Materials and Structures (2023) 56:147

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ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Measurement of the electrical resistivity of cement-based

materials using post-embedded probes: effect of contact
material
M. Messina . A. Belda Revert . M. Gastaldi . M. R. Geiker

Received: 24 April 2023 / Accepted: 28 August 2023 / Published online: 11 September 2023
 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to RILEM 2023

Abstract The measurement of the electrical resis- Keywords Cement-based material  Mortar 
tivity of cement-based materials, e.g., concrete, is used Electrical resistivity  Grout  Post-embedded probe 
for quality control and durability assessment. In an Numerical simulations
existing structure, the electrical resistivity of the
concrete can be monitored using either pre- or post-
embedded probes. When using post-embedded probes,
the contact material (grout) used when installing the 1 Introduction
probe can affect the measurements. This work inves-
tigated the effect on the measurement of two different The electrical resistivity is one of the key parameters
grouts (in alkaline and carbonated condition) used for in the durability assessment of reinforced concrete
the installation of a post-embedded probe in carbon- structures. Electrical resistivity data is e.g., used for
ated mortar. The effect of the geometry of the system quality control of material consistency and presence of
was also examined. supplementary cementitious materials and to evaluate
the resistance to chloride penetration [1–3], or the
potential steel reinforcement corrosion rate [4–8],
concrete moisture condition [9, 10] and the suscepti-
M. Messina  M. Gastaldi bility to other damage mechanisms as freeze/thaw and
Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical alkalis silica reactions, and it was suggested as input
Engineering ‘‘G. Natta’’, Politecnico Di Milano, Via
data for service life prediction of reinforced concrete
Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milan, Italy
e-mail: [email protected] structures [11, 12].
The electrical resistivity represents the material’s
M. Gastaldi
e-mail: [email protected] ability to withstand the flow of electrical current and
can give useful information about the changes of the
A. B. Revert  M. R. Geiker characteristics of the material. The electrical resistiv-
Department of Structural Engineering, Norwegian
ity of concrete after casting is usually very low (in the
University of Science and Technology, Richard
Birkelands Vei 1a, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway order of few tens of X•m), while hardened concrete
e-mail: [email protected] can vary over a wide range: from a few tens of X•m in
saturated condition to many thousands of X•m in dry
A. B. Revert (&)
conditions [13]. In addition to the degree of saturation,
Department of Specialist Construction Consultancy,
OPAK AS, Engebrets Vei 7, 0275 Oslo, Norway the electrical resistivity depends on the microstructure
e-mail: [email protected] of the material, the composition of the pore solution,
147 Page 2 of 10 Materials and Structures (2023) 56:147

and the temperature. A reduction of the water-to- and the exposure affecting the moisture distribution.
cement ratio, an increase of the time of curing, or the Continuous wetting and drying causes the convection
use of blended cements instead of Portland cement zone to become more conductive during rainfall and
cause an increase in the electrical resistivity (at fixed less conductive during sun and wind exposure. More-
degree of saturation) [14]. The electrical resistivity over, the external probe cannot be used on a concrete
increases when the ion concentration in the pore surface treated with insulating coating [22] and
solution is reduced [15]. This can occur, for example, practical limitations are faced to perform long-term
when concrete is subjected to carbonation. In this field monitoring. An alternative could be the use of
process, the carbon dioxide significantly reduces the post-embedded probes placed at the same depth as the
concentration of hydroxide ions, but also the concen- reinforcement (Fig. 1b). A contact material is required
tration of other ions is affected [16]. The temperature, between concrete and post-embedded probes when
among others, affects the ion mobility and the water using post-embedded probes. Few works have inves-
vapour sorption isotherm [17]. In general, the electri- tigated the application of post-embedded probes
cal resistivity increases with reduced temperature and [23, 24] and the effect of contact material on the
vice versa [18]. concrete electrical resistivity was not studied.
The resistivity of concrete can be measured by Therefore, the aim of this work was to examine the
means of different techniques following general effect of the contact material used when post-embed-
recommendations based on past research experiences ding a two-wire electrical resistivity probe in carbon-
[19]. In the context of field assessment of reinforced ated mortar. Both alkaline and carbonated cement
concrete structures, the electrical resistivity is usually grout were used as contact material. Experimental data
measured using a surface-applied two or four elec- obtained with this probe type and traditional external
trodes probe (Fig. 1a) [20]. This technique primarily plates were compared, and the impact of the grout and
measures the condition of the concrete cover. How- the geometry of the system was assessed using
ever, the concrete cover may not be representative for numerical simulations. AC was used to avoid polar-
the condition at the steel–concrete interface. The ization at the electrodes.
discrepancy is mainly explained by the wall effect
affecting both the cover and the steel–concrete
interface (but at different scales), curing affecting
the microstructure of the outer part of the cover [21],

