LABORATORY MANUAL

For
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB

Second Semester

Department of Applied Sciences

Guru Tegh Bahadur Institute of Technology

 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Paper Code: BS-152 PC

Paper: Applied Physics Lab – II 2 1

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. To determine the e/m ratio of an electron by J.J. Thomson method.
2. To measure the frequency of a sine-wave voltage obtained from signal generator and to
obtain Lissajous pattern on the CRO screen by feeding two sine wave signals from two
signal generators.
3. To determine the frequency of A.C. mains by using Sonometer.
4. To determine the frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork by Melde’s method.
5. Computer simulation (simple application of Monte Carlo): Brownian motion, charging &
discharging of a capacitor.
6. To study the charging and discharging of a capacitor and to find out the time constant.
7. To study the Hall effect.
8. To verify Stefan’s law.
9. To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor by four probe method/or by
measuring the variation of reverse saturation current with temperature.
10. To study the I-V characteristics of Zener diode.
11. To find the thermal conductivity of a poor conductor by Lee’s disk method.
12. To study the thermo emf using thermocouple and resistance using Pt. Resistance
thermometer.
13. To determine Planck’s constant.

Suggested Books:
[T1] C. L. Arora ‘B. Sc. Practical Physics’ S. Chand, Latest edition.

Note: Any 8-10 experiments out of the list may be chosen. Proper error – analysis must be
carried out with all the experiments
 Experiment:1

Aim:- To study I-V characteristics of zener diode.

Apparatus:- Built-in experimental setup
o Zener diode
o Rheostat,
o 10 V power supply
o Voltmeter (0-1 V) for Forward bias and (0-10 V) for
Reverse bias, Model no. - 65, Class - 2.5
o Milli ammeter (0-10mA) for Forward bias and (0-5mA)
for Reverse bias, Model no. - 65
Theory:-
A Zener diode is a heavily doped silicon crystal diode which allows current to flow in the
forward direction in the same manner as an ordinary silicon diode. It also permits the current
to flow in the reverse direction.
The reverse characteristic is obtained by taking reverse voltage along – ve X-axis and reverse
current along –ve Y-axis. As the reverse voltage reaches a certain value, the reverse current
increases to a large value, but the voltage across the diode remains a constant. This is the break
down voltage Vz.

Figure: I-V Characteristic curve of Zener diode.

Procedure:-
1. Forward Bias Characteristics:-
a) Connect the junction diode in forward bias mode.
b) Keep the sliding contact of rheostat towards ‘q’. Switch on the power
supply. The voltmeter will show zero.
c) Increase the voltage in steps of 0.1V by moving the sliding contact of
rheostat and record the voltmeter and milliammeter reading.
 Figure 2: Circuit diagram of Zener diode in forward bias

2. Reverse – Bias Characteristics:-

a) Connect the junction diode in reverse-bias mode.
b) Keep sliding the rheostat towards point ‘Q’, switch on the power supply.
Increase the voltage insteps of 1V by moving the sliding contact of the
rheostat and record the voltmeter and milliammeter readings.
c) Draw graph of I vs V with I in x-axis and V in y-axis. Choose a suitable
scale for it.

Figure 3: Circuit diagram of Zener diode in Reverse bias

Observation: (a) Forward Bias:

Least Count of voltmeter:
Least Count of milliammeter:
(a) Reverse Bias:
Least Count of voltmeter:
Least Count of milliammeter:

S.NO. Forward Bias Reverse Bias

 Voltage (V) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Current (mA)

Results:-
• Knee voltage in forward bias:
Standard value of knee voltage for Si diode is 0.7 V.
• Zener voltage in reverse bias:
Standard value of Zener voltage for Si diode is 6.3 V.

Precautions :-
1. In both forward and reverse bias, sliding contact of rheostat should be kept so as to give
minimum voltage before switching on the power supply.
2. The reverse bias voltage should be kept below the breakdown voltage of the diode.
3. In forward bias mode, the voltage should be increased in steps of 0.1V and a
milliammeter should read the current. In reverse bias mode the voltage should be
increased in steps of 1V and a milliammeter should read the reading.
 Experiment: 2

Aim: To verify Stefan’s law of radiation by electrical method.

Apparatus Required: Built in experimental set up:
o D.C. voltmeter (0-20 V)
Model MO-65 class A
o D. C. milliammeter (0-150 mA)
Model MO-65 class A
o Electric bulb having tungsten filament
o Battery
o Rheostat
o ON/OFF Switch
Theory:
➢ Stefan’s law : The amount of energy radiated through unit area in unit time from the
surface of a perfect black body is directly proportional to the forth power of its absolute
temperature.

