Lecture - 2

Fundamental Signals and System classification

Course Outline
• Signal Transformations

• Fundamental of signals: Complex Exponentials; Decaying

exponentials; sinusoids; Unit Impulse; Unit Step, Signal
representation using fundamental signals.

• System Classification: - Continuous/Discrete,

Linear/Nonlinear, Time-invariant/Time varying;
Causal/Anti-causal; Stable/Unstable
Signal Transformations
A transformation is a mathematical model that describes signal operations, where
the original signal is treated as the input and the resulting signal as the output.

Let x be a signal, then translating it upwards over vertical distance h>0 gives the
signal y.

Vertical Translation: CT y(t)=x(t)+h & DT y[n]=x[n]+h

Vertical Scaling: CT y(t) = ax(t) & DT y[n]= ax[n]

Horizontal Translation: CT y(t)=x(t−u) & DT y[n]=x[n−m]

Horizontal Scaling: CT y(t)=x(tb) & DT no unique définition

Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals

▪ There are several elementary signals that are important in the

study of different complex signals and systems. These include:
i. Unit impulse function
ii. Unit step function
iii. Unit ramp function
iv. Sinusoidal signals
v. Real exponential signals
vi. Complex exponential signals
Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

i. Unit impulse function

▪ The continuous-time unit impulse function, denoted by 𝛿 𝑡 , is
defined as:
1 , t =0
 (t ) = 
0 , t0

▪ The time-shifted continuous-time unit step function is defined

as:
1 , t = t0
 (t − t0 ) = 
0 , t  t0
Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……
▪ The continuous-time unit impulse and shifted unit impulse
functions are shown in the figure below.

Fig. Continuous-time unit impulse and shifted unit impulse functions

Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……
▪ Similarly, the discrete-time unit impulse function, denoted by
𝛿 𝑡 , is defined as:
1 , n=0

 ( n) = 
0 , n0
▪ The time-shifted discrete-time unit impulse function is defined
as:
1 , n = n0

 ( n − n0 ) = 

0 , n  n0
Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……
▪ The discrete-time unit impulse and shifted unit impulse
functions are shown in the figure below.

Fig. Discrete-time unit impulse and shifted unit impulse functions

Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……
ii. Unit step function
▪ The continuous-time unit step function, denoted by u(t), is
defined as:

1 , t0
u (t ) = 

0 , t0

▪ Similarly, the shifted continuous-time unit step function is

defined as:
1 , t  t0
u (t − t 0 ) = 
0 , t  t0
Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

▪ The continuous-time unit step and shifted unit step functions

are shown in the figure below.

Fig. Continuous-time unit step and shifted unit step functions

Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

▪ Similarly, the discrete-time unit step function, denoted by u(n),

is defined as:

1 , n0
u ( n) = 

0 , n0

▪ The time-shifted discrete-time unit step function is defined as:

1 , n  n0
u (n − n0 ) = 
0 , n  n0
Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……
▪ The discrete-time unit step and shifted unit step functions are
shown in the figure below.

Fig. Discrete-time unit step and shifted unit step functions

Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……
iii. Unit ramp function
▪ The continuous-time unit ramp function, denoted by r(t), is
defined as:

t , t0
r (t ) = 

0 , t0

▪ Similarly, the shifted continuous-time unit ramp function is

defined as: t ,
 tt 0
r (t − t 0 ) = 
0 , t  t0
Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……
▪ The continuous-time unit ramp and shifted unit ramp functions
are shown in the figure below.

Fig. Continuous-time unit ramp and shifted unit ramp functions

Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

▪ The discrete-time unit ramp function, denoted by r(n), is

defined as:

n, n0
r ( n) = 

0 , n0

▪ Similarly, the shifted discrete-time unit ramp function is defined

as:
n , n  n0
r (n − n0 ) = 
0 , n  n0
Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

▪ The discrete-time unit ramp and shifted unit ramp functions are
shown in the figure below.

