Flow Measurement

RUSHIL BHAT T
NE: NOT FOR EXTERNALS 2022
There are three different flow quantities to be measured :-
1. The actual velocity of the fluid at a given point (measured in metres per second).
2. The volume rate of flow (measured in metres cubed per minute).
3. The mass flow rate (measured in kilograms per second).
It is also possible to measure total flow which is the total volume or mass which has flowed in a
set time period.
Fluid flow metering systems provide vital information for the following purpose :-
Production Planning ;- the quantities of product supplied to customers generally vary according
to seasonal demand. Usually an average rate of production is planned on a calendar day which
takes into account any periods of shutdown necessary for maintenance and inspection.
Product Quality ;- flow controllers are necessary in the proportional blending of intermediate
products to produce on-specification finished products of consistent quality.
Control of Process ;- sometimes flow meters are used for control of some other main process
variables.
Examples in Separator column, liquid levels are kept constant by varying the flow rate of the
process fluid passing through them.
Pressure in column are also kept constant by varying the flow rate of the cooling medium
What is Flow?
Flow is defined as fluid (liquids or/and gases) in motion.
Factors Affecting Flow Rates in pipes :
The major factors affecting the flow of fluids through pipes are:
the velocity of the fluid.
the friction of the fluid in contact with the pipe.
the viscosity of the fluid.
the density of the fluid.
Fluid velocity
Fluid velocity depends on the head pressure which is forcing the fluid through the pipe. The
greater the head pressure, the faster the fluid flow rate (all other factors remaining constant),
and consequently, the greater the volume of flow.
Pipe size also affects the flow rate. For example, doubling the diameter of a pipe increases the
potential flow rate by a factor of four times.
Pipe friction
Pipe friction reduces the flow rate of fluids through pipes and is, therefore, considered a
negative factor.
Because of the friction of a fluid in contact with a pipe, the flow rate of the fluid is slower near
the walls of the pipe than at the center. The smoother, cleaner, and larger a pipe is, the less
effect pipe friction has on the overall fluid flow rate.
Viscosity
Viscosity (η), or the molecular friction within a fluid, negatively affects the flow rate of fluids.
Viscosity and pipe friction decrease the flow rate of a fluid near the walls of a pipe. Viscosity
increases or decreases with changing temperature, but not always as might be expected. In liquids,
viscosity typically decreases with increasing temperature.
However, in some fluids viscosity can begin to increase above certain temperatures. Generally, the
higher a fluid’s viscosity, the lower the fluid flow rate (other factors remaining constant).
Viscosity is measured in units of centipoise. Another type of viscosity, called kinematic viscosity, is
measured in units of centistokes. It is obtained by dividing centipoise by the fluid’s specific gravity.
Density
Density (ρ) of a fluid affects flow rates in that a more dense fluid requires more head pressure to
maintain a desired flow rate. Also, the fact that gases are compressible, whereas liquids
essentially are not, often requires that different methods be used for measuring the flow rates
of liquids, gases, or liquids with gases in them.
Types of flow encountered:
• Clean or dirty • Wet or dry • Hazardous/corrosive or safe • Single or multi phase • Laminar of
turbulent • Varying pressure • Varying temperature • Flow rates from least to highest
Requirements
Fluid and flow characteristics
The fluid and its given and its pressure, temperature, allowable pressure drop, density (or specific
gravity), conductivity, viscosity (Newtonian or not?) and vapor pressure at maximum operating
temperature are listed, together with an indication of how these properties might vary or interact. In
addition, all safety or toxicity information should be provided, together with detailed data on the
fluid's composition, presence of bubbles, solids (abrasive or soft, size of particles, fibers), tendency to
coat, and light transmission qualities (opaque, translucent or transparent?).
Pressure & Temperature Ranges
Expected minimum and maximum pressure and temperature values should be given in addition to
the normal operating values when selecting flowmeters. Whether flow can reverse, whether it does
not always fill the pipe, whether slug flow can develop (air-solids-liquid), whether aeration or
pulsation is likely, whether sudden temperature changes can occur, or whether special precautions
are needed during cleaning and maintenance, these facts, too, should be stated.
Piping and Installation Area
Concerning the piping and the area where the flowmeters are to be located,
consider: For the piping, its direction (avoid downward flow in liquid applications), size, material,
schedule, flange-pressure rating, accessibility, up or downstream turns, valves, regulators, and
available straight-pipe run lengths.
The specifying engineer must know if vibration or magnetic fields are present or possible in the
area, if electric or pneumatic power is available, if the area is classified for explosion hazards, or if
there are other special requirements such as compliance with sanitary or clean-in-place (CIP)
regulations.
Flow rates and Accuracy
The next step is to determine the required meter range by identifying minimum and maximum flows (mass or
volumetric) that will be measured.
After that, the required flow measurement accuracy is determined.
Typically accuracy is specified in percentage of actual reading (AR), in percentage of calibrated span (CS), or in
percentage of full scale (FS) units. The accuracy requirements should be separately stated at minimum,
normal, and maximum flowrates.
Unless you know these requirements, your flowmeter's performance may not be acceptable over its full
range.
In applications where products are sold or purchased on the basis of a meter reading, absolute accuracy is
critical. In other applications, repeatability may be more important than absolute accuracy.