If P is the total power radiated from the black body and T is the absolute temperature
of black body in Kelvin, then

𝑷 ∝ 𝑻𝟒
or 𝑷 = 𝝈𝑻𝟒

where, 𝝈 is the Stefan's constant.

(We are required to verify that P is proportional to 4th power of the temperature, T.)

➢ Principle : The electrical power dissipated from a bulb is taken to be proportional to

the nth power of absolute temperature of its filament. The temperature of the filament
in turn is directly proportional to its resistance. Hence, by reassuring the resistance
corresponding to different powers, n can be determined.

Formula Used : The power dissipated from bulb, 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰

𝑽
The resistance of filament, 𝑹 = 𝑰

Where, V is the voltage across the bulb and I is the current through the bulb.

By plotting the graph between 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑷 along y-axis and 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑹 along x- axis, the slope of
the graph is calculated which gives n.
 Fig 1: Circuit to verify Stefan's law Fig 2: Graphical plot

Procedure:
1. The power radiated P is same as the power entering into the blackbody to heat it. We
take a blackbody radiator (tungsten filament bulb) which has resistor in it and connect
it to the apparatus.

2. Switch on the apparatus. The voltage is varied slowly in steps of 0.5 volts and
corresponding values of current is noted.

3. Due to flow of current, the bulb gets heated by an amount 𝑰𝟐 𝑹, so

𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹.

4. The power dissipated for each value of current and corresponding value of filament
resistance are calculated using the relation,

𝑽
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 and 𝑹 = 𝑰

5. We assume that the temperature of the blackbody is the same as the resistor (bulb). But
as temperature increases, resistance also increases proportionately.

i.e 𝑹 ∝ 𝑻.

Now, Stefan's law 𝑷 ∝ 𝑻𝟒 is treated as 𝑷 ∝ 𝑹𝟒 .

Taking logarithm we have 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑷 ∝ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑹𝟒

or 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑷 ∝ 𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑹.

6. The graph is plotted by taking 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑷 along y-axis and 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑹 along x- axis. Slope
of straight line graph is calculated which gives values of n.
 Observations: Least count of voltmeter :
Least count of milliammeter :

Table: To determined the value of 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑷 and 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑹.

S.no. Voltage ‘V’ Current ‘I’ Power Resistance 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑷 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑹

mV (mA) ‘P=VI’ ‘R= V/I ‘
Ω
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
*To plot the graph in I quadrant convert voltmeter readings from mvolt and then
calculate P.
Calculations : From graph,
𝒚
slope of straight line, 𝒏 = 𝒙

Standard value of n is 4.

(𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆−𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆)

% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

Result: The calculated value for n is _______

The standard value for n is 4.
% error = _____

Hence, the power dissipated from the bulb is directly proportional to nth power of absolute
temperature of filament i.e. Stefan’s law is verified.

Precautions:
1. Use the electric bulb having tungsten filament.
2. Increase the voltage is slowly in steps of 0.5 volts.
3. Note down the current reading after every change in voltage.
4. Voltage should not exceed beyond the limiting value, otherwise the bulb will get fuse.
5. Straight line between 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑷 vs 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑹 should be obtained.
 Experiment No-3
Aim: To study the charging and discharging of a capacitor using voltmeter and calculate it’s
capacity, half life and time constant.
Apparatus: A stop watch and Built in experimental setup:
o Capacitor (4700µF)
o Resistor (10kΩ)
o D.C. voltmeter (0-15 V)
Model DCF-80 (EDEL India)
o Switch for charging through resistor
o Switch for discharging through resistor
o 5V Battery
o Dump Switch
o ON/OFF Switch
Theory/Formula:
(1) Charging a Capacitor: If a capacitor C is being charged by a battery of voltmeter V
having series resistance R, the charge across the capacitor, during charging at a time follows
the relation : 𝑄 = 𝑄0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 )

and the voltage V given as, 𝑉 = 𝑉0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 )

Now, the time during which the voltage across the capacitor plates drops to half of its initial
value is called as the half life of capacitor i. e. at 𝑡 = 𝑇1⁄2 = 0.693 𝑅𝐶

𝑇1⁄2 can be calculated from the graph plotted between V and t and if value of R is known
then C can be calculated as
𝑇1⁄2
𝐶=
0.693𝑅
1
When 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶, 𝑉 = 𝑉0 (1 − 𝑒) = 0.632 𝑉0

Here, the time 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 is called the time constant of the RC circuit.