External probe Post-embedded probe

R R

Electrodes Insulator
Concrete Concrete
Contact material

Reinforcement Electrodes Reinforcement

(a) (b)
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of electrical resistivity mea- current flows between the emitter and receiver electrodes. The
surement on a reinforced concrete structure: a external probe direction would be constant (as shown here) for DC measure-
placed on the concrete surface; b post-embedded probe placed at ments but is continuously switching for AC as used in this study
the same depth as the reinforcement. The sketches show how
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:147 Page 3 of 10 147

2 Materials and methods one two-wire electrode probe was post-installed in

each prism for measurement of the electrical resistiv-
2.1 Experimental tests ity. At the end of the tests, two cubes (40 mm 9 40
mm 9 40 mm) were cut from the two ends of each
Carbonated mortar prisms were used to investigate the prism (four cubes in total) to measure the resistivity of
influence of the contact material on the measurement the mortar.
of electrical resistivity using post-embedded probes. To investigate the effect of the contact material on
Grout was used as contact material. Cylindrical grout the measurement of electrical resistivity of the mortar,
specimens were prepared to investigate the effect of two different grouts were used: a commercial Portland
the electrode position (embedded or external) on the cement-based grout and a custom-made portland-fly
measurement of the electrical resistivity and deter- ash cement-based grout. Each was studied in both
mine the electrical resistivity of the grout. Table 1 alkaline and carbonated condition.
presents an overview of the specimens. The resistivity measurements were performed on
The mortar prisms (160 mm 9 40 mm 9 40 mm) specimens in capillary saturated condition (constant
were cast and cured, and fully carbonated. Carbona- mass after immersion in water bath). The first series of
tion was assessed by spraying a thymolphthalein resistivity measurements with the post embedded
solution on freshly split surface. After carbonation, probes were performed when the grout was alkaline,

Table 1 Description of the specimens used in the tests (M: carbonated mortar, postEm: post-embedded probe, Em: probe embedded
before casting, Ex: external probe; Ø: diameter, h: height
Designation Quantity Material Dimension Probe Schematic representation
(mm)

M-postEm- 1 Mortar 160 9 40 9 Post-embedded using Plastic spacer

GFA (MFA) 40 grout GFA Heat-shrinkable Mortar

23 mm
tubing
5 mm 50 mm
Titanium rod
Grout (Ø 6mm) Epoxy-based paint (Ø 2mm)

M-postEm- 1 Mortar 160 9 40 9 Post-embedded using

GPM (MFA) 40 grout GPM
GFA-Em 2 Grout 31.5(Ø) 9 Embedded before casting
Titanium rod (Ø 2mm)

Heat shrinkable tubing

Grout
5mm
(GFA) 60(h)
10mm

GPM-Em 2 Grout 31.5(Ø) 9 60(h) Embedded before casting

(GPM)
GPM-Ex 1 Grout 31.5(Ø) 9 40(h) External
(GPM)
Wet sponge

Grout

M-Ex 4 Mortar 40 9 40 9 40 External

(MFA) Mortar
Wet sponge

The designation is for the specimens with alkaline contact material (grout). Data from specimens obtained after carbonation of the
grout are labelled with a suffix ‘‘-C’’
147 Page 4 of 10 Materials and Structures (2023) 56:147