Therefore, it is advisable to establish separately the accuracy and repeatability requirements of each
application and to state both in the specifications.
When a flowmeter's accuracy is stated in % CS or % FS units, its absolute error will rise as the measured flow
rate drops. If meter error is stated in % AR, the error in absolute terms stays the same at high or low flows.
Because full scale (FS) is always a larger quantity than the calibrated span (CS), a sensor with a % FS
performance will always have a larger error than one with the same % CS specification.
Therefore, in order to compare all bids fairly, it is advisable to convert all quoted error statements into the
same % AR units
Accuracy vs. Repeatability
If acceptable metering performance can be obtained from two different flow meter categories and
one has no moving parts, select the one without moving parts.
Moving parts are a potential source of problems, not only for the obvious reasons of wear,
lubrication, and sensitivity to coating, but also because moving parts require clearance spaces that
sometimes introduce "slippage" into the flow being measured.
Even with well maintained and calibrated meters, this unmeasured flow varies with changes in fluid
viscosity and temperature.
Changes in temperature also change the internal dimensions of the meter and require compensation.
Furthermore, if one can obtain the same performance from both a full flowmeter and a point sensor,
it is generally advisable to use the flowmeter. Because point sensors do not look at the full flow, they
read accurately only if they are inserted to a depth where the flow velocity is the average of the
velocity profile across the pipe.
Even if this point is carefully determined at the time of calibration, it is not likely to remain unaltered,
since velocity profiles change with flowrate, viscosity, temperature, and other factors.
Mass or Volumetric Units
Before specifying a flow meter, it is also advisable to determine whether the flow information will be
more useful if presented in mass or volumetric units.
When measuring the flow of compressible materials, volumetric flow is not very meaningful unless
density (and sometimes also viscosity) is constant.
When the velocity (volumetric flow) of incompressible liquids is measured, the presence of suspended
bubbles will cause error; therefore, air and gas must be removed before the fluid reaches the meter.
In other velocity sensors, pipe liners can cause problems (ultrasonic), or the meter may stop
functioning if the Reynolds number is too low (in vortex shedding meters, RD > 20,000 is required).
Mass flowmeters, which are insensitive to density, pressure and viscosity variations and are not
affected by changes in the Reynolds number, should be kept in mind.
Also underutilized in the chemical industry are the various flumes that can measure flow in partially
full pipes and can pass large floating or settleable solids.
HOW TO CHOOSE A FLOW METER?There are some question that need to be answered before
choosing a Flow Sensor.
What is the fluid being measured?
Do you require rate measurement and/or totalization?
If the liquid is not water, what viscosity is the liquid?
Do you require a local display on the flow meter or do you need an electronic signal output?
What is the minimum and maximum flowrate?
What is the minimum and maximum process pressure?
What is the minimum and maximum process temperature?
Is the fluid chemically compatible with the flowmeter wetted parts?
If this is a process application, what is the size of the pipe??
Primary or quantity meters
Signifies the amount of fluid in terms of mass or volume that flows past a given point in a definite
period of time. • Simple • Economical • Accurate • Routinely used in the calibration of other flow
measuring devices

1. Volumetric method: Fluid flowing in the flow meter is diverted into a tank of known volume.
When the tank is completely filled, then the known volume is compared with the integrated,
volumetric quantity registered by the flow meter under test.
2. Gravimetric method: Fluid flowing in the flow meter is diverted into a vessel which can be
weighted either continuously or in the vessel after a pre-determined time. The weight of the
liquid collected is compared with the gravimetric quantity registered by the flow meter under
test.
Positive Displacement Meters
Liquid flows through a meter and moves the measuring Liquid flows through a meter and moves
the measuring element that seals the measuring chamber into a series of measuring
compartments each holding a definite volume.
Each element is successively filled from the flow at the inlet and emptied at the outlet of the
meter. In other words these meters chop the flow into number of pieces of known size and then
count the number of pieces.
Features: • Widely used in low flow rate metering applications where high accuracy &
repeatability are required. • Easy to install • Moderate cost • Due to moving parts involved, wear
of the components may alter the accuracy. • Suitable to clean fluids only. • These devices are flow
totalizes and generally and do not give the instantaneous rate of flow. • Cause pressure loss in the
fluid system whose flow is being metered.
Positive displacement meter
The positive displacement meter is a rotary device based on positive displacement pumps.
Although there are a number of configurations, they all work in essentially the same manner.
All types of these meters entrap a specified volume of fluid.
The fluid is forced through the meter by the differential pressure across the meter.
The meter is designed such that fluid flow through the meter causes a shaft to rotate or
oscillate. Volume flow is then proportional to the rotational speed of this shaft.
Nutating Disc Meters
Working:
• Liquid enters the left side of the meter, alternately above & below the disc, forcing it to rock in
a circular path while rotating about its own axis.
• A small spindle attached to the sphere traces a circular path and is used to drive the counter,
which can be calibrated in terms of liquid discharge.
Features:
• Simple & rugged construction
• Low pressure drop
• Low cost
• High accuracy of the order of ±1%.