(1) Discharging a Capacitor: Suppose we initially charge a capacitor to a charge Q0 through

some charging circuit. Suppose at time t = 0 the switch is closed. The capacitor will begin to
discharge. The voltage V shows exponential decay given as,
 𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶
𝑉0
When 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 , 𝑉 = = 0.368 𝑉0
𝑒
Hence 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 is called the discharging time constant of the RC circuit.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown or switch on the built in setup.
2. Switch OFF the dump switch and discharging switch.
3. Switch ON the charging switch to start charging process and simultaneously start the
stop watch.
4. Record the voltage reading after every 10 sec. without break till the saturation achieved.
5. Stop the stop watch and reset it to next set of observations.
6. Switch OFF the charging switch and switch ON the discharging switch and stop watch.
7. Now record the voltage readings after every 10 sec. till the capacitor is fully discharged.
8. Plot the graph between voltage V on y-axis and t on x-axis showing the charging and
discharging process on the same scale.
9. To calculate 𝑇1⁄2 . Mark the maximum charging voltage 𝑉0 and 𝑉0⁄2 on the y axis. The
time on the X-axis corresponding to 𝑉0⁄2 on the discharging curve gives the value of
using the definition of 𝑇1⁄2 unknown capacity C can be calculated:
10. To calculate time constant, for charging mark the voltage 0.632𝑉0 on the y-axis. The
corresponding time on x-axis gives the time constant for charging.
11. To calculate time constant, for discharging mark the voltage 0.37𝑉0 on the y-axis. The
corresponding time on x-axis gives the time constant for discharging.

Observations: Least count (L.C.) of voltmeter:

Least count of stopwatch:
Value of resistance R:
Value of capacitance C:
 S.no. Time(sec.) Charging(volts) Discharging(volts)
Divisions in Voltage V Divisions in Voltage V
voltmeter a*L.C. voltmeter b*L.C.
‘a’ ‘b’
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.

Calculations:
1. For Charging:

2. For discharging:
Results:
1. The calculated value of half life of capacitor is:
The actual value of half life of capacitor is:
% error in measurement is :

2. The calculated value of capacity of capacitor is:

The actual value of capacity of capacitor is:
% error in measurement is :

3. The calculated value of time constant of capacitor is:

The actual value of time constant of capacitor is:
% error in measurement is :

Precautions:
1. Peak value of voltage V should be taken carefully after a steady voltage is reached.
2. Voltmeter should have high resistance (compared to value of R).
3. Time for charging and discharging should be noted very carefully.
4. Product of R and C should not be very small.
 Experiment-4

Aim : To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained tuning fork by,

1. Transverse mode of vibration

2. Longitudinal mode of vibration

Apparatus : Electrically maintained tuning fork, fine thread, scale pan, weights and meter
scale, stand with a clamp, pulley, battery eliminator(8-10V

Description of apparatus :

Melde’s electrically maintained tuning fork consists of a large tuning fork (F) made of a
ferromagnetic alloy, whose shank is rigidly clamped on the heavy rectangular wooden board
(W). A bent strip of a metal is attached to one of the prongs of the fork and this serves as a
spring. This metal piece is in contact with a metal screw (S), which can be worked through a
fixed nut. An electromagnet is fixed to the wooden board between the prongs. A current can
be passed through the electromagnet by connecting the terminals provided on the board, in
series with a battery (Ba), a plug key (PK) and a rheostat (Rh). When the plug key is inserted,
a current flows in the circuit and the electromagnet draws the prongs towards it.

Breaks the contact between the spring and the screw and the current stops.

The electromagnet can no longer attract the prongs, which therefore, fly back to their original
positions and the contact is again established. The prongs are again drawn inwards. This
process repeats and the prongs vibrate. The frequency of vibration is a constant, depending on
the parameters related to the fork.

A long flexible thread is attached to the end of a prong and the thread is passed over a
frictionless pulley (P) fixed near the edge of the table. A scale pan is attached to the end of the
thread and weights can be produced in the thread. If the thread is perpendicular to the length
of the prongs, longitudinal waves will be set up in the thread. If the thread is perpendicular to
the length of the prongs, longitudinal waves will be set up in the thread.
Theory :

Speed of waves in a stretched string: A string means a wire or a fiber which has a uniform
diameter and is perfectly flexible. The speed of a wave in a flexible stretched string depends
upon the tension in the string and mass per unit length of the string.

𝑻
𝒗=√
𝒎

Where the tension T in the string equal to Mg.

M - Total Mass ( Mass in Pan (Ms) + Mass of Pan (Mpan)) suspended and g is acceleration due
to gravity.

m- mass per unit length of the string.