while the second series of resistivity measurements Two cylindrical samples (Ø: 31.5 mm; h: 60 mm)
were performed after the grout had carbonated. Note with (pre-)embedded probes were cast from each
that data from specimens obtained after carbonation of grout, an additional smaller cylinder (Ø: 31.5 mm; h:
the grout are labelled with a suffix ‘‘-C’’. 40 mm) without a probe was cast from GPM (Table 1).
The smaller cylinder was used for the external
2.1.1 Mortar prisms with post-embedded probes measurement of the electrical resistivity. All cylindri-
and mortar cubes cal samples were cured for seven days in sealed
plastic.
The mortar prisms were prepared using 450 g of
portland-fly ash cement (CEM II/B-V with 30% of fly 2.1.3 Resistivity probes
ash), 247.5 g of tap water (water to cement ratio of
0.55) and 1350 g of sand. The prisms were cast in The two wire electrodes were made of titanium (2 mm
standard steel moulds (160 mm 9 40 mm 9 40 mm), in diameter) and only the outer 5 mm of the wire were
cured for 14 days at 20 C and relative humidity (RH) not electrically insulated by heat-shrinkable tubing.
higher than 95%, and subsequently exposed to 20 C,
60% RH and 1.5% of CO2 until they were fully 2.1.4 Exposure
carbonated ([ 100 weeks). The carbonation assess-
ment was performed by spraying a 1% thymolphtalein After the seven days of curing of the grout, all the
solution on a freshly split surface in parallel samples were submerged in tap water until constant
specimens. mass (mass change lower than 0.01%/24 h), which
A two-wire electrode probe was post-embedded in was obtained after approximately two weeks. The
each prism for measuring the electrical resistivity. For mass of the samples was measured with a balance of
the installation of the probe two holes of 6 mm in accuracy 0.005 g. (The electrical resistivity was
diameter and 23 mm in depth were drilled at 50 mm measured after constant mass was achieved (state:
from each (Table 1). The holes were first cleaned by carbonated mortar and alkaline grout).
compressed air, the samples were submerged in water Afterwards, the specimens were dried in a venti-
for some minutes, superficially dried (also in the lated oven at 28 C for about four weeks and then
holes), and then a cement grout was injected in the subjected to accelerated carbonation (20 C, 60%
holes and the probe was placed in position. Two R.H. and 100% of CO2) for about eight weeks to
different types of cement grout were used, see below. carbonate the grouts, Subsequently, they were sub-
After the post-installation of the probe, the prisms merged again in tap water until constant mass
were stored for seven days at RH higher than 95%. (approximately two weeks). Electrical resistivity was
again measured after constant mass was achieved
2.1.2 Grouts and grout specimens (state: carbonated mortar and carbonated grout).

Two types of cement grout were used as contact 2.1.5 Methods

material for the post-embedded probes and preparing
cylinders for determination of their electrical The electrical resistivity was measured with a
resistivity. portable conductivity meter (model HD2156.2 of
One grout (GFA) was prepared from portland-fly DeltaOHM). This instrument applies a sinusoidal
ash cement (CEM II/B-V with 30% of fly ash), tap signal to avoid polarisation of the electrodes. The
water and sieved sand (maximum diameter of electrical conductivity was converted into the electri-
250 lm) in a ratio 1:0.45:1. The other grout (GPM) cal resistivity (q) by means of the cell constant, which
was prepared from a pre-mixed commercial product were experimentally determined for the embedded
(Nonset 50 from Mapei S.p.A). According to the probes using solutions of different conductivities.
safety data sheet, the material contains Portland The external electrical resistivity measurements
cement (approximately 75%), filler and admixture. were carried out using two stainless steel plates
The GPM was mixed from Nonset 50 and tap water in (50 mm 9 50 mm 9 5 mm) as electrodes which
a ratio 3:1.08 as prescribed in the technical data sheet.
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:147 Page 5 of 10 147

were applied on the opposite side of the sample and

interposing a wet sponge (Table 1). Carbonated mortar

Emitter Receiver
2.2 Numerical simulations electrode
Epoxy-based paint
electrode

Grout Grout

Numerical simulations were performed to predict the Electrical current

electrical resistivity of the mortar when using the post- Emitter Receiver
electrode electrode
embedded probe in the same configuration used in the Rgrout1 Rmortar Rgrout2
experimental tests (Fig. 2). The Comsol Multiphysics
5.0 software was applied, and a tetrahedral mesh of Fig. 3 Simplified equivalent electric circuit between the emitter
varying size was adopted to have higher resolution in electrode and the receiver electrode when using the post-
embedded probe. (AC was used, i.e., the emitter and receiver
the vicinity of the two electrodes and a lower electrodes were continuously switching place)
resolution in the bulk. As general boundary conditions,
Ohm’s law Eq. (1) with the continuity Eq. (2) were electrodes, must pass through the grout, mortar and
applied: grout that are in series. According to Eq. (3), the
! measured resistance will be the sum of each resistance:
ru ¼ q J ð1Þ
Rsystem ¼ Rgrout1 þ Rmortar þ Rgrout2 ð3Þ
!
rJ ¼0 ð2Þ
where Rgrout1 and Rgrout2 are the resistances (X) of the
where u is the electrical potential, q is the electrical grout used as contact material in the two holes,
! Rmortar is the resistance (X) of the carbonated mortar,
resistivity and J is the electrical current density
vector. The potential difference between the emitter and Rsystem is the resistance of the system, sum of all
electrode and the receiver electrode was fixed equal to the resistances. Assuming Rgrout1 = Rgrout2 and using
1 V in all the simulations and the electrical current the second Ohm’s law, each resistance is given by the
density was obtained from the FE analysis. The electrical resistivity of the material and the cell
electrical current density was used to calculate the constant, as shown in the Eq. (4):
electrical resistance between the two electrodes by qsystem  ksystem ¼ 2  qgrout  kgrout þ qmortar
Ohm’s law and subsequently converted into the  kmortar
electrical resistivity by the cell constant.
The system made by the post-embedded probe, the ð4Þ
grout and the mortar can be represented by means of a where the qgrout is the resistivity (Xm) of the grout in
simplified electrical circuit in which each material is the two holes; qmortar is the resistivity (Xm) of the
associated to an electrical resistance. mortar, qsystem is the weighted sum of all the
A schematic representation of the simplified equiv- resistivities (Xm), and ksystem is the cell constant
alent electrical circuit is illustrated in Fig. 3. The of the system.
electrical current, circulating between the two Equation (4) suggests that the measurement of
electrical resistivity with the post-embedded probe
will be a weighted sum of the resistivity of the grout
and that of the carbonated mortar. The weights are the
cell constants. By knowing the cell constants, it is
possible to determine the mortar resistivity from the
measurement achieved by the post-embedded probe.
As an example, the results of an iteration procedure
are reported in Fig. 4. The electrical resistivity of the
grout in alkaline condition (specimen GFA-Em)
measured experimentally was used as input data and
the electrical resistivity of mortar was determined by
Fig. 2 Geometry used in the numerical simulation
(160 mm 9 40 mm 9 40 mm)
inverse analysis to fit the electrical resistivity
147 Page 6 of 10 Materials and Structures (2023) 56:147