• Widely used as a domestic water meter
2. Sliding Vane Type Meters:
Working: • Liquid entering at inlet revolves the rotor and the vanes around cam causing the
vanes to move radially.
• Vane nearest to the inlet port begins to move outwards & becomes fully extended at point A.
While vane ahead at point B is already fully extended, so a measuring chamber of known volume
is formed.
• A continuous series of chambers at the rate of four per revolution are formed.
Features: • Low pressure drop
• High accuracy of the order of ±0.2% of measured values.
• Can be used as a positive displacement pump which can cause the flow and measure it
simultaneously
3. Lobed Impeller Meters:
Working: • The incoming fluid is trapped between the two rotors and is conveyed to outlet as a result of
the rotor rotations.
• For every rotation of each rotor, the swept volume corresponding to twice the area A is passed through
meter.
• Number of revolutions of the rotor gives and indication of volumetric flow.
• Rotation of lobed impellers can be monitored by magnetic
• Rotation of lobed impellers can be monitored by magnetic or photo-electric pick up.
Features: • Available for pressures up to 60 atm and flow range 10 to 10,000 m 3/hr.
• High accuracy of the order of ±1% of rated capacity.
• Low pressure drop of the order of 50 mm of Hg.
• Relatively expensive.
• Applicable to clean fluids like gas metering.
Secondary or Rate Meters
• Also termed as inferential type of flow measuring devices.
• They do not measure flow directly but instead measure another physical quantity which is
related to flow.
• Two categories: Flow rate meters and Velocity meters or Anemometers
Flow Measurements Coefficient of discharge depends on:
• Type of flow • Obstruction type configuration • Reynolds number

Venturimeter
Features: • Best accuracy • Least head loss as compared to orifice & nozzle meters
• Least head loss as compared to orifice & nozzle meters
• Due to low value of losses coefficient of discharge is high
• Can be used with dirty fluids also
• Relatively expensive
• Occupies substantial space
Nozzle Flow meter Features:
• Offers all the advantages of venturimeter but to a lesser extent
• Occupies less space
• Nozzle is difficult to install and the installation is limited to small to moderate pipe sizes
Orifice Flow meter Features:
• Simple geometry, so cost is low
• Easy to install
• Takes almost no space
• Susceptible to inaccuracies due to erosion, corrosion, clogging etc.
• Suffers from a head loss of the order of 30-40%
Features: • In variable area meters the area of restriction can be altered to maintain the steady
pressure difference.
• Common variable area meter is rotameter.
• The float will rise to a point in the tube where the drag force the tube where the drag force
(Up) & Buoyant force (Up) is balance by the weight of the float.
• The position of the float in the tube is taken as an indication of flow rate.
Rotameter Features: • Rotameter tube is made of high strength borosilicate glass to allow direct
observation of the float position.
• Main advantage is that they give direct visual indication on linear scale.
• Can be used for wide ranges (from 0.1 ml/min to several hundred lpm)
• Accuracy is generally ±1% of max flow rate, but up to ±5% of rated capacity for very cheaper units.
• Can handle wide variety of fluids including corrosive ones.
• The disadvantage is that it can only be mounted in vertical direction.
• Can be subjected to oscillations in pulsating flows.
• Principle: If a restriction of a specified shape and form is placed in the path of the flow, a rise
in upstream liquid level occurs which is a function of the rate of flow through the restricted
section.
• Rectangular weir suitable for large flow while triangular weir is used for smaller flows below
50l/s.
• Simple in construction, easy to install and accurate devices.
• Main disadvantage is their non-linear characteristics.
Differential Pressure Flowmeters
Advantages:
Universally suitable for liquids, gases and steam
Also usable in extreme situations, e.g. viscosity, due to variety of versions
Calculations possible for unusual situations
Suitable for extreme temperatures and pressures
Range changes possible
Low pressure drop for nozzles
Limitations:
Square root relationship between flow rate and differential pressure, therefore smaller span
Affected by pressure and density changes
Pressure drop for orifice plates
Edge sharpness for orifice plates must be assured, therefore no solids or contamination
Very long inlet and outlet sections
Expensive installation requiring differential pressure lines, fittings and sensors
Installation and maintenance experience advantageous
High maintenance requirements
Pitot Static Tube:
Principle: Variable head velocity measuring device.
• Consists of two concentrically arranged tubes bent at right angle.
• Inner tube faces the flow impingement and hence measures static and dynamic pressures while
outer tube measures the static pressure
Advantages of Pitot tube:
• Simple & low cost device
• No appreciable pressure loss
• Easy installation
• Useful in measuring flow velocities
Limitations of Pitot tube:
• Not suitable for measuring low velocities i.e. below 5 m/s
• Sensitive to misalignment of the probe with respect to free
• Sensitive to misalignment of the probe with respect to free stream velocity.
• Not suitable for measuring highly fluctuating velocities.
• Not commonly used in industrial applications as numerous Pitot tube traverses are required
for velocity distribution data which is quite tedious & time consuming
6. Target Flow Meter:
Features: • Principle: The drag force onto a suitably shaped body into a flow stream can be a
measure of the flow rate after suitable calibration.

Main advantage is its very good dynamic response. • Overall accuracy is ±0.5% • Applications:
Highly viscous flows of tar, oils or slurries at high pressures of the order of 100 bars.