Fig. Discrete-time unit ramp and shifted unit ramp functions

Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……
iv. Sinusoidal signals
▪ The continuous-time sinusoidal signal is given by:
x(t ) = A cos(t +  ) or

x(t ) = A sin(t +  )
▪ Similarly, the discrete-time sinusoidal signal is written as:

x(n) = A cos(n +  ) or

x(n) = A sin(n +  )
Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……
v. Real exponential signals
▪ The continuous-time real exponential signal is written as:
x(t ) = Ke at

If a  0  Decaying exponential signal

If a  0  Growing exponential signal

▪ Similarly, the discrete-time sinusoidal signal is given by:

x ( n) = K ( r ) n

If 0  r  1  Decaying exponential signal

If r  1  Growing exponential signal

Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

vi. Complex exponential signals

▪ The continuous-time complex exponential signal is
given by:
j 0 t
x(t ) = e
▪ Similarly, the discrete-time complex exponential
signal is written as: j n
x ( n) = e 0
Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……
Relationship b/n sinusoidal & complex exponential signals:
▪ From Euler’s formula, the continuous-time complex
exponential signal can be written as:
e j0t = cos( 0 t ) + j sin( 0 t ) .......... (i )

And ,

e − j0t = cos( 0 t ) − j sin( 0 t ) .......... .(ii)

▪ We can write continuous-time sinusoidal signals in terms of
continuous-time complex exponential signals as :

  and
cos(0t ) = Re e j0t sin(0t ) = Im e j0t  
Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

▪ Adding equations (i) and (ii), we get:

e j0t + e − j0t = 2 cos( 0 t )

e j 0 t + e − j 0 t
 cos( 0 t ) =
2
▪ Similarly, subtracting equation (ii) from equation (i), we obtain:

e j0t − e − j0t = 2 j sin( 0 t )

e j0t − e − j0t
 sin( 0 t ) =
2j
Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

▪ Similarly, for discrete-time complex exponential signals:

e j 0 n = cos( 0 n) + j sin( 0 n) .......... (i )

And ,

e − j 0 n = cos( 0 n) − j sin( 0 n) .......... (ii)

▪ We can write discrete-time sinusoidal signals in terms of

discrete-time complex exponential signals as :


cos(0 n) = Re e j0n  and 
sin(0 n) = Im e j0n 
Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

▪ Adding equations (i) and (ii), we get:

e j0 n + e − j0 n = 2 cos( 0 n)

e j 0 n + e − j 0 n
 cos( 0 n) =
2
▪ Similarly, subtracting equation (ii) from equation (i), we obtain:

e j0n − e − j0n = 2 j sin( 0 n)

e j0n − e − j0n
 sin( 0 n) =
2j
Exercise
1. Consider a triangular continuous-time signal x(t) shown in the
figure below.

Sketch each of the following signals derived from x(t).

a. y (t ) = x(3t ) d . y (t ) = x(2t + 4)

b. y (t ) = x(3t + 2) e. y (t ) = x(4 − 2t )

c. y (t ) = 2 x(−2t − 1) f . y (t ) = x(3t ) + x(3t + 2)

Exercise……
2. Consider a continuous-time signal x(t) shown in the figure
below.

Sketch and label each of the

following signals derived
from x(t) carefully.

 t
a. y (t ) = x(t − 1) d . y (t ) = x 4 − 
 2
b. y (t ) = x(2 − t ) e. y (t ) = x(t )u (1 − t )

c. y (t ) = x(2t + 1) d . y (t ) = x(t )u (t − 1)
Exercise……

3. Consider a discrete-time signal x(n) shown in the figure below.

Sketch and label each of the

following signals derived
from x(n) carefully.

a. y (n) = x(n − 2) d . y (n) = x(− n + 2)

b. y (n) = x(2n) e. y (t ) = x(n)u (n − 3)

c. y (n) = x(−n) f . y (t ) = x(n − 2)u (4 − n)

Exercise……
4. Express the following signals in terms of unit step functions.

a. Continuous-time signal b. Discrete-time signal

Exercise……

5. Sketch and label each of the following signals carefully.

a. x(t ) = u (t ) − u (t − 2)

b. x(t ) = u (t + 1) − 2u (t ) + u (t − 1)

c. x(t ) = −u (t + 3) + 2u (t + 1) − 2u (t − 1) + u (t − 3)

d . x(n) = u (n + 2) + u (n − 1) − 2u (n − 4)

e. x(n) = u (n + 3) − u (n − 3)

f . x(n) =  (n + 1) + 2 (n) +  (n − 1)
System Classification
Representation of Systems
▪ A system is a mathematical model of a physical process that
relates the input signal to the output signal.

