UNIT-2

DC GENERATORS
Principle of operation, constructional details, armature
windings and its types, EMF equation, wave shape of
induced emf, armature reaction, demagnetizing and cross
magnetizing Ampere turns, compensating winding,
commutation, methods of improving commutation,
interpoles, OCC and load characteristics of different types
of DC Generators. Parallel operation of DC Generators,
equalizing connections- applications of DC Generators.
Principle of operation,
DC generators generate electricity using the principle
of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. When a
conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an
electromotive force gets induced within the conductor. This
induced e.m.f magnitude is measured using the equation of the
electromotive force of a generator.
DC Generator:
1. DC generators' primary function is to convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
2. DC generators generate electricity using the principle of
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
3. When a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an
electromotive force gets induced within the conductor.
4. This induced e.m.f magnitude is measured using the
equation of the electromotive force of a generator.
5. If the conductor is provided with a closed path, the
induced current will circulate within the closed path. In this

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generator, field coils will generate an electromagnetic field as
well as the armature conductors are turned into the field.
6. Therefore, an electromagnetically induced electromotive
force (e.m.f) will be generated within the armature conductors.

Construction of a DC Generator - explanation of its various

parts. It mainly consists of three main parts, i.e. magnetic field
system, armature and commutator and brush gear. The other
parts of a DC Generator are magnetic frame and yoke, pole
core and pole shoes, field or exciting coils, armature core and
windings, brushes, end housings, bearings and shafts.

The diagram of the main parts of a 4 pole DC Generator or DC

Machine is shown below:
Contents:
 Magnetic Field System of DC Generator
 Magnetic Frame and Yoke
 Pole Core and Pole Shoes
 Field or Exciting Coils
 Armature of DC Generator
 Armature Core
 Armature Windings
 Commutator in DC Generator

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 Brushes
 End Housings
 Bearings
 Shaft


Magnetic Field System of DC Generator

The Magnetic Field System is the stationary or fixed part of the
machine. It produces the main magnetic flux. The magnetic
field system consists of Mainframe or Yoke, Pole core and Pole
shoes and Field or Exciting coils. These various parts of DC
Generator are described below in detail.

Magnetic Frame and Yoke

The outer hollow cylindrical frame to which main poles and
inter-poles are fixed and by means of which the machine is
fixed to the foundation is known as Yoke. It is made of cast
steel or rolled steel for the large machines and for the smaller
size machine the yoke is generally made of cast iron.

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The two main purposes of the yoke are as follows:-
 It supports the pole cores and provides mechanical
protection to the inner parts of the machines.
 It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
Pole Core and Pole Shoes
The Pole Core and Pole Shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame
or yoke by bolts. Since the poles, project inwards they are
called salient poles. Each pole core has a curved surface.
Usually, the pole core and shoes are made of thin cast steel or
wrought iron laminations which are riveted together under
hydraulic pressure.
The poles are laminated to reduce the Eddy Current loss.
Eddy current losses
Eddy current losses are the result of Farady’s law, which states
that, “Any change in the environment of a coil of wire will cause
a voltage to be induced in the coil, regardless of how the
magnetic change is produced.
” Thus, when a motor core is rotated in a magnetic field, a
voltage, or EMF, is induced in the coils. This induced EMF
causes circulating currents to flow, referred to as eddy currents.
The power loss caused by these currents is known as eddy
current loss.

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The figure showing the pole core and pole shoe is represented
below:

The poles core serves the following purposes given below:

 It supports the field or exciting coils.
 They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature
periphery more uniformly.
 It increases the cross-sectional area of the magnetic
circuit, as a result, the reluctance of the magnetic path is
reduced.
Field or Exciting Coils
Each pole core has one or more field coils (windings) placed
over it to produce a magnetic field. The enamelled copper wire

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is used for the construction of field or exciting coils. The coils
are wound on the former and then placed around the pole core.

When direct current passes through the field winding, it

magnetizes the poles, which in turns produces the flux. The
field coils of all the poles are connected in series in such a way
that when current flows through them, the adjacent poles attain
opposite polarity.

Armature of DC Generator
The rotating part of the DC machine or a DC Generator is
called the Armature. The armature consists of a shaft upon
which a laminated cylinder, called Armature Core is placed.
Armature Core
The armature core of DC Generator is cylindrical in shape and
keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer periphery of the
armature has grooves or slots which accommodate the
armature winding as shown in the figure below:

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The armature core of a DC generator or machine serves the
following purposes.
 It houses the conductors in the slots.
 It provides an easy path for the magnetic flux.
As the armature is a rotating part of the DC Generator or
machine, the reversal of flux takes place in the core, hence
hysteresis losses are produced. The silicon steel material is
used for the construction of the core to reduce the hysteresis
losses.
The rotating armature cuts the magnetic field, due to which an
emf is induced in it. This emf circulates the eddy current which
results in Eddy Current loss. Thus to reduce the loss the
armature core is laminated with a stamping of about 0.3 to 0.5
mm thickness. Each lamination is insulated from the other by a

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coating of varnish.

Armature Winding
The insulated conductors are placed in the slots of the
armature core. The conductors are wedged, and bands of steel
wire wound around the core and are suitably connected. This
arrangement of conductors is called Armature Winding. The
armature winding is the heart of the DC Machine.
Armature winding is a place where the conversion of power
takes place. In the case of a DC Generator here, mechanical
power is converted into electrical power. On the basis of
connections, the windings are classified into two types named
as Lap Winding and Wave Winding.
 Lap Winding
In lap winding, the conductors are connected in such a way that
the number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles.
Thus, if a machine has P poles and Z armature conductors,
then there will be P parallel paths, each path will have Z/P
conductors connected in series.
In lap winding, the number of brushes is equal to the number of
parallel paths. Out of which half the brushes are positive and
the remaining half are negative.
 Wave Winding
In wave winding, the conductors are so connected that they are
divided into two parallel paths irrespective of the number of
poles of the machine. Thus, if the machine has Z armature
conductors, there will be only two parallel paths each having
Z/2 conductors in series. In this case number of brushes is
equal to two, i.e. number of parallel paths.

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Commutator of DC Machine

 A commutator is a cylindrical drum mounted on the shaft

along with the armature core.
 It is made of a large number of wedge-shaped segments
of hard-drawn copper.
 The segments are insulated from each other by thin layers
of mica.
 Armature winding is tapped at various points and these
tapping’s are successively connected to various segments of
the commutator.
 For a dc generator it converts the alternating EMF
generated internally into a DC voltage. So it basically works like
a rectifier.
 It collects the current from the armature conductors and
passes it to the external load via brushes.


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Commutator converts AC induced current in the armature
winding into DC for external load.
Material:
 Commutator segments are made up of Copper.
 Commutator segments are insulated from each other
by Mica.

Commutator in DC Generator
The commutator, which rotates with the armature, is cylindrical
in shape and is made from a number of wedge-shaped hard
drawn copper bars or segments insulated from each other and
from the shaft. The segments form a ring around the shaft of
the armature. Each commutator segment is connected to the
ends of the armature coils.

It is the most important part of a DC machine and serves the

following purposes.
 It connects the rotating armature conductors to the
stationary external circuit through brushes.
 It converts the induced alternating current in the armature
conductor into the unidirectional current in the external load

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circuit in DC Generator action, whereas it converts the
alternating torque into unidirectional (continuous) torque
produced in the armature in motor action.

Brushes
Carbon brushes are placed or mounted on the commutator and
with the help of two or more carbon brushes current is collected
from the armature winding. Each brush is supported in a metal
box called a brush box or brush holder. The brushes are
pressed upon the commutator and form the connecting link
between the armature winding and the external circuit.
The pressure exerted by the brushes on the commutator can
be adjusted and is maintained at a constant value by means of
springs. With the help of the brushes, the current which is
produced on the windings is passed on to the commutator and
then to the external circuit.
They are usually made of high-grade carbon because carbon is
conducting material and at the same time in powdered form
provides a lubricating effect on the commutator surface.

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End Housings
End housings are attached to the ends of the Mainframe and
provide support to the bearings. The front housings support the
bearing and the brush assemblies whereas the rear housings
usually support the bearings only.