Turbine Flow Meter:
Turbine Type Flow Meter
Velocity based flow detection is accomplished with a turbine or paddlewheel sensor, a vortex
shedding sensor, a magnetic sensor, or an ultrasonic sensor.
The turbine/paddlewheel sensor places a rotating element into the flow
stream.
As the element rotates, it rotates by a magnetic pickup resulting in a very low voltage pulse.
A transmitter converts this pulse into a standard process signal
Impeller-Turbine Mass Flow Meters:
The impeller, turbine type mass flow meter uses two rotating elements in the fluid stream, an
impeller and a turbine. Both elements contain channels through which the fluid flows.
The impeller is driven at a constant speed by a synchronous motor through a magnetic coupling
and imparts an angular velocity to the fluid as it flows through the meter.
The turbine located downstream of the impeller eliminates all the angular momentum of the
fluid and, therefore, receives a torque proportional to the angular momentum.
This turbine is constrained by a spring that deflects through an angle that is proportional to the
torque exerted on it by the fluid, which gives a measure of mass flow.
Twin-Turbine Mass Flow Meter:
In this instrument two turbines are mounted on a common shaft.
Two turbines are connected with a calibration torsion member. A reluctance type pick up is
mounted over each turbine and a strong magnet is located in each turbine within the twin-
turbine assembly.
Each turbine is designed with a different blade angle; therefore, there is a tendency for the
turbines to rotate at different angular speeds.
However, since the movement of the turbines is restricted by the coupling torque, the entire
assembly rotates in unison at an average speed, and an angular phase shift between the two
turbines develops. This angle is a direct function of the angular momentum of the fluid
The angular momentum is a function of mass flow.
In the double turbine assembly, the turbines are not restricted by a spring, but the torsion
member that holds them together is twisted.
Therefore, the angle developed between the two turbines is a direct function of the torsion or
torsion exerted by the system.
Principle: Turbine meters are inferential measurement devices that measure a flow rate indirectly by
using the natural kinetic energy of the flow as it passes through the angled blades of the turbine rotor.

This causes the turbine to spin and as the blades pass by a close pre positioned magnetic (Or other
technology)“pick up” coil.
The resulting interruption of the coils magnetic field by each blade results in a pulse being produced.
Magnetic field by each blade results in a pulse being produced.
The frequency of this pulse is directly proportional to the point velocity reading it is taking.
From this point velocity and cross sectional area of the pipe a rough volumetric flow rate can be
calculated.
Q = k X n Where k = Constant for any given meter n = rotor angular velocity
Features:
• These meters have linear relationship between volume flow rate and the angular velocity of
the rotor.
• Accuracy of instruments is ±1%
• Commercially available for flow rates ranging from 0.5 to 150000 LPM (for liquids) and from 5
to 100000 LPM (For air).
• Bearing maintenance is a problem and accuracy drops off greatly
• Bearing maintenance is a problem and accuracy drops off greatly at low flow rates.
Turbine Flowmeters
Advantages:
Turbine flowmeters suitable for cryogenic liquids
Turbine flowmeters usable at extreme temperatures and pressures
Disadvantages:
Limited choice of materials
Only for low viscosities
Moving parts, wear
Sensitive to contamination
Axial flow totalizers are flow profile sensitive
Inlet and outlet sections required
8. Vortex Shedding Flow Meter:
Vortex flowmeter is a differential pressure measuring flowmeter which can measure both liquid
and gas flow measurement.
Vortexes are used for continuous flow measurement
Principle:
When flow stream passes a stationary object or a bluff body and causes the formation of swirls,
called vortices, downstream from the body.
Each vortex will form, then detach from the object and continue to move with the flowing gas or
liquid, one side at a time in alternating fashion.
Differential pressure changes occur as the vortices are formed and shed.
This pressure variation is used to actuate the sealed sensor at a frequency proportional to the
vortex shedding
The principle of vortice measurement is based on the Theodore von Karman’s theory. The
Karman’s frequency is f is proportional to the velocity V, Therefore it is possible to obtain the
flow rate by measuring the Karman vortex frequency
Strouhal number S governs the operation of vortex shedding flow meter
Construction and Working:
The bluff body is fixed at the centre of the flow stream, fluid gets passed aside the bluff body.
Differential pressure changes occur as the vortices are formed and shed.
This pressure variation is used to actuate the sealed sensor at a frequency proportional to the
vortex shedding.
The vortex flowmeter is available with a sensor attached to it.
The pressure sensors used in vortex flowmeters are not standard differential pressure
transmitters since the vortex frequency is too high to be successfully detected by such bulky
instruments. Instead, the sensors are typically piezoelectric crystals.
This is the metallic bar installed in the vortex instrument, otherwise the transducer part.
The shedder bar is installed perpendicular to the flow.

If the differential pressure sensor is installed immediately downstream of the stationary object in such an
orientation that it detects the passing vortices as pressure variations, an alternating signal
will be detected:
The frequency of the alternate signal generated is proportional to the flow velocity of the fluid
passing through the shedder bar.
These pressure sensors need not be calibrated since the amplitude of the pressure waves
detected is irrelevant. Only the frequency of the waves matter for measuring flow rate.
