION TO ARISTOTLE’S METAPHYSICS Retrieved from
https://shorturl.at/psy47 accessed on 26th Feb., 2024.