Bearings
The ball or roller bearings are fitted in the end housings. The
function of the bearings is to reduce friction between the
rotating and stationary parts of the machine. Mostly high carbon
steel is used for the construction of bearings as it is a very hard
material.

Shaft
The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking
strength. The shaft is used to transfer mechanical power from
or to the machine. The rotating parts like armature core,
commutator, cooling fans, etc. are keyed to the shaft.
Shaft

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 Shaft is a solid long rod like structure, which place by
support of bearing in alignment for proper rotation. And it help
to support and rotate rotor .


 Que. State at least one function and the material used

for the following parts of dc generator: (i) Yoke, (ii) Field
winding, (iii) Commutator, (iv) Brushes
Part Function Material

Provides Mechanical support

for Poles
Acts as Protecting cover for Cast Iron OR
Yoke
Machine Cast Steel
provides path for magnetic
Flux

Produce uniform magnetic

Field
field in which armature Copper
Winding
rotates

Copper
Converts AC from armature
segments
to DC for generator
Commutator insulated from
Converts DC to AC for motor
each other by
armature.
mica

To Collect current for

Brushes generator & supply current in Carbon
motors.


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ARMATURE WINDINGS AND ITS TYPES
Difference Between Lap & Wave Winding
The insulator conductor house in an armature slot is known as
an armature winding. In armature winding, the conversion of
power takes places, i.e., in the case of the generator the
mechanical power is converted into an electrical energy and in
the case of a motor the electrical energy is converted into
mechanical energy.
The armature winding is mainly classified into two types, i.e.,
the lap winding and the wave winding. One of the major
difference between them is that in a lap winding the end of
each coil are connected to the adjacent segment whereas in
the wave winding the end of armature coil connected to
commutator segment at a distance apart.
Content: Lap V/S Wave Winding
 Comparison Chart
 Definition
 Key Differences
Comparison Chart
Basis For
Lap Winding Wave Winding
Comparison
Definition The coil is lap back to The coil of the winding
the succeeding coil. form the wave shape.
Connection The end of the The end of the
armature coil is armature coil is
connected to an connected to
adjacent segment on commutator segments
the commutators. some distance apart.
Parallel Path The numbers ofThe number of parallel
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Basis For
Lap Winding Wave Winding
Comparison
parallel path are equal paths is equal to two.
to the total of number
poles.
Other Name Parallel Winding or Two-circuit or Series
Mulitiple Winding Winding.
EMF Less More
Number of Equal to the number of Two
Brushes parallel paths.
Types Simplex and Duplex Progressive and
lap winding. Retrogressive wave
winding
Efficiency Less High
Additional Coil Equalizer Ring Dummy coil
Winding Cost High (because more Low
conductor is required)
Uses In low voltage, high In high voltage, low
current machines. current machines.

Definition of Lap Winding

In lap winding, the consecutive coils overlap each other. The
first end of the winding is connected to the one segment of the
commutator, and the starting end of the other coil is placed
under the same magnet (different pole) and join with the same
segment of the commutator.

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 The conductors
are connected in such a way that the number of parallel paths
equals to the number of poles. Consider the machine has P
poles and Z armature conductors, then there will be P parallel
paths, and each path will have Z/P conductors in series. The
number of brushes is equivalent to the number of parallel
paths. The half of the brush is positive, and the remaining is
negative.
The lap winding is mainly classified into two types. They are the
Simplex lap winding and the Duplex Lap winding.
1. Simplex Lap Winding – In this winding, the number of
parallel paths is equal to the number of poles.
2. Duplex Lap Winding – In duplex lap winding the number
of parallel paths is twice to the number of poles.
Definition of Wave Winding
The one end of the coil is connected to the starting end of the
other coil which has the same polarity as that of the first coil.
The coils are connected in the wave shape and hence it is
called the wave winding. The conductor of the wave winding
are split into two parallel paths, and each path had Z/2
conductors in series. The number of brushes is equal to 2, i.e.,
the number of parallel paths.

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Key Differences Between Lap and Wave Winding
1. In lap winding, the coil is lap back to the succeeding coil
whereas in the case of the wave winding the coil are connected
in the wave shape.
2. In lap winding, the end of the armature coil is connected to
the adjacent commutator segment, whereas is wave winding
the end of the armature coil is placed in the commutator
segment which is placed apart.
3. In lap winding the number of parallel paths is equal to the
total number of poles of the coil and in the wave winding the
number of parallel paths is always equal to two.
4. The lap winding is also called parallel winding because
their coils are connected in parallel whereas in the wave
winding the coils are connected in series and hence it is called
series winding.
5. The emf of the lap winding is less as compared to wave
winding.
6. The lap winding requires equaliser for the better
commutation. The wave winding requires the dummy coil for
giving the mechanical balance to the armature.

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7. In lap winding, the number of brushes is equal to the
number of parallel paths whereas in wave winding the number
of brushes is two.
8. The efficiency of the lap winding is less as compared to
the wave winding.
9. The simplex and duplex are the types of lap windings. In
simplex winding, the number of parallel paths is equal to the
pole, in duplex winding the pole is twice to that of a parallel
path, whereas the progressive and the retrogressive are the
types of the wave windings.
10. The winding cost of the lap winding is more than the wave
winding because it requires more conductor.
11. The lap winding is used in low voltage, high current
machines, whereas the wave winding is used in high voltage,
low current machines.
EMF EQUATION OF A DC GENERATOR

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As the armature rotates, a voltage is generated in its coils. In
the case of a generator, the emf of rotation is called
the Generated emf or Armature emf and is denoted as Er =
Eg. In the case of a motor, the emf of rotation is known
as Back emf or Counter emf and represented as Er = Eb.
The expression for emf is same for both the operations, i.e., for
Generator as well as for Motor.
Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator
and Motor
Let,
 P – number of poles of the machine
 ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.
 Z – Total number of armature conductors.
 N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).
 A – number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one conductor
is given as:

Time taken to complete one revolution is given as:

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be:

Putting the value of (t) from Equation (2) in the equation (3) we
will get

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The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel
path = Z/A.
Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path
or the armature terminals is given by the equation shown
below:

Where n is the speed in revolution per second (r.p.s) and given

as:

For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of

conductors per parallel path (Z/A) are constant. Hence,
equation (5) can be written as:

Where K is a constant and given as:

Therefore, the average induced emf equation can also be

written as:

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Where K1 is another constant and hence induced emf equation
can be written as:

Where ω is the angular velocity in radians/second is

represented as:

Thus, it is clear that the induced emf is directly proportional to

the speed and flux per pole. The polarity of induced emf
depends upon the direction of the magnetic field and the
direction of rotation. If either of the two is reversed the polarity
changes, but if two are reversed the polarity remains
unchanged.
This induced emf is a fundamental phenomenon for all the DC
Machines whether they are working as a generator or motor.
If the DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced emf
is given by the equation shown below:

Where Eg is the Generated Emf

If the DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is
given by the equation shown below:

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In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf (Eb) because it
acts opposite to the supply voltage.
The induced emf of a conductor of a DC machine
(1), that for any dc generator Z, P and A are constant so that
Eg ∝ Nϕ. Therefore, for a given DC generator, the induced EMF
in the armature is directly proportional to the flux per pole and
speed of rotation.
Numerical Example
A 6-pole, DC generator has 800 conductors on its armature.
The flux per pole is 0.035 Wb. The speed of rotation of the
armature is 1500 RPM. Calculate the generated EMF when the
armature is, (a) Lap wound, (b) Wave wound.
Solution
(a). For Lap wound armature −
Eg=PφNZ60A=6×0.035×1500×800/60×6=700V
(b). For wave wound armature −
Eg=PφNZ60A=6×0.035×1500×800/60×2=2100V

Armature Reaction
The current flowing through the armature conductors creates a
magnetic field, which is called as armature flux. This armature
flux distorts and weakens the magnetic flux produced by the
main poles. This effect of armature flux on the main flux is
known as armature reaction.
Case 1
Consider a two pole generator on no-load. Thus, the current in
the armature conductors is zero. Under this condition, there is
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only the main flux (φm) in the machine which is produced by the
main poles. This main flux is distributed symmetrically with
respect to the polar axis (i.e. centre line of field poles).