There are bluff bodies available in different shapes cylindrical, triangular, rectangular, swirl type
etc.
Applications:
Transformation of natural gas metering
Steam measurement
General water metering
In pharmaceutical & chemical industries
Advantages of Vortex shedding Flow meter:
• No moving parts and causes very low pressure loss
• Linear characteristics with respect to the shedding frequency
• Calibration constant is same for all fluids
• Calibration constant is not affected by the changes in the fluid properties.
• Accuracy is of the order of ± 0.5 %
• Accuracy is of the order of ± 0.5 %
• Main disadvantage is inability to give accurate results for Reynolds number 10^7
Disadvantages:
low flow cutoff, where the flowmeter simply stops working below a certain flow rate.
Uni-directional measurement only.
Clean fluids only.
Not suitable for partial phase change.
Not suitable for viscous liquids.
 Large unrecoverable pressure drop.
 Straight pipe runs required for installation
 D. Special Methods
1. Ultrasonic Flow Meters:
The ultrasonic flow meters are used to measure the flow rate of the fluid and it is done with the
help of sound waves.
The sound waves will be transmitted to the liquid and these waves would be reflected back from
the particles or bubbles in the fluid.
The flow rate is calculated by the change in frequency of the transmitted wave and the received
wave.
This flow meter can be used to measure liquid and gas and it is done by using the ultrasound
principle.
The metering of the ultrasonic flow meters is depended on the acoustic properties of the fluid.
This flow meter would also be affected by the temperature, viscosity, and density of the fluid
particles according to the type of meter used.
An ultrasonic flow meter uses transmitters and receivers of acoustic energy and for this purpose
piezoelectric crystals are used.
Electrical energy is applied to the crystal and it is applied in the form of a short burst of high
frequency and this would cause the crystal to vibrate.
If the crystal is in contact with the fluid then the vibration can be propagated through the fluid.
Then it would be reflected back to the receiver section and the difference between the frequency of
the transmitted and received wave is the flow rate.
Applications of ultrasonic flow meter
It is used in medical application to check the blood flow rate
It can be used to measure slurries
It can be used to check the liquid and gas flow rate
There are two types of ultrasonic flow measurement:

–Transit time measurement

– Doppler effect
The fundamental difference is that the transit-time method should be used for clean fluids,
while the Doppler reflection type used for dirty, slurry type flows.
1.Transit time
The transit-time flowmeter device sends pulses of ultrasonic energy diagonally across the pipe.
The transit-time is measured from when the transmitter sends the pulse to when the receiver
detects the pulse.
Each location contains a transmitter and receiver.
The pulses are sent alternatively upstream and downstream and the velocity of the flow is
calculated from the time difference between the two directions.
Typical Applications
Transit-time ultrasonic flow measurement is suited for clean fluids. Some of the more common
process fluids consist of water, liquefied gases and natural gas
Doppler Effect
The Doppler effect device relies on objects with varying density in the flowstream to return the
ultrasonic energy.
With the Doppler effect meter, a beam of ultrasonic energy is transmitted diagonally through
the pipe.
Portions of this ultrasonic energy are reflected back from particles in the stream of varying
density.
Since the objects are moving, the reflected ultrasonic energy has a different frequency. The
amount of difference between the original and returned signals is proportional to the flow
velocity.
Laser Doppler Anemometer:
Application Limitations
As the Doppler flowmeter relies on reflections from the flowstream, it therefore requires
sufficiently sized solids or bubbles.
It is also required that the flow be fast enough to maintain a suitable quantity of solids and
bubbles in suspension.
Higher frequency Doppler flowmeters are available, but are limited to cleaner fluids.
Most ultrasonic flowmeters are mounted on the outside of the pipe and thus operate without
coming in contact with the fluid.
Apart from not obstructing the flow, they are not affected by corrosion, erosion or viscosity.
Most ultrasonic flowmeters are bi-directional, and sense flow in either direction.
The major difference between these two flow meters is, in the transit time flow meter
transmitted signal must go through the fluid so the fluid path must be free from solids or other
particles that could badly affect the signal flow.
While in case of Doppler meter it needs reflective particles like bubbles or other substances in
order to do its operation
Introduction
The Doppler effect is a method to measure linear velocity. When a narrow laser beam (or radio
beam or ultrasonic beam) is focused on an abject, the beam will be reflected back to the source.
But if the object moves, the frequency of the received signal will differ from that of the
transmitted signal.
This frequency difference (Doppler shift) becomes a measure of the speed of the object.
LDA is used to measure the flow (especially, high frequency turbulence fluctuations). This device
can measure the flow velocity accurately and not disturb the flow during the measurement
process
1. A laser source (an argon laser or He-Ne laser).
2. A beam splitter that splits the laser beam into two equal intensity beams.
3. A lens to focus the two split lazer beams at an intersection point.
4. A photomultiplier tube (PMT)
For a flow whose velocity is to be determine, it is to be noted that the flow should contain small
particles to scatter the light.
The particle concentration should be very small.
Operation of Laser Doppler anemometer
1. The laser source sends a beam that is divided by a beam splitter into two beams.
2. The two parallel beams are focused by lens L1 so that they intersect at a point in the test section
where there is flow (with particles). In the intersection region, interference fringes are formed.