▪ In other words, a system is a mathematical operator or mapping

that transforms an input signal into an output signal by means of
a fixed set of rules or operations.

▪ The notation T[ .] is used to represent a general system in which

an input signal is transformed into an output signal.

▪ Mathematically, the input and output signals can be related as:

y (t ) = T [ x(t )] or y (n) = T [ x(n)]
 Representation of Systems……

▪ The relationship between the input and output may be expressed

in terms of a concise mathematical rule or function.

▪ It is also possible to describe a system in terms of an algorithm

that provides a sequence of instructions or operations that is to be
applied to the input signal.

Fig. Representation of continuous-time and discrete-time systems

 Classification of Systems

▪ In the analysis or design of a system, it is desirable to classify

the system according to some generic properties that the system
satisfies.

▪ For a system to possess a given property, the property must

hold true for all possible input signals that can be applied to the
system.

▪ If a property holds for some input signals but not for others, the
system does not satisfy that property.
 Classification of Systems……

▪ We can classify systems into the following six basic categories.

i. Linear Vs non-linear systems

ii. Time-invariant Vs time-varying systems

iii. Memoryless Vs memory systems

iv. Causal Vs non-causal systems

v. Stable Vs unstable systems

vi. Invertible Vs non-invertible systems

 Classification of Systems……

i. Linear Vs non-linear systems

▪ A system is linear if it satisfies the principle of superposition.

▪ A continuous-time system with input x(t) and output y(t) is said

to be linear iff:
T [a1 x1 (t ) + a2 x2 (t )] = a1T [ x1 (t )] + a2T [ x2 (t )]

▪ Similarly, a discrete-time system with input x(n) and output

y(n) is said to be linear iff:
T [a1 x1 (n) + a2 x2 (n)] = a1T [ x1 (n)] + a2T [ x2 (n)]
 Classification of Systems……

Exercise:

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output

relationships are linear or non-linear.
a. y (t ) = 2 x(t ) e. y (n) = x(n) − x(n − 2)

b. y (t ) = e x ( t ) f . y (n) = sin[ x(n)]

dx(t )
c. y (t ) =
dt

d . y (t ) = 3 x(t ) + 5
 Classification of Systems……

ii. Time-invariant Vs time-varying systems

▪ A system is said to be time-invariant if a time delay or time

advance in the input signal leads to an identical time-shift in
the output signal.

▪ A continuous-time system with an input x(t) and output y(t) is

said to be time-invariant iff:
y (t − t 0 ) = T [ x(t − t 0 )]

▪ Similarly, a discrete-time system with an input x(n) and output

y(n) is said to be time-invariant iff:
y (n − n0 ) = T [ x(n − n0 )]
 Classification of Systems……

Exercise:

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output

relationships are time-invariant or time-varying.

a. y (t ) = sin[ x(t )] e. y (n) = x(n) − x(n − 2)

b. y (t ) = t sin[ x(t )] f . y (n) = nx(n)

c. y (t ) = x 2 (t )

d . y ( n) = x ( − n)
 Classification of Systems……
iii. Memoryless Vs memory systems
▪ A continuous-time system is said to be memoryless or
instantaneous if its output y(t) at time t = t0 depends only on the
values of the input x(t) at the same time t = t0.
▪ On the other hand, if the response of a system at t = t0 depends
on the values of the input x(t) in the past or in the future time, it
is called a dynamic system or a system with memory.
▪ Similarly, a discrete-time system is said to be memoryless if its
output y(n) at time instant n = n0 depends only on the value of its
input x(n) at the same time instant n = n0. Otherwise, the
discrete-time system is said to have memory.
 Classification of Systems……

Exercise:

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output

relationships are memoryless or memory.