The magnetic neutral axis (MNA, which is a plane

perpendicular to the axis of flux) coincides with the geometrical
neutral axis (GNA). The brushes are always placed along MNA,
hence the MNA is also called as axis of commutation.
Case 2
Now consider the armature carrying current with no current in
the field coils. The direction of flux produced by the current in
the armature conductors may be determined by cork-screw
rule. Refer the figure, the conductors under the N-pole carry
current in the direction into the plane of paper. Thus, the flux
produced by the conductors under the N-pole is in the
downward direction.

Similarly, the conductors under the S-pole carry current in the

direction out of the plane of paper. These conductors also
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produce a flux which is directed downward. Therefore, all the
armature conductor produces a flux through the armature in the
downward direction. This flux is known as armature flux (φA).
Case 3
This case shows the condition when the field current and
armature currents are acting simultaneously. Hence, there are
two fluxes inside the machine, one is produced by the main
field poles of the generator and the other by the current in the
armature conductors. These two fluxes combine to give a
resultant flux (φR).

From the above discussion, it can be seen that the main flux
entering the armature is shifted and distorted. The distortion
increases the flux density in the upper pole tip of the N-pole
and in the lower pole tip of the S-pole. Similarly, there is a
decrease in the flux density in the lower pole tip of the N-pole
and in the upper pole tip of the S-pole. Therefore, the direction
of the resultant flux has shifted in the direction of rotation of the
generator.
Since the MNA is always perpendicular to the axis of the
resultant flux, hence the MNA is also shifted. Due to the non-
linear behaviour and saturation of the core, the increase in the
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flux in one pole tip is less than the decrease in the flux in the
other pole tip. This results in, the main flux is decreased.
Consequently, the generated emf (Eg ∝ Nφm) is decreased with
the increase in load.
Effects of Armature Reaction
The armature reaction in a DC generator causes the following
adverse effects
 As the total field flux produced by each pole is slightly
reduced, which reduces the generated EMF.
 Due to the shifting of the resultant flux axis, the MNA is
also shifted in the direction of rotation of the generator.
 Due to the armature reaction, a flux is established in the
commutating zone or neutral zone. This flux in the neutral zone
induces conductor voltage that causes the commutation
problems.
Remedies to the Armature Reaction Effect
There are four methods to reduce the armature reaction
problem
Adjust the Brush Position
In this method, rotate the brush mechanism to find the correct
neutral zone position. This can be applied only fixed load
current.
Modify the Ends of the Poles
In this method, the field pole tip is to be modified so that high
flux cannot exist on the ends because of the high reluctance
path.
Interpoles
The effect of armature reaction can be reduced by placing a set
of interpoles or commutating poles between the main poles of

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the DC generator. The polarity of interpole must be that of the
main pole just next of it in the direction of rotation. The interpole
windings are connected in series with the armature so that
respective fluxes rise and fall together with the changes in the
load current.
Compensating Winding
The heavy duty operations produce very sudden changes in the
armature reaction. In such generators, the interpoles do not
adequately neutralise the armature flux. Hence, to overcome
this problem, the compensating windings are used.
The compensating winding is an auxiliary winding embedded in
the slots of the main poles. The compensating winding is
connected in series with the armature in such a way that the
direction of the current in the compensating conductors in any
one pole face will be opposite to the direction of current through
the adjacent armature conductors. Hence, the compensating
windings produce a flux equal and opposite to the armature flux
and thus completely neutralise the armature reaction.
Demagnetising and Cross-magnetising Conductors & its
Equation
When the field winding of a dc generator is excited, a flux with
uniform distribution in the air gap of the dc generator is
produced. Once the generator is loaded, load current flows
through the armature conductors and set up its own flux. This
armature flux will be always in the 180° phase apart from the
field flux and distorts or opposes the uniformly distributed main
field flux.
The opposition of armature flux on the main field flux is called
armature reaction. This armature reaction has two undesirable

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effects, either it weakens (reduces) the main field flux called
'Demagnetising Effect' or it distorts the main field flux called
'Cross-magnetising Effect'.
Phenomenon of Demagnetisation and Cross-magnetisation
:
Assume, for example, the brushes are lying at the new MNA
position (to avoid sparking during commutation). Let θ be the
angle between GNA and MNA. The armature MMF will now lie
along with the new position of the brush axis as shown in the
below diagram.

Suppose the field winding flux is in the direction from N to S

i.e., top to bottom. We can see that the current carrying
armature conductors in the region AOC and BOD are in the
opposite direction to the field winding flux.
Thus armature field Fa by the conductors in the region AOC (θ
+ θ = 2θ) and BOD (θ + θ = 2θ) exerts demagnetising influence
on the main field Ff (reduces field strength) and called
demagnetising armature conductors or weakening component
of the armature reaction.

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Similarly, the remaining armature conductors i.e., in the region
AOD and BOC, produce a flux F a in such a direction that right
angle to the field flux Ff as shown above. Thus component
OFa is at right angles to the vector OFf as shown in the vector
representation.
These armature conductors (in the region AOD and BOC)
produce a distorted effect on flux distribution in the air gap
produced by the main field. This distortion effect by the
armature conductors is known as cross-magnetising armature
conductors or a distorting component of the armature reaction.

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Equation for Demagnetisation and Cross-magnetisation
Conductors :
Let,
 ATd = Demagnetising ampere-turns.
 ATc = Cross-magnetising ampere-turns.
 I = Current in each armature conductor (Ia/2 for wave
winding or Ia/P for lap winding).
 Z = Total number of armature conductors.
 θ = Forward mechanical lead of brush (degrees).
The conductors responsible for the demagnetising effect are
lying in the region AOC and BOD i.e. 2θ + 2θ = 4θ. The total
number of armature conductor in angle AOC and BOD (i.e. 4θ)

Total turns in 4θ (since 1 turn = 2 conductors),

Demagnetising ampere-turns in 4θ,

Demagnetising ampere-turns per pole,

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The demagnetising effect in a dc generator can be neutralized
by adding a number of extra ampere-turns. The extra ampere-
turns add per-pole is given as,

The armature conductors responsible for cross-magnetising

effect are lying in the region AOD and BOC. We know that the
total ampere-turns per pole = ZI/2P (i.e, combination of
demagnetising & cross-magnetising ampere-turns). Now by
subtracting the equation of demagnetising amper-turns per-pole
from total ampere-turns per-pole gives the equation for cross-
magnetising ampere-turns per-pole.
i.e., Cross-magnetising ampere turns/pole = Total ampere-
turns/pole - ATd/pole

While determining the value of demagnetising and cross-

magnetising ampere-turns the angle θ is considered in
mechanical degrees. The below expression shows the relation
between electrical and mechanical degrees.

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compensating winding in dc machine:
To improve the commutation in DC machines, the commutating
windings are used, which eliminates the effect of armature
reaction and flashover by balancing the armature flux.

Commutating windings are the auxiliary windings placed in the

slots provided in the pole faces parallel to the armature
conductors and are connected in series with the armature. The
direction of current in the compensating winding is opposite to
the armature winding, hence the commutating windings
produce a flux which is opposite to the armature flux.
Therefore, they neutralise the armature flux and the flux per
pole being undisturbed by the armature flux regardless of the
load conditions.

A compensation winding in a DC shunt motor is a winding in the

field pole face plate that carries armature current to reduce
stator field distortion. Its purpose is to reduce brush arcing and
erosion in DC motors that are operated with weak fields,

31
variable heavy loads or reversing operation such as steel-mill
motors.
A compensation winding in a DC shunt motor is a winding in
the field pole face plate that carries armature current to
reduce stator field distortion. Its purpose is to
reduce brush arcing and erosion in DC motors that are
operated with weak fields, variable heavy loads or reversing
operation such as steel-mill motors. When flux from the
armature current is about equal to the flux from the field
current, the flux at the field pole plate is shifted. Under a fixed
load, there is an optimal commutation point for the brushes that
minimizes arcing and erosion of the brushes. When the ratio of
armature flux to field flux varies greatly or reverses, the
optimum commutation point shifts as result of the varying flux at
the pole face plate. The result is arcing of the brushes. By
adding a compensating winding in the pole face plate that
carries armature current in the opposite direction of current in
the adjacent armature windings, the position of the flux at the
pole face plate can be restored to the position it would have
with zero armature current. The main drawback of a
compensation winding is the expense.[1]: 393 [2]: 65–66

32
A. Cross section of DC motor with compensation windings. A
= armature windings, C = compensation windings, F = field
windings, R = rotor (armature), S = stator (field).