Fig. 4 Example of result from FEM simulation of current flow for carbonated mortar and alkaline grout. Note when using AC
between the emitter electrode and the receiver electrode when emitter and receiver electrodes are continuously switching. The
using the post-embedded probe in a mortar bar. This example is colour indicates the value of the current density

measured with the post-embedded probe (specimen

M-postEM-GFA). The discrepancy between the sche-
matic current flow between the tips of the electrodes in
Fig. 1 and the current flow distribution in Fig. 4 is
explained by the high conductivity of the alkaline
grout which was used for this simulation.
The finite element model was also used for a
parametric study of the effect of selected parameters
on the electrical resistivity measured with the post-
embedded probe: the grout and mortar resistivity, the
thickness of the grout, and the electrode distance.
Fig. 5 Electrical resistivity determined using the pre-embedded
probe (GPM-Em) and the external plates (GPM-Ex). Specimens
with constant mass in water bath (mean values and range of
3 Results and discussion results variation)

3.1 Comparison of pre-embedded and external also compared electrical resistivity measurements
probes using pre-embedded and external probes and observed
a slightly higher electrical resistivity when using
These tests were performed on commercial grout external probes, a difference which became almost
(GPM) in saturated condition. The comparison negligible when increasing the electrical resistivity of
between the measurements of electrical resistivity sample. McCarter and co-workers [25] ascribed the
carried out by means of the pre-embedded probe measured increased resistivity to two wet sponges
(specimen GPM-Em) and with the external probe introducing two additional very small resistances in
(specimen GPM- Ex) commonly used to measure the series to the simplified equivalent electrical circuit that
electrical resistivity of concrete samples [19], is can be used to describe the system (see Fig. 6). During
reported in Fig. 5. The mean value of the grout the test period of the present study a small variation,
resistivity determined with the two methods was of around 2 X•m in the measurements was observed
about 21 X•m with pre-embedded probe and 24 X•m (corresponding to a coefficient of variation, CoV, at
with the external plates. McCarter and co-workers [25] about 10%). Considering the CoV, the results obtained
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:147 Page 7 of 10 147

Emitter electrode GPM-Em) (see Fig. 7a). The carbonation of the grouts
caused an increase in their resistivity, especially the
Rsponge commercial grout (GPM). Specimen GPM-Em-C