a. y (t ) = x(2t ) e. y (n) = x(n + 2)

n
b. y (t ) = x(t − 5) f . y ( n ) = x 
2

c. y (t ) = x 2 (t ) g . y ( n) = e x ( n )

d . y (t ) = 3x(t ) + 5
 Classification of Systems……

iv. Causal Vs non-causal systems

▪ A continuous-time system is said to be causal if the output at

time t = t 0depends only on the input x(t) for t  t 0.
▪ Similarly, a discrete-time system is causal if the output at time
instant n = n0depends only on the input x(n) for n  n .
0

▪ That is, the output of a causal system at the present time depends
on only the present and/or past values of the input but not on its
future values.
▪ A system that violates the causality condition is called a non-
causal or anti-causal system.
 Classification of Systems……

Exercise:

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output

relationships are causal or non-causal.
a. y (t ) = x(t − 2) + x(t + 2) e. y (n) = x(n − 3) + 4

n
b. y (t ) = x(t − 2) + x(t − 5) f . y ( n ) = x 
2

c. y (t ) = x 2 (t − 2) g . y ( n) = e x ( n − 2 )

d . y (t ) = x(2t )
 Classification of Systems……

v. Stable Vs unstable systems

▪ A system is referred to as bounded-input, bounded-output

(BIBO) stable if an arbitrary bounded-input signal always
produces a bounded-output signal.

▪ A continuous-time system with input x(t) and output y(t) is

said to be BIBO stable iff:
x(t )  Bx    y(t )  B y  

▪ Similarly, a discrete-time system with input x(n) and output

y(n) is said to be BIBO stable iff:
x(n)  Bx    y(n)  B y  
 Classification of Systems……

Exercise:

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output

relationships are BIBO stable or unstable.

a. y (t ) = 2 x(t ) + 5 d . y ( n) = e x ( n )

n+2
b. y (t ) = x(t − 5) e. y (n) =  x(k )
k =n−2

n
c. y (t ) = x 2 (t ) f . y ( n) =  x(k )
k = −
 Classification of Systems……

vi. Invertible Vs non-invertible systems

▪ A continuous-time system is said to be invertible if the input

signal x(t) can be uniquely determined from the output y(t) for
all time t ∈ (−∞,∞).

▪ Similarly, a discrete-time system is said to be invertible if the

input signal x(n) can be uniquely determined from the output
y(n) for all time n ∈ (−∞,∞).

▪ To be invertible, two different inputs cannot produce the same

output since, in such cases, the input signal cannot be uniquely
determined from the output signal.
 Classification of Systems……

Exercise:

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output

relationships are invertible or non-invertible.

a. y (t ) = 3x(t ) + 5 e. y (n) = 2 x(n) + 7

b. y (t ) = cos[x(t )] f . y ( n) = x ( 2n)

c. y (t ) = x 2 (t ) g . y ( n) = e x ( n )

d . y (t ) = x(t ) − x(t − 2)
Exercise

1. Determine whether the following signals are even, odd or

neither. If the signals are neither even nor odd, evaluate the
even and odd components.

a. x(t ) = t 2 + cos(2t ) d . x(t ) = tu (t )

(− 1)n , n  0 n , 0  n  4

b. x(n) =  e. x(n) = 
0 , n0 0 , otherwise

 t  sin(2n )
c. x(t ) = t sin  f . x ( n) =
2 n
 Exercise……

2. Determine whether the following signals are periodic or non-

periodic. Calculate the fundamental period for the periodic
signals.
   7 n   3n 
j  5t +  j  j 
a. x(t ) = e  4
d . x ( n) = e  4 
+e  4 

 6t   3t   2n 
b. x(t ) = sin  + 2 cos  e. x(n) = cos 
 7  5  5 

 3t   63t 
c. x(t ) = sin  cos  f . x(n) = (− 1)
n

 8   64 
Exercise……

3. Determine if the following signals are energy or power signals

or neither. Calculate the energy and power of the signals in
each case.
 n  
j + 
a. x(t ) = cos(t )sin(t ) d . x ( n) = e  2 8

cos(3t ) , − 3  n  3

b. x(t ) =  e. x(n) = (− 1)
n


0 , otherwise

 n   3n 
c. x(t ) = e − 2t u (t ) f . x(n) = cos  sin 
 4   8 