B. Cross section of DC motor with compensation windings

showing magnetic flux due to field windings.

33
B. C. Cross section of DC motor with compensation windings
showing magnetic flux due to armature windings.
Figure A. shows a cross-sectional view of a two pole DC shunt
motor. Armature windings (A), field windings (F) and
compensation windings (C) use the dot and cross convention
where a circle with a dot is a wire carrying current out of the
figure and a circle with a cross is a wire carrying current into the
page. For each wire in the armature that is next to the field pole
face plate there is a wire in the face plate carrying current in the
opposite direction.
Figure B. shows the flux caused by the field winding alone.
Figure C. shows the flux caused by the armature winding alone.

34
Cross section of DC motor with compensation windings
showing magnetic flux due to field and armature under heavy
load. The flux in the gap has shifted.

Cross section of DC motor with compensation windings

showing magnetic flux due to field and armature under heavy
load with compensation windings. The flux in the gap has been
restored.

Figure D. shows field flux and armature flux being about equal.
The result is that the center of flux in the gap between the pole

35
face plate and the armature has shifted. For a more detailed
drawing, see Richardson. [3]: 66
Figure E. shows compensation wires in the field pole face plate
that are carrying current opposed to the current in the armature
wire adjacent to the gap. The flux in the gap has been restored
to the same condition as the case where there is no armature
flux. Even though the armature wires are next to wires carrying
current in the opposite direction, the wires of the armature still
experience magnetic force from interaction with the field flux.

COMMUTATION
Commutation in DC Machine
The currents induced in the armature conductors of a DC
generator are alternating in nature. The change from a
generated alternating current to the direct current applied
involves the process of Commutation. When the conductors of
the armature are under the north pole, the current which is
induced flows in one direction. While the current flows in the
opposite direction when they are under the south pole.
As the conductor passes through the influence of the north pole
and enters the south pole, the current in them is reversed. The
reversal of current takes place along the MNA or brush axis.
When the brush span has two commutator segments, the
winding element connected to those segments is short-
circuited.
The term Commutation means the change that takes place in
a winding element during the period of a short circuit by a
brush.

36
Let us understand Commutation more clearly by considering a
simple ring winding shown below in Figure A.

In the position shown in Figure A, the current I flowing towards

the brush from the left-hand side passes around the coil in a
clockwise direction.
Now consider the other figure B shown below:

In the above figure, the position of the coil shows that the same
amount of current is carried by all the coils, and the direction of
the current is also similar, but the coil is too short-circuited by
the brush.
In Figure C shown below the brush makes contact with bars a
and b, thereby short-circuiting coil 1. The current is still I from

37
the left-hand side and I from the right-hand side. It is seen that
these two currents can reach the brush without passing through
coil 1.

In figure D shown below, the bar (b) has just left the brush, and
the short circuit of coil one has ended. It is now necessary for
the current I reaching the brush from the right-hand side in the
anticlockwise direction.

From all the above discussion, it is seen that during the period
of the short circuit of an armature coil by a brush the current in
the coil must be reversed and also brought up to its full value in

38
the reverse direction. The time of the short circuit is called
the period of commutation.
The figure shown below shows how the current in the short-
circuited coil varies during the brief interval of the short circuit.
The curve b shows that the current changes from +I to –I
linearly in the commutation period. Such a commutation is
called Ideal Commutation or Straight-line Commutation.

If the current through the coil 1 has not reached its full value in
the position in figure D, then, since the coil 2 carrying full
current, the difference between the currents through elements 2
and 1 has to jump from commutator bar to the brush in the form
of a spark.
Thus, the cause of sparking at the commutator is the failure of
the current in the short-circuited elements to reach the full value
in the reverse direction by the end of the short circuit. This is
known as under commutation or delayed commutation.
The curve of current against time in such a case is shown in
figure E by the curve A. In ideal commutation curve B, the

39
current of the commutating coils changes linearly from +I to –I
during the commutation period.
In actual practice, the current in the short-circuited coil after the
commutation period does not reach its full value. This is due to
the fact that the short-circuited coil offers self-inductance in
addition to the resistance. The rate of change of current is so
high that the self-inductance of the coil sets up a back EMF,
which opposes the reversal.
Since the current in the coil has to change from +I to –I, the
total change is 2I. If tc is the time of short circuit and L is the
inductance of the coil (= self-inductance of the short-circuited
coil + mutual inductances of the neighbouring coils), then the
average value of the self-induced voltage is:

This is called the reactance voltage.

The large voltage appearing between commutator segments to
which the coil is connected causes sparking at the brushes of
the machine. The sparking of the commutator is much harmful,
and it will damage both commutator surface and brushes. Its
effect is cumulative which may lead to a short circuit of the
machine with an arc around the commutator from brush to
brush.
Methods of Improving Commutation
There are three main methods of Improving commutation or
obtaining sparkles Commutation. These are Resistance
Commutation and Voltage Commutation and Compensating
Winding.

40
Further, the voltage commutation consists of another two
methods which are used to produce the injected voltage,
named as commutating poles or interpoles and Brush Shift.

The
following methods of Improving Commutation are explained
below in detail.
Contents:
 Resistance Commutation
 Voltage Commutation
 Brush Shift
 Commutating Poles or Interpoles
 Compensating Windings
Resistance Commutation
The Resistance Commutation method uses carbon brushes for
improving commutation. The use of carbon brushes makes
contact resistance between commutator segments and brushes
high. This high contact resistance has the tendency to force the
current in the short-circuited coil to change according to the

41
commutation requirements.

Voltage Commutation
In the Voltage Commutation method, the arrangement is made
to induce a voltage in the coil undergoing the commutation
process, which will neutralize the reactance voltage. This
injected voltage is in opposition to the reactance voltage. If the
value of the injected voltage is made equal to the reactance
voltage, there will be a quick reversal of current in the short-
circuited coil and as a result, there will be sparkles
commutation.
The two methods used to produce the injected voltage in
opposition to the reactance voltage are as follows.

Brush Shift
The effect of armature reaction is to shift the magnetic neutral
axis (MNA) in the direction of rotation for the generator and
against the direction of rotation for the motor. Armature reaction
establishes a flux in the neutral zone. A small voltage is
induced in the commutating coil since it is cutting the flux.

Commutating Poles or Interpoles

Interpoles are narrow poles placed in between the main poles
and are attached to the stator Interpoles are also called
commutating poles or Campoles. The interpoles windings are
connected in series with the armature because the interpoles
must produce fluxes that are directly proportional to the
armature current.

42
The armature and the interpoles mmfs are affected
simultaneously by the same armature current. Consequently,
the armature flux in the commutating zone, which tends to shift
the magnetic neutral axis, is neutralized by an appropriate
component of interpole flux.
The interpoles must induce a voltage in the conductors
undergoing commutation that is opposite to the voltage caused
by the neutral plane shift and reactance voltage.

In case of a generator:
The neutral plane shifts are in the direction of rotation. Thus,
the conductor undergoing the commutation, the polarity of the
interpole must be the same i.e. similar to the next main pole in
the direction of rotation. To oppose this voltage, the interpoles
must have the opposite flux, which is the flux of the main pole
ahead according to the direction of rotation.
In case of a motor:
For a motor, the neutral plane shifts opposite to the direction of
rotation, and the conductors undergoing commutation have the
same flux as the main pole. For opposing this voltage, the
interpole must have the same polarity as the previous main
pole. The polarity of an interpole and main pole is opposite in
the direction of rotation.
The polarity of interpoles is shown in the figure below:

43
 Th
e Interpoles serve only to provide sufficient flux to assure good
commutation. They do not overcome the distortion of the flux
resulting from cross-magnetizing mmf of the armature.
During severe overloads or rapidly changing loads, the voltage
between adjacent commutator segments may become very
high. This ionizes the air around the commutator to the extent
that it becomes sufficiently conductive. An arc is established
from brush to brush. This phenomenon is known as Flashover.
This arc is sufficiently hot to melt the commutator segments. It
should be extinguished quickly. To prevent flashover,
compensating windings are used.