Vibrations of a stretched string: When the wire is clamped to a rigid support, the transverse
progressive waves travel towards each end of the wire. By the superposition of incident and
reflected waves, transverse stationary waves are set up in the wire. Since ends of the wire are
clamped, there is node N at each end and anti node A in the middle as shown in Fig: 1.

Fig:1

The points of the medium which have no displacements called nodes and there are some points
which vibrate with maximum amplitude called antinodes.
The distance between two consecutive nodes is λ/2, ( λ - wavelength). Because l is half a
wavelength in the equations,
𝝀
𝒍=
𝟐
If ‘f’ be the frequency of vibration the wire,
𝒗 𝒗
𝒇= =
𝝀 𝟐𝒍
Transverse drive mode: In this arrangement the vibrations of the prongs of the tuning fork
are in the direction perpendicular to the length of the string.

The time, during which the tuning fork completes one vibration, the string also completes one
vibration. In this mode, frequency of the string is equal to the frequency of the tuning fork.

𝟏 𝑻 𝒑 𝑻
𝒇= √ = √
𝟐𝒍 𝒎 𝟐𝑳 𝒎

where l- length of the string in the fundamental vibration

𝑳
𝒍=
𝒑
p- number of loops formed in the middle part of the string
L- distance in which p loops are formed.

Longitudinal drive mode: In this arrangement the tuning fork is set in such a manner that the
vibrations of the prongs are parallel to the length of the string.
The time, during which the tuning fork completes one vibration, the string completes half of
its vibration. In this mode, frequency of the fork is twice the frequency of the string.

𝒑 𝑻
𝒇= √
𝑳 𝒎

In transverse drive mode the string follows the motion of the tuning fork, up and down, once
up and once down per cycle of tuning fork vibration.
However, one cycle of up and down vibration for transverse waves on the string is two cycles
of string tension increase and decrease. The tension is maximum both at the loops’ maximum
up position and again at maximum down position. Therefore, in longitudinal drive mode, since
the string tension increases and decreases once per tuning fork vibration, it takes one tuning
fork vibration to move the string loop to maximum up position and one to move it to maximum
down position.
This is two tuning fork vibrations for one up and down string vibration, so the tuning fork
frequency is half the string frequency.

Procedure:
1. The melde’s fork is arranged such that traverse waves can be set up in the string,
when it Vibrates.
2. The scale pan is removed from the string and its mass Mpan is found in balance . It is
attached to the string again
3. The folk is made to vibrate by adjusting the contact screw. A suitable mass Ms is
placed on the pan such that the thread is divided into certain number of segments.
4. A known length of specimen thread is weighed in the balance and its mass is
determined. Thus m, the mass per unit length of the thread is calculated.
5. The length L of the vibrating thread from the point where it touches the pulley is
measured with a meter scale.

Observations: To calculate frequency of tuning folk f

Least Count of meter scale =
Mass of pan in Grams (Ms ) =
Mass per unit length of String in gm/cm (m) =
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 980 cm/s2
 Mode Of No. of Length Length of Mass in Tension T= Frequency
Vibration Loops p of String one loop pan Ms ( Ms + Mpan)*g f
(cm) L (cm) l=L/p (cm) (gm) (dynes) (vib./sec)

Transverse

Longitudinal

Calculations:

Result: The calculated value of frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork is .................

Precautions:
1. The thread used should be thin and uniform in diameter to get loops of equal length.
2. The scale pan should be light and the weight added should be small
3. The thread should be horizontal
4. Oil the pulley if need be to reduce friction
5. Loops formed should be well defined
 Experiment No.-5

Aim: To study the Hall Effect and to calculate the Hall coefficient and the carrier
concentration of the sample material.

Apparatus: Two solenoids, Constant current supply (0-30V DC, 10A), four probe, Digital
gauss meter, Hall effect apparatus (which consist of Constant Current Generator (CCG), digital
milli voltmeter and Hall probe).

Theory:

Hall Effect: If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a

potential difference will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic
field and current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall effect is
an important tool to characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly determines
both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given sample.

Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in XY plane. An electric field is applied

in X-direction using Constant Current Generator (CCG), so that current I flow through the
sample. If w is the width of the sample and t is the thickness. There for current density is given
by
𝐼
𝐽𝑥 = 𝑤𝑡 (1)

Fig. Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor.