3. The particles (carried along with the flow) that pass through the intersection of the beams scatter
the light of both beams.
4. The scattered light experiences a Doppler shift in frequency that is directly proportional to the
velocity of the flow.
5. The light is collected by a photomultiplier tube (PMT). The device is constructed in such a way that
the direct and scattered beams travel in the same optical path, so that an interference in the PMT
that is proportional to the frequency change will be observed. This change gives an indication of the
flow velocity.
6. A signal processor is used to retrieve PMT velocity data
Advantages of Laser Doppler anemometer
1. The device does not interrupt the flow during measurement
2. The device measures the speed directly
3. The volume of the detection part can be very small
4. Highly accurate
5. It can be used to measure the flow of gases and liquids.
Disadvantages of Laser Doppler anemometer
1. Requires transparent channels
2. Cannot be-used on clean flows
Features: • It is an optical type of velocity meter
• Principle: Operating principle of this device is based on the Doppler shift in frequency of the light
scattered by an object moving relative to the radiating source.
The technique basically consists of focusing laser beams at the point in the fluid where the velocity is to
be measured.
At this focal point, the laser light scattered from the fluid or fluid particles entrained in the fluid is
scattered from the fluid or fluid particles entrained in the fluid is sensed by a photo-detector.
Signal processing of the photodetector output yields the magnitude of Doppler frequency shift which is
directly proportional to the instantaneous velocity of the flow.
Doppler flow meters are based on the Doppler principle. The transmitter of a Doppler flow
meter projects an ultrasonic beam at a frequency of about 0.5 MHz into the flowing current and
diverts the reflected frequency.
Principle of operation:
An ultrasonic wave is projected at an angle through the wall of the pipe to the liquid by a
transmission glass on a transducer mounted outside the pipe.
Some of the energy is reflected by bubbles or particles in the liquid and is returned through the
wall of the pipe to a receiving crystal.
If the reflectors travel at the speed of the fluid, the frequency of the reflected wave travels
according to the Doppler principle, in proportion to the velocity of the flow.
Combining Snell’s law and the Doppler equation, the flow velocity can be determined as follows
if V << C.
where Δf = Difference between transmitted and received frequency.
fo = frequency of transmission
Ɵ= angle of the transmitter and receiver crystal with respect to the pipe axis
Ct = Velocity of sound in the transducer
Construction of Doppler flowmeter
Both the transmitter and the crystals of the receiver are contained in a single set of transducer
that will be mounted in the pipe. The alignment of the glass is controlled by the manufacturer.
The transmitter glass and receiver glass are mounted separately on opposite sides of the pipe
exterior. The alignment is maintained by a mounting assembly that maintains the relative
positions of the transducers as shown
Applications of Laser Doppler anemometer
1. Wind tunnel studies
2. Blood flow measurement
3. Sensing of wind velocity
4. Used in the field of combustion
Advantages of Ultrasonic Flow meter:
• Negligible resistance to metering fluid system
• Reasonably good Accuracy of the order of ±2%
• Is suitable for both liquids and gases
• Output read out can easily be either analog or digital
• Has a linear relationship between the velocity and output
No moving parts
No additional pressure drop
Favorable choice of materials for chemically aggressive liquids
Low maintenance
Operates in both flow directions (forward and reverse)
Transit time meters unaffected by temperature, density and concentration
Later installation in existing pipe possible with individual elements, but onsite calibration required
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Limitation:
Still problematic for liquid and gas measurements
Sound beam must traverse a representative cross section, therefore flow profile dependent. Long inlet and
outlet sections required
Errors due to deposits
Transit time meters require clean liquids
Doppler meters only for slight contamination or few gas bubbles
Doppler meters affected by sound velocity changes due to temperature, density and concentration
Unsuitable for heavily contaminated liquids
Gas bubbles cause errors
2. Electromagnetic Flow Meters:
Magnetic flowmeter
A magnetic flowmeter works on the basis of fundamental electrical and magnetic laws.
In such a meter, the fluid acts as the conductor.
The meter itself is constructed of a nonconductive material.
Surrounding the meter is a series of electrical coils and sensor pickups.
The electrical coils are used to generate a magnetic field.
As the fluid moves through the magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the fluid.
The sensors detect the magnitude of this voltage, which is proportional to the velocity of the
fluid flow
Magnetic flowmeters are velocity type of flowmeters.
An electromagnetic flowmeter can work with almost all liquids and slurries, as long as the liquid
being measured is electrically conductive.
Electromagnetic flowmeters can be employed to measure more or less all electrically conducting
fluids, pastes, slurries, acids, lyes, juices and emulsions including fluids with a conductivity as
low as 0.5µS/cm
Principle:
As in case of many underlying principles of electromagnetic flowmeter is Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction for solid conductors NE
Whenever a conductor cuts lines of magnetic field, an induced emf is generated and the
magnitude of this emf is proportional to the rate at which these lines are cut and the emf is
perpendicular to the plane of conductor and magnetic field.
The direction of induced emf is given by the Fleming’s right hand rule
Working:
Electromagnetic flowmeter uses Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction to determine the
flow of a liquid through a pipeline.