Compensating Windings
The most efficient method of eliminating the problem of
armature reaction and flashover by balancing the armature mmf
is the compensating windings. The windings are placed in the
slots provided in pole faces parallel to the rotor conductors.

44
These windings are connected in series with the armature
windings.
The direction of currents in the compensating winding must be
opposite to that in the armature winding just below the pole
faces. Thus, compensating winding produces mmf that is equal
and opposite to the armature MMF. The compensating winding
demagnetizes or neutralizes the armature flux produced by the
armature conductors. The flux per pole is then undisturbed by
the armature flux regardless of the load conditions.
The major drawback with the compensating windings is that
they are very costly. The primary use of the compensating
winding is in particular cases, as given below:
 In large machine subject to heavy overloads or plugging.
 In small motors subject to sudden reversal and high
acceleration.
This is all about Methods of Improving Commutation.

Interpoles
What is Interpoles in DC generator?

Interpoles are designed in DC motors to overcome the effects

of the armature reactance and the self-induction of the
machine. Most shunt and compound DC motors over one-half

45
horsepower have interpoles located 90 electrical degrees from
the main poles. Some motor designs use only one interpole
with satisfactory results.

Types of DC Generator – Separately Excited and Self-

Excited DC Generators

A DC generator is an electrical machine which converts

mechanical energy into DC electrical energy. DC generators
are classified into two types on the basis of their methods of
field excitation as follows −
 Separately Excited DC Generator
 Self-Excited DC Generator

46
Separately Excited DC Generator
A separately excited DC generator is the one whose field
winding is supplied by an independent external DC source (like
a battery). The magnitude of generated voltage depends upon
the speed of rotation of armature and the field current, i.e.,
greater the speed and the field current, higher is the generated
voltage. In practice, the separately excited DC generators are
rarely used.

Refer the equivalent circuit of DC generator,

Armaturecurrent,Ia=IL
Terminalvoltage,VT=Eg−IaRa
Developedelectricpower=EgIa
Powerdeliveredtoload=EgIa−I2aRa=VTIa=VTIL
Self-Excited DC Generator
A self-excited DC generator is the one whose field winding is
excited by the current from the output of the generator itself.
Depending upon the connection of field winding with the
armature, the self-excited DC generators are of three types −
 Series Generator
 Shunt Generator
 Compound Generator

47
Series Generator
In case of a series generator, the field winding is connected in
series with the armature of the generator so that whole
armature current would flow through the field winding as well as
the load. Since the load current flows through the field winding
of the generator, so the field winding has a few turns of thick
wire having low resistance. The DC series generators are used
in special applications like boosters.

Refer the equivalent circuit of the series generator,

Armaturecurrent,Ia=Ise=IL=I(Say)
Terminalvoltage,VT=Eg−I(Ra+Rse)
Powerdevelopedinarmature=EgIa
Powerdeliveredtoload=EgIa−I2a(Ra+Rse)=VTIa=VTIL
Shunt Generator
In case of a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in
parallel with the armature of the generator so that terminal
voltage of the generator is applied across it. The shunt field
winding has many turns of thin wire having high resistance so
that only a fraction of armature current flows through the shunt
field winding and the rest flows through the load.

48
Refer the equivalent circuit of DC shunt generator,
Armaturecurrent,Ia=IL+Ish
Shuntfieldcurrent,Ish=VTRsh
Terminalvoltage,VT=Eg−IaRa
Powerdevelopedinarmature=EgIa
Powerdeliveredtoload=VTIL
Compound Generator
In case of a compound generator, there are two field winding
on each pole – one is in series and the other is in parallel with
the armature. The DC compound generators are of two types −
Short Shunt Compound Generator
In a short shunt generator, only shunt field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature.

Seriesfieldcurrent,Ise=IL
Shuntfieldcurrent,Ish=VT+IseRseRsh

49
Terminalvoltage,VT=Eg−IaRa−IseRse
Powerdevelopedinarmature=EgIa
Powerdeliveredtoload=VTIL
Long Shunt Compound Generator
In a long shunt generator, the shunt field winding is connected
in parallel with both series field and armature winding.

Seriesfieldcurrent,Ise=Ia=IL+Ish
Shuntfieldcurrent,Ish=VTRsh
Terminalvoltage,VT=Eg−Ia(Ra+Rse)
Powerdevelopedinarmature=EgIa
Powerdeliveredtoload=VTIL
Important − In compound generator, the majority of MMF is
established by the shunt field winding. If the series field flux
assists the shunt field then the generator is called cumulatively
compounded and when they oppose each other, the generator
is called differentially compounded.
Action of Commutator in DC Generator

The currents induced in the armature winding of a DC

generator are alternating in nature. The action of commutator
(called commutation) involves the change from a generated
alternating current to a direct current.

50
Explanation
Consider a commutator consisting of a cylindrical metal ring cut
into two segments C1 and C2 respectively separated by a thin
sheet of mica. The commutator is mounted on the rotor shaft
and insulated from it. The ends of the armature coil sides AB
and CD are connected to the segments C1 and C2
respectively. Two stationary carbon brushes are placed on the
commutator and carry current to the external load. Thus, with
this arrangement, the commutator always connects the coil side
under S-pole to the positive brush and under the N-pole to the
negative brush.
Case 1
Here, the coil sides AB and CD are under N-pole and S-pole
respectively (see the figure). The coil side AB is connected to
the segment C1 which is connected to the point x of the load R.
and the coil side CD is connected to the segment C2 which is
connected to the point y of the load R. The direction of the
current through the load is from y to x.

Case 2
After 180° rotation of the loop, the coil side AB is under the
influence of S-pole and the coil side CD is under the influence
of N-pole (see the figure). Thus, the currents in the coil sides

51
now flow in the reverse directions but the segments C1 and C2
have also moved through 180° so that the segment C1 is now
in contact with the positive brush and the segment C2 is in
contact with negative brush.
In this way, the commutator has reversed the coil connections
with the load i.e. the coil side AB is now connected to y terminal
and the coil side CD is connected to x terminal. Therefore, the
direction of the current through the load is again from y to x.

Thus, the alternating voltage generated in the armature winding

will appear as the direct voltage across the brushes and hence
across the load terminals.
Open Circuit Characteristics of a DC Generator

The open circuit characteristics (O.C.C) or magnetization

characteristics is the curve that shows the relationship between
the generated EMF at no-load (E0) and the field current (If) at
constant speed. It is also known as no-load saturation curve. Its
shape practically the same for all types of DC generator
whether separately excited or self-excited.
Explanation
In order to determine the open circuit characteristics of a DC
generator, the field winding is disconnected from the machine

52
and is excited by an external DC source. The generator is run
at its normal speed. The field current (I f) is increased gradually
from zero and the corresponding values of generated EMF at
no-load (E0) is noted from a voltmeter connected across the
armature terminals.

On plotting the relation between the E 0 and If, we obtain the

open circuit characteristics as shown in the figure.

Following points can be observed from the open circuit

characteristics curve −
 Initially the field current is zero, there being some
generated emf OA, which is due to the residual magnetism.
 From point A to B, the curve is linear. It is because in this
range, the reluctance of iron core is negligible as compared to
the air gap. The reluctance of air gap is constant and hence it
has linear relationship.
 After point B, the reluctance of iron also comes into
picture. Since, at higher flux densities, the relative permeability
(μr) of the iron decreases and hence the reluctance of iron is no
53
longer negligible. This results in the deviation of the curve from
the linear relationship.
 After point C, the pole cores begin to saturate
magnetically and the generated emf (E0) at no-load tends to
level off.
Voltage Build-Up in a Self-Excited DC Generator

A self-excited DC generator has its own field excitation.

Consider a shunt generator in which the field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature, thus armature voltage
supplies the field current.