CCG –Constant Current Generator, JX –current density
ē –electron, B –applied magnetic field, t –thickness,
w –width VH – Hall voltage
 If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the charge
carriers (say electrons) toward the y-direction. This results in accumulation of charge carriers
at the top edge of the sample. This set up a transverse electric field Ey in the sample. This
develop a potential difference along y-axis is known as Hall voltage VH and this effect is called
Hall Effect.

A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference between its
top and bottom is measured using a volt-meter. When the applied magnetic field B=0, the
voltage difference will be zero.

We know that a current flows in response to an applied electric field with its direction as
conventional and it is either due to the flow of holes in the direction of current or the movement
of electrons backward. In both cases, under the application of magnetic field the magnetic
Lorentz force,𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵) causes the carriers to curve upwards. Since the charges cannot
escape from the material, a vertical charge imbalance builds up. This charge imbalance
produces an electric field which counteracts with the magnetic force and a steady state is
established. The vertical electric field can be measured as a transverse voltage difference using
a voltmeter.
In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically
we can express it as
𝑒𝐸 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵 (2)

Where 'e' the electric charge, 'E' the hall electric field developed, 'B' the applied magnetic field
and 'v' is the drift velocity of charge carriers.
And the current I can be expressed as,
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣 (3)

Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length l ,breadth w and
thickness t.
Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as,
𝐼𝐵
𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝑤 = 𝑣𝐵𝑤 =
𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝐼𝐵
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻
𝑡
by rearranging above equation we get

𝑉𝐻 × 𝑡
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼×𝐵
Where 𝑅𝐻 is called the Hall coefficient.

1
𝑅𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒
Circuit Diagram:

Formula Used:

Hall Coefficient:
𝑽𝑯 × 𝒕
𝑹𝑯 =
𝑰×𝑩
where, VH =Hall Voltage
t = Thickness of the sample
I = Current
B = Applied Magnetic Field

Carrier Concentration
𝟏
𝒏=
𝑹𝑯 𝒆

Where, e = electronic charge

Procedure:

1. Mount the PCB (with mounted crystal) on one of the pillars of the Hall Effect Apparatus
and the Hall probe for the Gauss Meter on the other pillar.
2. Connect the Hall Probe to the Gauss Meter.
3. Connect the two coils of the electromagnet in series to the DC Power Supply.
4. Connect the Constant Current Power Supply to the PCB with the mA meter in series.
(YOU WILL BE USING THE GREEN TERMINAL FOR CURRENT AND RED
TERMINAL FOR VOLTAGE.)
5. The Gauss Meter is very sensitive. It must be calibrated to zero before it is used. To do
this the probe must be moved away from any magnets or sources of magnetic fields,
 such as transformers and current carrying wires. Switch On the Gauss Meter and place
the hall probe away from the electromagnet and from all power supplies. Select the
X2K range of the Gauss Meter and using the zero adjustment knob of the Gauss Meter,
adjust the reading of the Gauss Meter as zero. Do not switch on the electromagnet at
this stage.
6. Switch ON the constant current and set the current to 1mA in the constant current
source.
7. Switch ON the electromagnet ( 30 VDC, 10 A Max ).
8. Select the range of the Gauss Meter to X2K and measure and record the magnet flux
density at the centre between the pole pieces. The tip of the Hall Probe and the crystal
should be placed between the centre of the pole pieces. The pole pieces should be as
close to the crystal and to the tip of the Hall Probe. POLE PIECES SHOULD NEVER
TOUCH THE CRYSTAL OR THE TIP OF THE HALL PROBE. 2
9. Do not change the current in the electromagnet. Keep the magnetic field constant
throughout the entire experiment.
10. Vary the current through the constant current source in very small intervals between 0
mA and 20 mA. It is suggested that you start with a reading near 20 mA and then
decrease the current by intervals of about 1.0 mA and record the data. Do not exceed
20 mA or you will destroy the crystal.
11. Repeat steps 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.
𝑽𝑯 ×𝒕
12. Compute the Hall Coefficient. 𝑹𝑯 = 𝑰×𝑩
13. If the Hall Coefficient is positive, the material is a p-type semiconductor material. If
the Hall Coefficient is negative, the material is a n-type semiconductor material.
𝟏
14. Compute the Concentration of Charge Carriers 𝒏 = 𝑹 𝒆 where e =1.602 X 10-19C.
𝑯

Observations:

Thickness of Specimen ‘t’ : 0.5 mm

SET 1
Constant Current Source : A
Magnetic Flux Density B : Gauss = X 10-4 Tesla

Observation Table:

CURRENT VOLTAGE HALL COEFFICIENT

S.No. I (mA) V (mV) RH

Mean 𝑹𝑯𝟏 =

SET 2
Constant Current Source : A
Magnetic Flux Density B : Gauss = X 10-4 Tesla

S.No. CURRENT VOLTAGE HALL COEFFICIENT

I (mA) V (mV) RH

Mean 𝑹𝑯𝟐 =

Calculations:

HALL COEFFICIENT 𝑹𝑯𝟏 =

𝑹𝑯𝟐 =

Mean Hall Coefficient 𝑹𝑯 =

𝟏
Carrier Concentration 𝒏 = 𝑹
𝑯𝒆
Results:

1. The calculated value of Hall coefficient RH for n-type Germanium semiconductor is

________m3/C.
2. Carrier Concentration Of n-type Germanium semiconductor is __________

Precautions:

1. Hall voltage should be measured carefully with the help of millivoltmeter.

2. Distance between the pole pieces of electromagnet should not be changed during the
whole experiment.
3. Pass the current through semiconductor crystal strictly within the permissible limits.
4. Magnetic field should be constant for one set of observations.
5. Gauss meter must be calibrated before taking any measurement.
 Experiment-6
Aim: Energy Band Gap measurement of Ge/Si semiconductor by measuring variation of
reverse current with temperature
Apparatus: Thermometer, Built in set up
Theory: In a semiconductor, there is an energy band gap between conductor and valence
band. For conductor, a certain amount of energy is to be given to electron so that it goes from
valence band to conduction band . The energy needed is a measure of energy gap between two
bands when a p-n junction is reserve biased then current is due to the minority carriers whose
concentration is dependent on the energy gap Eg. The Reserve Saturation Current is a function
of the temperature of the junction diode. The Current generated in a diode follows the relation,

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼0 {𝑒 𝑒𝑉⁄𝜂𝑘𝑇 − 1}.......................(1)

Where V is applied voltage and T is the absolute temperature

Taking natural log on both the side of equation (1),

𝐼 𝑒𝑉 𝐸𝑔
ln 𝐼𝑠 = 𝜂𝑘𝑇 = 𝜂𝑘𝑇.......................(2)
0

Where, 𝐼𝑠 is the saturation current in Ampere

T is the temperature of junction diode in Kelvin
𝐸𝑔 is the band gap in eV

k is the Boltzman constant in eV/K

𝜂 is the ideality factor, for germanium 𝜂 = 2.33
𝐸𝑔
ln 𝐼𝑠 − ln 𝐼0 = 𝜂𝑘𝑇.......................(3)

𝐸𝑔 × 1.609 × 10−19 103

ln 𝐼𝑠 − ln 𝐼0 = = 5.036 × 𝐸𝑔 ×
2.33 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 𝑇 𝑇
A graph is plot between ln 𝐼𝑠 and 103 ⁄𝑇 , which is straight line with a slope ln 𝐼𝑠 ⁄(103 ⁄𝑇).
slope of line
Thus, Slope of line = - 5.036 𝐸𝑔 . Band Gap of Semiconductor 𝐸𝑔 = eV
5.036
Procedure:
1. Plug the mains lead to the nearest mains socket carrying 230V, 50 Hz A.C.
2. Insert the thermometer provided with the unit into the opening of Bakelite cap.
3. Switch on the oven and allow the oven temperature rise upto 85ºC. As the temperature
reaches this value, switch off the oven. The temperature will further rise upto 90-100ºC
and will become stable.
4. Now vary biasing voltage in steps of 0.1 volts and note the corresponding current. The
constant current Is is the reverse saturation current at the given temperature.
5. After sometime the temperature will began to fall. Now fix the voltage to 1V and take
current reading for 5ºC fall in temperature.

Observations: Reverse Saturation Current

S.No Voltage T(ºC) T(K) 1000/T Is (A) ln (Is)

(volts)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Calculations :

Results:
The calculated value of energy gap for Germanium diode is
The energy gap for Germanium diode varies from 0.68 eV to 0.72 eV.
Precautions :
1. A reverse bias p-n junction diode must be used.
2. The temperature and current measurements must be taken accurately.
3. Reading of current must be taken when temperature is decreasing.
4. The oven should not be heated at high temperature, or above 100ºC.
5. Note the correct value of voltage and current from the apparatus.
Sources of error:
 Experiment -7
e
Aim: To determine the value of for electron by JJ Thomson's Method.
m