The magnetic flow meters are also known as magmeters
Electrically conductive process fluid is passed through a magnetic field induced by coils that are
positioned around a section of pipe.
The process fluid is electrically insulated from the pipe with a suitable lining, in the case of a
metal pipe, so that the generated voltage is not dissipated through the pipeline.
The electrodes are located in the pipe and a voltage is generated across these electrodes that
are directly proportional to the average velocity of the liquid passing through the magnetic field
The coils are energised with ac power or pulsed dc voltage, so consequently the magnetic field
and resultant induced voltage respond accordingly.
The generated voltage is protected from interference, amplified and converted into a dc current
signal by the transmitter. Line voltage variations are accounted for by the sensing
circuits.
The advantages of magnetic flowmeters are:.
Unobstructed flow passage without projecting parts
No moving parts
No additional pressure drop
Essentially flow profile insensitive, only short inlet and outlet sections required
Unaffected by changes in temperature, density, viscosity, concentration and electrical conductivity
Favorable choice of materials for chemically aggressive or abrasive measuring media
Unaffected by contamination and deposits
Especially suitable for hydraulic solids transport
Linear relationship between flow rate and measured variable
Operates in both flow directions (forward and reverse)
Measuring range setting can be optimized
Low maintenance, but still easy to maintain
Limitations:
For liquids only
Lower conductivity limit 0.05 μS/cm
Gas inclusions cause errors
Thermal Mass Flowmeters:
Thermal mass flowmeter work on the principle of loss of temperature when a fluid stream
passes across it.
The two main types of thermal mass flow measuring devices are:
Thermal Anemometer
Temperature rise flowmeter
Thermal anemometer:
The thermal anemometer works by measuring the heat dissipation from a probe inserted in the
line. The amount of heat taken from the probe is dependent on the fluid velocity and density
but is also a direct measure of the mass flow rate. The temperature is also measured by the
calculation. They are also referred to as ‘Hot wire probes’.
Features: • Used for measuring mean and fluctuating velocities
• Flow sensing element is a Platinum- Tungsten wire
• Principle: When a heated probe is introduced in the fluid stream, it tends to get cooled by the
instantaneous velocity and consequently there is a decrease in its resistance.
If the same is connected by a Wheatstone bridge then the instrument response is the direct
measure of the flow velocity and hence response is the direct measure of the flow velocity and
hence the flow.
Hot Wire Anemometer:
NE
The probe can either be constant current or constant temperature.
In the constant current type, a fixed current is passed through the probe which causes heating in the
probe.
As the flow rate varies, so does the amount of heat taken from the probe and hence the temperature
changes. The temperature is measured to derive the flow.
For the constant temperature type, a feedback loop is required to maintain a constant temperature.
As the change of flow affects the temperature, the current needs to be regulated to maintain probe
temperature.
The flow rate is determined by the power required to heat the probe. The constant temperature devices
have a faster response to flow changes.
The temperature probe must protrude into the flow stream, and therefore may be easily damaged by
corrosion and erosion. In addition, the robustness of the system is compromised by the protrusions into
the fluid stream, increasing the chances of leakage.
However thermal anemometer has fast response times, < 0.5milliseconds.
Temperature rise flowmeter:
Temperature rise flowmeters work on the principle of heating the flow stream. By heating the
flow stream at one point, the temperature can be measured both upstream and downstream of
the heating point. Calculating the difference between the temperatures gives information about
the flow rate
This method requires the measurement of actually heating the process fluid. It is therefore
limited to gas applications at low flow rates.
As with the hot wire probe, the temperature sensors and the heater must protrude into the flow
stream, and therefore may be easily damaged by corrosion and erosion.
Also, the robustness of the system is compromised by the protrusions into the fluid stream,
increasing the chances of leakage.
There are external fixing types of temperature rise flowmeter for large pipelines
 Advantages:
Thermal flowmeters are used to measure gas with low pressure
Used to measure low flow
These flowmeters are frequently employed for monitoring and controlling of mass-related processes like chemical reactions.
Measuring range can be from very low velocities to supersonic velocities
Very low pressure drop
Excellent accuracy of the order of ±0.1% in the measurement o f mean velocities and ±2% in the measurement of
turbulence levels
Large span
No moving parts
Rugged construction
Short response time
Easily sterilized
Disadvantages:
Practically for gas only.
Power requirement excessive in large pipelines.
Accurate field calibration is difficult.
When the process stream contains a large amount of solids and the velocity of the solid particles
near the wall is probably lower than the average in a single transducer installation (which causes
large errors), it is recommended to use the two transducer approach . With this approach, the
reflected ultrasonic radiation is received from parts of the flow stream.
Advantages
It does not impose additional resistance to flow or alter the flow pattern when the transducers
are inserted into the wall of the pipe.
Its speed / output ratio is linear.
It has no moving parts.
Its repeatability is of the order of 0.01%.
Coriolis mass flow meter
When highly precise measurement is required, the use of the coriolis mass flow meter is warranted.
One configuration of the mass flow meter is a U-shaped tube.
The tube is placed into vibration around the y-axis by an electromagnet.
As fluid passes through the vibrating tube, a force imbalance causes the
tube to twist around the x-axis.