Assume that the generator has no-load connected to it and the

armature is driven at a certain speed by a prime mover. The
voltage build up in a DC generator depends upon the presence
of the residual flux in the field poles of the generator. Because
of this residual flux, a small voltage E0r of the order of 1 V or 2
V will be generated and is given by,
E0r=kφresω
This voltage causes a current If to flow through the field winding
of the self-excited generator and this field current is given by,
If=VRfIf=VRf

54
This field current increases the magnetic flux in the generator.
The increase in the flux increases the generated voltage E 0.
The increased generated voltage E0 increases the terminal
voltage V. With the increase in V, the field current I f increases
further. This in turn increases the magnetic flux and therefore,
the E0 increases further. This process of voltage build up
continues. The terminal voltage of the generator limits to the
steady state value, when the magnetic saturation of field pole
cores being reached.
As we have assumed that the generator is on no-load during
the voltage build-up process, hence the steady state operation
can be described by the following equations −
Ia=IfIa=If
V=E0−IaRa=E0−IfRaV=E0−IaRa=E0−IfRa
Since the If is very small, therefore the drop IfRa can be
neglected. Hence,
V=E0V=E0
The curve plotted between the E0 and If is called as
the magnetisation curve.
And,
V=IfRf
This equation shows a straight line, which is known as field-
resistance line. The field resistance line is a curve plotted
between the voltage (IfRf) across the field winding and the field
current If. The slope of this line is equal to the resistance of the
field winding.

55
The point of intersection (P) of the magnetisation curve and the
field-resistance line gives the no-load terminal voltage V 0 of the
self-excited DC generator. If the field current corresponding to
the point P is increased further, there is no further increase in
the terminal voltage.
Hence, we arrive at a very important conclusion that the voltage
build-up of the DC generator is given by the point of
intersection of magnetisation curve and field resistance line.
Critical Field Resistance of DC Shunt Generator
The critical field resistance (RC) of a DC shunt generator is
defined as the maximum field circuit resistance with which the
shunt generator would just excite.

The voltage build-up in a shunt generator depends upon field

circuit resistance. If the field circuit resistance is R1, then the

56
generator will build-up a voltage V0 (see the E0 versus If curve).
If the field circuit resistance is increased to R 2, then the
generator will build-up a voltage V0 slightly less than V0. As the
resistance of the field circuit is increased, the slope of the field
resistance line also increases.
When the field resistance line becomes tangent (line OC) to
magnetisation characteristics, the generator would just excite.
Now, if the field circuit resistance is increased beyond this point
(as line OD), then the generator will fail to excite. Therefore, the
field circuit resistance represented by the line OC, which is
tangent to the magnetisation curve is known as critical field
resistance (RC) of a shunt generator.
Therefore, a shunt generator will build up voltage only if the
field circuit resistance is less than the critical field resistance.
Critical External Resistance of a DC Shunt Generator
The minimum value of load resistance across the terminals of a
shunt generator, which is required to excite the generator, is
known as critical external resistance.

If the load resistance across the terminals of a shunt generator

is decreased, then the load current increases. Although, there
is a limit to the increase in the load current with the reduction of
the load resistance.

57
Any reduction in the load resistance beyond this point, instead
of increasing the current, results in the reduced load current.
This is because on reducing load resistance, the load current
momentarily increases and results in decrease of the terminal
voltage due to armature reaction and IR drop. As a result of
this, the external characteristics of the shunt generator turns
back.
The tangent (line OA) to the curve represents the minimum
value of external resistance for which the shunt generator
excites on load and is known as critical external resistance.
If the external resistance is less than the critical external
resistance, the machine will prohibit to excite or de-excite if
already running.
Efficiency of DC Generator & Condition for Maximum
Efficiency with Examples
The efficiency of a DC generator is defined as the ratio of
mechanical input power to the output electrical power.
Efficiency,η=ElectricalPowerOutput(Po)/
MechanicalPowerInput(Pi)
Explanation
Consider the power flow diagram of a DC generator (see the
figure), here the power is represented in three stages as

By referring the power flow diagram,

58
IronandFrictionLosses=A−BIronandFrictionLosses=𝐴−𝐵
CopperLosses=B−C
Therefore, the efficiency of a DC generator can also be defined
for the three stages as follows

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

The efficiency of a DC generator is not constant but changes
with the change in load.
Let, for a shunt generator,
IL=loadcurrent
V=terminalvoltage
Then, the output power of the DC generator is given by,
OutputPower,=Po=VIL
TotalInputPower,Pi=Po+Losses
⇒Pi=VIL+I2aRa+Wc
59
⇒Pi=VIL+(IL+Ish)2Ra+Wc
Where,
 Ia2Ra=variable losses = Copper losses
 Wc= Constant losses = Iron losses + Mechanical losses

The efficiency will be maximum when the denominator of the

above expression is minimum. In order to determine minimum
value of denominator, differential it with respect to variable (I L in
this case) and equate it to zero, i.e.

60
 ⇒VariableLosses=Constant
Losses
Hence, the efficiency of a DC generator is maximum when the
load current is such that the variable losses are equal to the
constant losses.
The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency is given
by,

Numerical Example
A shunt generator supplies 95 A at a terminal voltage of 240 V.
The armature and shunt field resistances are 0.2 Ω and 60 Ω
respectively. The iron and frictional losses are 2000 W. Find the
efficiency of DC generator. Also determine the value of load
current at which maximum efficiency occurs.
Solution −
Efficiency of DC Generator −

61
 The
total stray losses are given equal to 2000 W. Thus,

Therefor
e, the input power will be

62
The Load Current Corresponding to Maximum Efficiency −

Generally, following three characteristics of DC generators are

taken into considerations: (i) Open Circuit Characteristic
(O.C.C.), (ii) Internal or Total Characteristic and (iii) External
Characteristic. These characteristics of DC generators are
explained below.

1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0/If)

Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic
characteristic or no-load saturation characteristic. This
characteristic shows the relation between generated emf at no
load (E0) and the field current (If) at a given fixed speed. The
O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization curve and it is practically
similar for all type of generators. The data for O.C.C. curve is

63
obtained by operating the generator at no load and keeping a
constant speed. Field current is gradually increased and the
corresponding terminal voltage is recorded. The connection
arrangement to obtain O.C.C. curve is as shown in the figure
below. For shunt or series excited generators, the field winding
is disconnected from the machine and connected across an
external supply.

Now, from the emf equation of dc generator, we know that Eg =

kɸ. Hence, the generated emf should be directly proportional to
field flux (and hence, also directly proportional to the field
current). However, even when the field current is zero, some
amount of emf is generated (represented by OA in the figure
below). This initially induced emf is due to the fact that there
exists some residual magnetism in the field poles. Due to the
residual magnetism, a small initial emf is induced in the
armature. This initially induced emf aids the existing residual
flux, and hence, increasing the overall field flux. This
consequently increases the induced emf. Thus, O.C.C. follows
a straight line. However, as the flux density increases, the poles
get saturated and the ɸ becomes practically constant. Thus,
even we increase the If further, ɸ remains constant and hence,

64
Eg also remains constant. Hence, the O.C.C. curve looks like
the B-H characteristic.

The above figure shows a typical no-load saturation curve or

open circuit characteristics for all types of DC generators.

2. Internal Or Total Characteristic (E/Ia)

An internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the
on-load generated emf (Eg) and the armature current (I a). The
on-load generated emf Eg is always less than E 0 due to
the armature reaction. Eg can be determined by subtracting the
drop due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction from no-
load voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies
below the O.C.C. curve.

3. External Characteristic (V/IL)

An external characteristic curve shows the relation between
terminal voltage (V) and the load current (I L). Terminal voltage V
is less than the generated emf Eg due to voltage drop in the
armature circuit. Therefore, external characteristic curve lies
below the internal characteristic curve. External characteristics
65
are very important to determine the suitability of a generator for
a given purpose. Therefore, this type of characteristic is
sometimes also called as performance characteristic or load
characteristic.

Internal and external characteristic curves are shown below for

each type of generator.

Characteristics Of Separately Excited DC Generator

If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, the

voltage will remain constant for any load current. Thus, the
straight line AB in above figure represents the no-load voltage
vs. load current IL. Due to the demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction, the on-load generated emf is less than the no-load
voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load generated emf
Eg vs. load current IL i.e. internal characteristic (as Ia = IL for a
separately excited dc generator). Also, the terminal voltage is
lesser due to ohmic drop occurring in the armature and
brushes. The curve AD represents the terminal voltage vs. load
66
current i.e. external characteristic.