Electrical current
reached values higher than 500 Xm; specimen
GFA-Em-C showed resistivity of about 120 Xm,
Rbulk which is closer to the resistivity of the carbonated
mortar specimen (M-Ex, * 170 Xm).
The resistivity measured on the prismatic carbon-
Rsponge ated mortar specimens with the post-embedded probes
Receiver electrode (M-postEm-GPM and M-postEm-GFA), ranging from
87 Xm to 110 Xm, was about half of that measured
Fig. 6 Simplified equivalent electric circuit between the emitter with the external plates on the cubic carbonated mortar
electrode and the receiver electrode when using the external
specimen (M-Ex), which was around 170 Xm. This
plates (AC was used, i.e., the emitter and receiver electrodes are
continuously switching place) difference is attributed to the presence of the alkaline
grout used as contact material between the post-
by two measurement techniques provide comparable embedded probe and the mortar; the alkaline grout had
results. resistivity of about 20 Xm, which is one order of
magnitude lower than that of the mortar. Using a grout
3.2 Effect of contact material on the evaluation with a higher resistivity than the mortar, which is the
of the electrical resistivity of the bulk material case for the carbonated commercial grout (M-postEm-
GPM-C), values higher than 300 Xm were measured.
Figure 7 shows the mean values and range of results Whereas using a contact material with a resistivity
variation of the electrical resistivity measured before close to that of the mortar, its influence on the
(Fig. 7a) and after (Fig. 7b) carbonation of the grouts measurements of the resistivity of the mortar became
on all the specimens. Low and comparable resistivi- negligible. This was observed for the specimen with
ties, of about 20 Xm, were observed for the two GFA as contact material (M-postEm-GFA-C) after
different grouts in alkaline condition (GFA-Em and carbonation of the grout for which an electrical

Fig. 7 Mean values (and range of results variation) of the electrical resistivity measured: a submerged, before accelerated carbonation;
b submerged, after accelerated carbonation, and numerical results
147 Page 8 of 10 Materials and Structures (2023) 56:147

resistivity around 167 Xm. Thus, the presence of the embedded probes: The distance between the elec-
grout can greatly affect the measured electrical trodes was varied from 50 to 10 mm and thickness of
resistivity carried out with the post-embedded probe the grout of 1 mm, 2 mm and 3 mm were considered.
and this depend on the difference in resistivity An electrical resistivity of 10 Xm was assigned to the
between the grout and the bulk, and the geometry of grout and 100 Xm to the mortar. The values represent
the system. alkaline and carbonated concrete, respectively, both
Considering Eq. 4, the mortar resistivity can be with high moisture condition. The results of the
determined with the post-embedded probe by mea- simulations are reported in Fig. 8. The figure illustrates
suring the grout resistivity and knowing the cell how the setup, can influence the measurements. The
constants. These constants can be determined by calculated electrical resistivity of the system (qsys-
numerical simulation. tem,FEM) decreases when decreasing the distance
between the electrodes or increasing the thickness of
3.3 Offset of contact material effect the grout. Thus, the effect of the grout on the
measurement of the mortar resistivity with post-
The offset of the effect of grout in the post-embedded embedded probe can be reduced, besides the reduction
probe was done by means of numerical iterations of the difference between the resistivities of the two
aimed at satisfying Eq. (6): materials, by reduction of the thickness of the grout
and increase in the distance between the electrodes.
qsystem; measured ¼ ð2  qgrout  kgrout
þ qmortar
 kmortarÞ = ksystem
4 Conclusions
¼ qsystem; FEM ð6Þ
where the qsystem, FEM is the electrical resistivity The experimental results showed that for the investi-
determined by the finite element model. The measured gated material at capillary saturated condition, com-
electrical resistivity of the grout (contact material) parable electrical resistivity was measured with pre-
used as data input in the FEM and the electrical embedded probe and external plates. This shows that
resistivity of the mortar determined by inverse anal- the used of post-embedded sensors allows to monitor
ysis (Fig. 4). the electrical resistivity of cement-based materials
The average of the numerical results obtained by over time, even when the grout carbonates.
the iteration procedure described above is reported in
Fig. 7 (two sets of data on the right side of Fig. 7a and
b). The numerical results (M-postEm-GFA and 100
M-postEm-GPM) of 170–190 Xm are close to the 90 Distance between el. (mm): 10
50
electrical resistivity of the mortar cubes (M-Ex) 80
measured with the external plates (* 170 Xm). The
accuracy of the numerical simulations could be 70
ρ (Ω∙m)

improved considering additional resistances that are 60

in the electrical circuit such as the resistance at the 50
interfacial zone between the grout and the mortar and
40
the resistance at the interfacial zone between the
electrode and the grout. 30
20
3.4 Effect of geometry of the system
10
on the measurement 1 2 3
Grout thickness (mm)
Further numerical simulations were performed to
Fig. 8 Numerical simulation results illustrating the impact on
study the effect of some geometrical parameters on electrical resistivity of the system (qsystem, FEM) of the
the predicted electrical resistivity when using post- distance between the electrodes and the thickness of the contact
material (grout)
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:147 Page 9 of 10 147

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Acknowledgements This work is part of the collaboration COST 509, Final report, European Commission, Directorate
between Politecnico di Milano (POLIMI) and Norwegian General Science, Research and Development, Brussels,
University of Science and Technology (NTNU). The research EUR 17608 EN.
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