A pair of electromagnetic detectors detects the twist.
The degree of twist is proportional to the mass flow rate through the device.
These meters can handle a very wide range of flows and are extremely accurate and repeatable.
However, they are quite costly and generally require significant space for installation.
They are also unable to handle aerated flows and two-phase flows.
The Coriolis effect causes a retarding force on a rotating section of pipe when a flow is moving
outward, conversely producing an advance on the section of pipe for flow moving towards the
axis of rotation.
Coriolis flowmeters are mass flowmeters, which measure the mass of fluid passing through a
pipeline unlike the other volumetric flow meters, which measures the volume of the fluid
passing through the pipeline.
Coriolis mass flowmeter provides direct, in-line and accurate mass flow measurements that are
independent of temperature, pressure, viscosity and density.
Mass flow, density and temperature can be accessed from the one sensor. They can also be used
for almost any application when calibrated.
Principle of Coriolis mass flowmeter:
When a fluid flows into a pipe and is accelerated by Coriolis by mechanically inserting apparent
rotation into the pipe
The amount of deflective force generated by the inertial effect of Coriolis will depend on the fluid’s
mass flow rate.
If a pipe rotates around a point while the liquid flows through it (toward or away from the centre of
rotation), the fluid can produce an inertial force (acting on the pipe) at the right angles to the flow
direction.
The basis of the Coriolis meter is Newtons’ Second Law of Motion
Coriolis flowmeter Construction and working
Coriolis effect is the principle used to determine the acceleration due to the torque (the amount
of twisting).
Sensors are used to measure the amount of twist in the flow tubes within the meter as a result
of the flow tube vibration and deflection due to the mass flow.
The amount of twist measured is proportional to the mass flow rate and is measured by
magnetic sensors mounted on the tubes.
The flow through the pipe is separated to flow through two different pipelines in Coriolis
flowmeter.
The fluid entering the tubes generates oscillation and vibration in a tube at their resonant
frequency and sensors are used to detect the movement of the pipe
When there is no flow, the sensor output for both the tubes will be in same phase. when liquid
flows there is a difference between the oscillations of the two pipes.
This is caused as the flow is accelerated on the inlet and decelerated on the outlet.
The pipes twists, there will be a phase difference in oscillation of two pipes, this difference in
the phase of the oscillations is proportional to mass flow.
Applications & Advantages:
Coriolis Mass flowmeters can measure the flow of all liquids, both Newtonian and non-Newtonian, as
well as relatively dense gases. For sanitary applications that satisfy clean-in-place criteria, self-draining
designs are available.
Some meters are equipped with circuits that are intrinsically safe between the flow tube and the
transmitter. Therefore, there is a limited amount of moving force that can be supplied to the flow
pipeline.
Direct, in-line mass flow measurement.
Independent of temperature, pressure, density, conductivity and viscosity.
Sensor capable of transmitting mass flow, density and temperature information.
High-density capability.
Conductivity independent.
Suitable for hydrocarbon measurements.
Suitable for density measurement.
Limitations:
Affected by gas inclusions
Vibration sensitive when improperly installed
Limited choice of materials
Nominal diameter limited at the top
Cost.
Affected by vibration.
Installation costs.
Adjustment of zero point
Sonar flow technology
Sonar flow technology is a new member to the industrial flow meters. Sonar flow measurement
principles is distinct from all conventional flow meter technologies. SONAR flow meters utilize
sonar-based array processing techniques to listen to, and interpret pressure fields generated by
turbulent pipe flows.
Volumetric flow
Volumetric Flow Turbulent pipe flows are highly complex. However, much is known regarding the
statistical properties of such flow.
Turbulent pipe flows contain self-generating coherent vortical structures, called “turbulent
eddies”. These eddies remain coherent for several pipe diameters as they convect down the flow
line, breaking down into smaller and smaller eddies until their energy is dissipated.
SONAR flow meters use mature sonar array processing techniques, to measure the velocity of
these turbulent eddies as they convect past an array of sensors.
By monitoring the pressure fields associated with the movement of turbulent eddies, SONAR
flow meters determine the speed at which these eddies travel past the array of sensors.
Volumetric flow rate is determined using a calibration procedure based on Reynolds number,
which links the speed of the coherent turbulent structures to the volumetric flow rate.
Compositional Measurement
SONAR flow meters also offer the added capability of providing information on the composition
of single phase and multiphase flows by detecting the speed at which sound waves propagate
within the pipe.
This approach is particularly synergistic with the SONAR volumetric flow meter in that the sound
speed measurement and the phase fraction measurement can often be recorded using the same
hardware required for the volumetric flow measurement.
For example, in a two-component mixture, with knowledge of the density and sound speed of
the two components, the measured sound speed can be used to determine the volumetric
fraction of the two components.
Sound speed measurement can be used for a wide variety of applications, such as: entrained air
in paper pulp slurries, polymer slurries, the wetness of saturated steam, the oil/water fraction in
oil and gas production, and the mass loading of particles entrained in air.
Advantages
No obstruction in the flow
No pressure loss
No clogging
Low Cost
Applications
Minerals Processing
Power Generation
Chemical Management
Pulp and Paper
Consumer Products
Water and Wastewater Treatment
Oil Sands Processing