Characteristics Of DC Shunt Generator

To determine the internal and external load characteristics of a
DC shunt generator the machine is allowed to build up its
voltage before applying any external load. To build up voltage
of a shunt generator, the generator is driven at the rated speed
by a prime mover. Initial voltage is induced due to residual
magnetism in the field poles. The generator builds up its
voltage as explained by the O.C.C. curve. When the generator
has built up the voltage, it is gradually loaded with resistive load
and readings are taken at suitable intervals. Connection
arrangement is as shown in the figure below.

Unlike, separately excited DC generator, here, IL≠Ia. For a shunt

generator, Ia=IL+If. Hence, the internal characteristic can be
easily transmitted to Eg vs. IL by subtracting the correct value of
If from Ia.

67
During a normal running condition, when load resistance is
decreased, the load current increases. But, as we go on
decreasing the load resistance, terminal voltage also falls. So,
load resistance can be decreased up to a certain limit, after
which the terminal voltage drastically decreases due to
excessive armature reaction at very high armature current and
increased I2R losses. Hence, beyond this limit any further
decrease in load resistance results in decreasing load current.
Consequently, the external characteristic curve turns back as
shown by dotted line in the above figure.

Characteristics Of DC Series Generator

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The curve AB in above figure identical to open circuit
characteristic (O.C.C.) curve. This is because in DC series
generators field winding is connected in series with armature
and load. Hence, here load current is similar to field current (i.e.
IL=If). The curve OC and OD represent internal and external
characteristic respectively. In a DC series generator, terminal
voltage increases with the load current. This is because, as the
load current increases, field current also increases. However,
beyond a certain limit, terminal voltage starts decreasing with
increase in load. This is due to excessive demagnetizing effects
of the armature reaction.

Characteristics Of DC Compound Generator

The above figure shows the external characteristics of DC

compound generators. If series winding amp-turns are adjusted
so that, increase in load current causes increase in terminal
voltage then the generator is called to be over compounded.
The external characteristic for over compounded generator is
shown by the curve AB in above figure.
If series winding amp-turns are adjusted so that, the terminal

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voltage remains constant even the load current is increased,
then the generator is called to be flat compounded. The
external characteristic for a flat compounded generator is
shown by the curve AC.
If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that would
be required to be flat compounded, then the generator is called
to be under compounded. The external characteristics for an
under compounded generator are shown by the curve AD.

Characteristics of DC Generators – Series, Shunt and

Compound
Characteristics of DC Generators
The speed of a DC generator is made constant by the prime
mover. Under such conditions, the performance of the
generator is given by the relation among the excitation, terminal
voltage and load. These relations are given graphically in the
form of curves, which are called as characteristics of DC
generators. These characteristics show the behaviour of the
DC generator under different load conditions.
The following are the main characteristics of a DC generator
Open Circuit Characteristics or Magnetisation Curve
This is the graph plotted between the generated EMF at no-
load (E0) and the field current (If) at a given constant speed. It is
also known as no-load saturation curve. Its shape being
practically the same for all types of DC generators whether
separately-excited or self-excited.
Internal Characteristics

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It is the graph plotted between generated EMF (E) on-load and
the armature current. Because of the effect of armature
reaction, the magnetic flux on-load will be less than the flux at
noload. Therefore, the generated EMF (E) under loaded
condition will be less than the EMFgenerated (E 0) at no-load.
As a result of this, the internal characteristics curve lies just
below the open circuit characteristics.
External Characteristics or Load Characteristics
The external characteristics or load characteristics is the plot
between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (I L). Since,
the terminal voltage is less than the generated voltage due to
armature and series field copper losses. Hence, the external
characteristics curve will lie below the internal characteristics
curve by an equal amount to voltage drop due to copper losses
in the machine.
Characteristics of DC Series Generator
In a DC series generator only one current flows through the
whole machine. Therefore, the armature current, load current
and excitation all are same.

Open Circuit Characteristics (O.C.C)

The curve (1) in the plot shows the O.C.C of a series DC
generator. It is the graph plotted between the generated EMF at

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no-load and field current. The O.C.C can be obtained by
disconnecting the field winding from the machine and is excited
separately.
Internal Characteristics
The internal characteristics of a DC series generator is the
graph plotted between generated EMF (E) on-load and the
armature current. Because of the effect of armature reaction,
the magnetic flux on-load will be less than the flux at no-load.
Therefore, the generated EMF (E) under loaded condition will
be less than the EMF generated (E 0) at no-load. As a result of
this, the internal characteristics curve lies just below the open
circuit characteristics [See the curve (2)].
External Characteristics or Load Characteristics
The external characteristics or load characteristics is the plot
between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (I L}). Since,
the terminal voltage is less than the generated voltage due to
armature and series field copper losses, which is given by,
V=E−Ia(Ra+Rse)
Therefore, the external characteristics curve will lie below the
internal characteristics curve by an equal amount to voltage
drop due to copper losses in the machine [see the curve (3)].
Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator
In a shunt generator, the armature current splits up into two
parts: one is Ish flowing through the field winding and the other
is IL which goes to the external load.

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Open Circuit Characteristics
The curve (1) in the figure shows the open circuit
characteristics of a DC shunt generator which is same as that
of the series generator.
Internal Characteristics
When the load is connected to the generator, the generated
EMF (E) is reduced due the reduced flux per pole because of
the effect of armature reaction. Therefore, the generated EMF
under loaded condition is less than the generated EMF at no-
load. As a result of this, the internal characteristics drops down
slightly [see the curve (2)].
External Characteristics
It gives the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and the
load current (IL). It is also known as load characteristics or
terminal characteristics.
V=E−IaRa
Therefore, the external characteristics lies below the internal
characteristics by an amount equal to voltage drop due to
armature resistance.

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External or Load Characteristics of DC Compound
Generator
In compound DC generators, both the series and shunt fields
are combined. Depending upon the connection of field winding
with the armature, the compound generators are of either
shortshunt or long-shunt type. The cumulative compound
generators are mostly used; hence we shall discuss the
characteristics of cumulatively-compound DC generator.

In a cumulatively-compound DC generator, the series field aids

the shunt field. The degree of compounding depends upon the
series field excitation with the increase in the load current.
Over-Compounded Generator
If the series field turns are so adjusted that with the increase in
the load current, the full-load terminal voltage is greater than
the no-load terminal voltage, then the generator is known as
over-compounded generator [see the curve (1)].
Flat-Compounded Generator
If the series field turns are so adjusted that, the full load
terminal voltage is equal to the noload terminal voltage, the
generator is known as flat-compounded generator or level
compounded generator [see the curve (2)].
Under-Compounded Generator

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If the series field turns are so adjusted that, the terminal voltage
at full load is less than the terminal voltage at no-load, the
generator is known as under-compounded generator [see the
curve (3)].
Losses in DC Machine

As we know “Energy neither can be created nor it can be

destroyed, it can only be transferred from one form to another”.
In DC machine, mechanical energy is converted into the
electrical energy. During this process, the total input power is
not transformed into output power. Some part of input power
gets wasted in various forms. The form of this loss may vary
from one machine to another. These losses give in the rise in
temperature of the machine and reduce the efficiency of the
machine. In DC Machine, there are broadly four main
categories of energy loss.
Copper Losses or Electrical Losses in DC Machine or Winding
Loss

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The copper losses are the winding losses taking place during
the current flowing through the winding. These losses occur
due to the resistance in the winding. In a DC machine, there
are only two windings, armature and field winding.
Thus copper losses categories in three parts; armature loss,
the field winding loss, and brush contact resistance loss. The
copper losses are proportional to the square of the current
flowing through the winding.
Armature Copper Loss in DC Machine
Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra
Where, Ia is armature current and Ra is armature resistance.
These losses are about 30% of the total full load losses.
Field Winding Copper Loss in DC Machine
Field winding copper loss = If2Rf
Where, If is field current and Rf is field resistance.
These losses are about 25% theoretically, but practically it is
constant.
Brush Contact Resistance Loss in DC Machine
Brush contact loss attributes to resistance between the surface
of brush and commutator. It is not a loss which could be
calculated separately as it is a part of variable losses.
Generally, it contributes to both the types of copper losses. So,
they are factors in the calculation of the above losses.
Core Losses or Iron Losses in DC Machine or Magnetic Losses
As iron core of the armature is rotating in magnetic field, some
losses occurs in the core which is called core losses. Normally,
machines are operated with constant speed, so these losses
are almost constant. These losses are categorized in two form;
Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss.