Apparatus: Cathode ray tube, power supply unit, pair of bar magnets, magnetometer &
compass box.
Principle:
The specific charge of an electron can be determined when electron moves in both magnetic
field and electric field which are mutually perpendicular to each other so that the net force on
the electron is made zero. IN this situation the direction of motion of electron remains
perpendicular to both electric and magnetic field.
Working Principle: (Theory):
When sufficient amount of potential (V) is applied between the two electrodes electrons
emitted from the cathode accelerate with velocity ‘v’ then
𝟏
𝒆𝑽 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
𝒆 𝟏 𝒗𝟐
=𝟐 (1)
𝒎 𝑽

When the charge particle moves under the action of electric field strength (E) it moves towards
the +ve plate and finally incident at point O, at fluorescent screen. In case of applying magnetic
field only, the charge particle deviate and finally incident at 02 as shown in figure.
If both magnetic and electric field are applied and their magnitude and direction is adjusted
so that the charged particles move without deviation. At this condition charge particle
incident at point O at the fluorescent screen,
Then, We have 𝑩𝒆𝒗 = 𝒆𝑬
Where, B is magnetic field strength. In this case the direction of magnetic field is
perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the charged particle.
𝑬
𝒗=𝑩 (2)

From equation (1) and (2),

𝑬 𝟐
𝒆 𝟏 (𝑩)
=
𝒎 𝟐 𝑽
𝒆 𝟏 𝑬𝟐
=
𝒎 𝟐 𝑽 𝑩𝟐

Hence, the specific charge at the electron is determined if the values of E, B and V are
known. The experimentally obtained specific charge of the electron is 1.7 x 1011 C/kg.
Formula used:-
𝒆 𝑽𝒀
= 𝒍 C/kg
𝒎 𝝁𝟐𝟎 𝑯𝒆𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝜽(𝑳+( ))𝒍𝒅
𝟐

Where,
l = length of horizontal pair of plate
L = distance of screen from edges
V = voltage applied to plates
Y = total deflection of spot on screen
He = earth’s horizontal component of the field =26 µT
d = separation between plates
Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Place the magnetometer compass box in the wooden stand to trace the north south
direction. Now place the cathode ray tube such a way that it faces towards north and
south direction.
2. Switch ON the power supply for cathode ray tube and after heating up, a will come on
the screen. Adjust the intensity of that spot.
3. When electric and magnetic fields are not applied, then the electron will strike the
screen producing a glow (spot) in the middle.
4. Take the initial reading of the spot on the scale attached with screen, set comes out to
be 0.0cm. Now apply the deflecting voltage using the acceleration knob on the power
supply such that a deflection is in upward direction and the reading is + 1cm.
5. Note down the applied deflecting voltage 'V' for the above deflection that is for 1cm.
6. Place the bar magnets symmetrically on each side such that the poles are
perpendicular to the axis of cathode ray tube.
7. Now adjust the spacing and polarity of the magnets such that spot reaches back to the
original position (0 cm).
8. Note on the spacing of the poles of the magnet from the cathode ray tube (say there
are 'a' and 'b').
9. Adjust the pointer of the compass box to 0°- 0° reading.
 10. Now place a bar magnets in the position at placed in the previous case that is 'a' and 'b'
distances. Note the reading of the pointer (say they are θ1 and θ2).
11. Remove the magnets and reverse the polarity of the voltage 'V' apply to the deflecting
plates. Now the initial deflection is 0cm and final -1cm.
12. Raise the bar magnets again on the wooden stand and repeat the step 7.
13. Note down the spacing of the poles of the magnet from cathode ray tube (hey there ‘c’
and ‘d’).
14. Remove the cathode ray and bar magnets and place the magnetometer compass box
such that its Centre lies on the common axis of the magnets.
15. Adjust the pointer of the compass box to 0°- 0° reading.
16. Now place a bar magnets in the position at placed in the previous case that is 'c' and 'd'
distances. Note the reading of the pointer (say they are θ3 and θ4).
θ 1+ θ 2+ θ 3+ θ 4
17. For deflecting voltage V, calculate the mean deflection θ, that is, θ = .
4
18. Calculate the magnetic field H = He tan θ, where He is the earth's horizontal
component of the field.
19. Take the different deflecting voltage V and repeat the whole procedure.