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Hysteresis Loss in DC Machine
Hysteresis losses occur in the armature winding due to reversal
of magnetization of the core. When the core of the armature
exposed to the magnetic field, it undergoes one complete
rotation of magnetic reversal. The portion of the armature which
is under S-pole, after completing half electrical revolution, the
same piece will be under the N-pole, and the magnetic lines are
reversed in order to overturn the magnetism within the core.
The constant process of magnetic reversal in the armature,
consume some amount of energy which is called hysteresis
loss. The percentage of loss depends upon the quality and
volume of the iron.
The Frequency of Magnetic Reversal

Where,
P = Number of poles
N = Speed in rpm

Steinmetz Formula
The Steinmetz formula is for the calculation of hysteresis loss.

Where,
η = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient
Bmax = Maximum flux Density in armature winding
F = Frequency of magnetic reversals
V = Volume of armature in m3.
Eddy Current Loss in DC Machine
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, when
an iron core rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is also

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induced in the core. Similarly, when armature rotates in the
magnetic field, the small amount of emf induced in the core
which allows the flow of charge in the body due to the
conductivity of the core. This current is useless for the machine.
This loss of current is called eddy current. This loss is almost
constant for the DC machines. It could be minimized by
selecting the laminated core.
Mechanical Losses in DC Machine
The losses associated with mechanical friction of the machine
are called mechanical losses. These losses occur due to
friction in the moving parts of the machine like bearing, brushes
etc, and windage losses occur due to the air inside the rotating
coil of the machine. These losses are usually very small about
15% of full load loss.
Stray Load Losses in DC Machine
There are some more losses other than the losses which have
been discussed above. These losses are called stray-load
losses. These miscellaneous losses are due to the short-circuit
current in the coil undergoing commutation, distortion of flux
due to the armature and many more losses which are difficult to
find. These losses are difficult to determine. However, they are
taken as 1% of the whole load power output.

Applications of DC Generators
There are different types of DC generators are available for the
various types of applications. The applications of various types
of DC generators based on their characteristics are as follows −

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Applications of Separately Excited DC Generators
A separately excited DC generator requires an independent
external DC source for the excitation of field winding. Thus, it is
expensive and being rarely used. Following are some
application of separately excited DC generators −
 These are able to produce a wide range of voltage output,
they are primarily used in laboratory and commercial testing.
 These are used in speed regulation tests.
 These generators operate in a stable condition with any
change in field excitation. Therefore, they are also used in
supplying power to the DC motors, whose speed being to be
controlled.
Applications of Series DC Generators
A series DC generator has limited applications. Some of the
applications of a series DC generator are as follows
 The rising characteristics of a series DC generator makes
it suitable for voltage boosting applications in the feeders in the
various types of distribution systems.
 A series DC generator has the tendency to supply
constant load current. Hence, several series generators can be
connected in series to provide high voltage DC power
transmission at constant load current.
 The series DC generators are also used in supplying field
excitation current in DC locomotives for regenerative breaking.
 The series generators also find applications in series arc
lightening.

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Applications of Shunt DC Generators
A shunt DC generator produces constant terminal voltage for
small distance operations. Therefore, these are used in
following applications
 They are used for battery charging applications.
 Shunt DC generators with field regulators are used for
lighting and power supply purposes.
 Use for giving excitation to the alternators.
Applications of Compound DC Generators
The compound DC generators are used in following
applications
 The over compounded generators have ability to
compensate voltage drop in the transmission lines and tends to
maintain constant voltage at the consumer’s end. Therefore,
the over compounded generators are used in supplying loads
through long transmission lines.
 Cumulative compound generators are used for supplying
power to DC motors.
 Cumulative compound generators are used for lighting,
power supply purposes and for heavy power services, etc.
 The differential compound generators are used for arc
welding purposes where a large voltage drop and constant
current is required

Difference between Conductors and Insulators

Both conductors and insulators are extensively used in various
fields of electrical and electronics engineering. In this article, we
will compare and contrast the various features of conductors
and insulators and how they function.

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What is a Conductor?
The material which allows the electric current to pass through it
is known as conductor. In other words, the material which has
less than 4 electrons in its outermost shell is known
as conductor.
When electric potential is applied across a conductor, the
electrons can freely move from atom to atom. In a conductor,
the valance band and the conduction band are overlapped
each other. As a result, there is no forbidden energy gap, thus
the free electrons in the valance band can move easily in the
conduction band. The conductors have very low resistance,
consequently, on the application of voltage, the electrons can
freely move from atom to atom.
Conductors are mainly used to make connecting leads,
transmission lines, windings, etc. The examples of conductors
are silver, copper, aluminium, etc.
What is an Insulator?
The materials that do not allow the electric current to pass
through them are known as insulators. The insulators have
more than 4 electrons in their outermost shell. In case of
insulators, the electrons cannot move freely due to very strong
covalent bond between the atoms. Consequently, the resistivity
of the insulators is very high.
Also, for insulators, the forbidden energy gap between the
valance band and conduction band is very large due to which
the valance electrons in the valance band cannot jump into the
conduction band. The insulators are used for providing
insulation in the electrical equipment such as insulation coating
of wire, plug tops, transmission line insulation, etc. Some of the

81
examples of insulators are paper, mica, porcelain, wood, glass,
etc.
Difference between Conductor and Insulator
The following table highlights the key differences between
conductors and insulators −
Parameter Conductor Insulator

The materials that The materials that do

easily allow the not allow the electric
Definition electric current to current to pass
pass through them are through them are
known as conductors. known as insulators.

Conductors possess The electric

Electric
very high electric conductivity of the
conductivity
conductivity. insulators is negligible.

For the conductors, For the insulators, the

the resistance for the electric resistance is
Resistance
flow of electric current very high.
is low.

In case of conductors, In insulators, the

Electron the electrons can electrons cannot move
movement move freely atom to freely.
atom.

Number of Conductors have less Insulators have more

electrons in than 4 valance than 4 electrons in the
outermost electrons in the outermost shell.
shell outermost shell.

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Parameter Conductor Insulator

Conductors have Insulators have

positive temperature negative temperature
coefficient of coefficient of
resistance, i.e. the resistance which
Temperature
resistance of the means the resistance
coefficient
conductor increases of insulators
with the increase in decreases with the
temperature. increase in
temperature.

Electrons in The conduction band For insulators, the

conduction of conductors is full of conduction band
band electrons. remain empty.

For conductors, the The valance band of

Electrons in
valance band remains insulators is full of
valance band
empty. electrons

In case of conductors, Insulators have large

there is no forbidden forbidden energy gap.
Forbidden energy gap, i.e., the
energy gap conduction and
valance bands overlap
each other.

Thermal Conductors have high Insulators have low

conductivity thermal conductivity. thermal conductivity.

Electric field The electric field In case of insulators,

exists on the surface the electric field does

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Parameter Conductor Insulator

of conductor and it is not exist.

zero inside the
conductor.

There is very weak The covalent bond

covalent bond between the atoms of
Covalent bond
between the atoms of an insulator is very
the conductor. strong.

Conductors have very The insulators have

high conductivity, i.e. very low conductivity.
Conductivity
they provide ease to
the flow of current.

For the conductors, For the insulators, the

Distribution of the capacitance capacitance is zero.
capacitance remains the same at
all the points.

The resistivity of the The resistivity of

Resistivity conductors vary from insulators is relatively
high to low. high.

The metals such as Examples of insulators

silver, gold, copper, are rubber, wood,
Examples aluminium, etc. are paper, ceramic, mica,
the examples of glass, porcelain, etc.
conductors.

Applications Conductors are Insulators are used as

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Parameter Conductor Insulator

extensively used for covering for cables

making electric and wires,
cables, wires, transmission
connecting leads, conductor insulators,
transmission for making switches,
conductors, windings, sockets, plugs, etc.
etc.
Conclusion
As is evident from the above table that there are several
differences between conductors and insulators and how they
function. The key difference between them is that conductors
allow electric current and heat to pass through them, while
insulators restrict the flow of electric current and heat through
them.

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