Observations:
1. Length of horizontal pair of plates, l = ______________
2. Distance of the screen from edges of the plates, L = _____________
3. Distance between the deflecting plates, d = ______________
Table 1. Determination of deflection for different voltages V
S.no. Applied Initial Finial Final Deflection Final Voltage
Voltage position of position of
the spot the spot

V= (V1+V2)/2

1. V1 =

2. V2 =

3. V1 =

4. V2 =

S.no Applied Reading Of Pointers Mean θ

Voltage θ1 + θ2 + θ3 + θ4
V =
4
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4

1.
2.
 𝒆
Calculation : (𝒎) for V voltage =

𝒆
(𝒎) for V voltage =

Percentage Error:

Result: The value of e/m of electron by J.J. Thomson method C/kg

Standard value of e/m =1.756 × 1011 C/kg
Precautions:
1. Cathode ray tube should be handled carefully.
2. The spot on the screen must be small and intense.
3. There should be parallel error while talking the readings of magnetometer.
4. The axis of cathode ray tube is adjusted strictly along the magnetic meridian.
5. The electric field between the plates can't be uniform because separation between them is
small. Error may arise due to assumption.
 Experiment-8

Aim: To simulate Brownian Motion of single and multiple particles in 3-dimension by Monte
Carlo method using Matlab.

Skill used: Matlab 2015.

Theory: The Brownian motion is named after a British Botanist Robert Brown who first
observed it. It is also known as Brownian movement. In simple words, it’s just a
random motion shown by small particles suspended in a fluid (liquid or gas) as shown below:

Figure 1: Plot of Brownian motion

As evident from the above shown figure, a particle (shown as blue in color) collides with
other particles (shown as black in color) and thus changes its path. This interaction between
particles leads to their random motion which is also commonly known as zig-zag motion.
Monte Carlo method is used to study this zig-zag motion of particles. Monte Carlo methods
are a broad class of computational algorithms that rely on repeated random sampling to
obtain numerical results. Their essential idea is using randomness to solve problems that
might be deterministic in principle.
They are often used in physical and mathematical problems and are most useful when it is
difficult or impossible to use other approaches.

Factors that affect Brownian motion:

1. Size of particles: Smaller the size of particles, faster is the motion. The reason behind
this behavior is that momentum transfer is inversely proportional to mass. So lighter the
particle, more speed it will get after a collision.

2. Viscosity: Viscosity is fluid’s resistance to flow. For water it is less, but for tooth paste it
is high. The viscosity is also inversely proportional to speed of Brownian motion. So
lesser the viscosity, faster the motion.
Effects of Brownian motion:
1. The Brownian motion acts like a stirring system and thus doesn’t allow the particles to
settle down. This leads to stability of colloidal sols.
2. This also helps in distinguishing between true solution and colloidal solutions.

Algorithm: To Simulate Brownian Motion

Step 1 : Print simulation title “Simulation of Brownian Motion”.
Step 2 : Choose a value T for time period of particles
Step 3 : Initialize the value N for total number of successive collisions a particle has to
undergo in the time period.
Step 4 : Initialize the total distance traversed h.
Step 5 : Choose a value np for number of molecules in the container
Step 6 : Initialize the position (x, y, z) as array to start Brownian Motion.
Step 7 : Start a loop over number of particle np.
Step 8 : Start a loop over successive collisions N.
Step 9 : Determine the next position of (x, y, z) depending the path length h where the
collision occurs randomly. Store the values in arrays.
Step 10 : End the loop started at Step 8.
Step 11 : End the loop started at Step 7.
Step 12 : Select the colors for the path of number of particles using HSV color map
Step 13 : Start a loop over number of particle np.
Step 14 : Draw the 3D plot of Brownian motion.
Step 15 : Define the title, x-label, y-label and z-label of the plot.
Step 16 : End the loop started at Step 13.
Step 17 : Program ends.
 Matlab Code
% Simulation of Brownian motion of 'np' Particles for T seconds

clear;
clc;

T= input('Enter the Time Period: '); % Time (in Seconds)

N=100.*T; % Number of Impulses/change in track
h=sqrt(T/N);
np=input('Enter the Number Of Particle: '); % Number of Particles

% Initialization of the position of particles..i.e origin

x = zeros(1,np);
y = zeros(1,np);
z = zeros(1,np);

% Iteration to store positions of particles

for j=1:np
for i=1:N

x(i+1,j)=x(i,j)+h*randn();
y(i+1,j)=y(i,j)+h*randn();
z(i+1,j)=z(i,j)+h*randn();

end
end

cmap = hsv(np); % Creates a np-by-3 set of colors from the HSV colormap

% Plotting of the particles.

for k=1:np
plot3(x(:,k),y(:,k),z(:,k),'Color',cmap(k,:));
hold on;
end
grid on;
OBSERVATIONS :
1. Brownian motion of single particle:

Figure 2: Plot of Brownian motion of single particle

2. Brownian motion of multiple particles:

Figure 3: Plot of Brownian motion of multiple particles

Result:
Figure 2 and Figure 3 clearly show the Brownian motion of single and multiple particles
respectively.