By Purvi Tandel

Modular arithmetic

Prime and relative prime numbers

Euler’s Theorem

Euclidean algorithm

Finite field of the form GF(p)

Polynomial arithmetic

Finite field of the form GF(2n)

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 2 2/18/2019
 Modular arithmetic

Prime and relative prime numbers

Euler’s Theorem

Euclidean algorithm

Finite field of the form GF(p)

Polynomial arithmetic

Finite field of the form GF(2n)

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 3 2/18/2019
Classical math problem:
Samantha says she will be home by 10:00, and she’s 13 hours late,
what time does she get home?

(10+13) mod 12 = 23 mod 12 = 11 mod 12 = 11

Another way of writing the same is:

23 ≡ 11 (mod 12)

Typical solution:
10:00 AM suppose to reach home (add 13 hours)
11:00 PM she will reach home
Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 4 2/18/2019
23 ≡ 11 (mod 12) (here ≡ denotes congruence)

Basically, a ≡ b (mod n) if a = b + kn for some integer k.

Where, a is non negative and b is between 0 to n.
Sometimes, b is reminder of a when divided by n.

Sometimes, b is called the residue of a, modulo n.

Sometimes, a is called Congruent to b, modulo n.

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 5 2/18/2019

Some examples of a = b + kn:
For a = 11, n = 7,
11 = 1 * 7 + 4; Residue b = 4, k =1.
For a = -11, n = 7,
-11 = -2 * 7 + 3; Residue b = 3, k = -2.
73 ≡ 4 (mod 23)
73 = 3 * 23 + 4; Residue b = 4, k = 3.
 21 ≡ -9 (mod 10)
21 = 3 * 10 + (-9); Residue b = -9, k = 3.
 21 ≡ 1 (mod 10)
21 = 2 * 10 + 1; Residue b = 1, k = 2.

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 6 2/18/2019

Properties of Congruence:
1. a ≡ b (mod n) if n|(a-b).
2. a ≡ b (mod n) implies b ≡ a (mod n).
3. a ≡ b (mod n) and b ≡ c (mod n) imply a ≡ c (mod n).

To demonstrate first point if n|(a-b), then (a-b) = kn for some k.

23 ≡ 8 (mod 5) because 23 – 8 = 15 = 5 * 3
-11 ≡ 5 (mod 8) because - 11 – 5 = -16 = 8 * (-2)
81 ≡ 0 (mod 27) because 81 – 0 = 81 = 27 * 3

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 7 2/18/2019

Modular Arithmetic operations:
1. (a + b) mod n = ((a mod n) + (b mod n)) mod n
2. (a - b) mod n = ((a mod n) - (b mod n)) mod n
3. (a * b) mod n = ((a mod n) * (b mod n)) mod n

Now calculating the power of some number modulo some number,

ax mod n,
is just a series of multiplications and divisions, but there are speedups.

Speedup aims minimize the number of multiplications.

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 8 2/18/2019

a8 mod n = (a*a*a*a*a*a*a*a) mod n

Speedup aims minimize the number of multiplications.

How???
To find 117 mod 13, we can proceed as follows:
112 mod 13 = 121 mod 13 = 4 (mod13) = 4 (Because 13*9 + 4 )
114 mod 13 = (112 mod 13)2 mod 13 = (4)2 mod 13 = 16 mod 13 = 3
(mod 13) = 3
117 mod 13 = (114 mod 13 * 112mod 13 * 11 mod 13) mod 13 =
(3*4*11) mod 13 = 132 mod 13 = 2 (mod 13) = 2 (Because 13*10 + 2)
So, 117 mod 13 = 2.
Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 9 2/18/2019
In modular arithmetic mod 8, the additive inverse of x is the integer y
such that (x + y ) mod 8 = 0 mod 8.

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 10 2/18/2019

In modular arithmetic mod 8, the multiplicative inverse of x is the
integer y such that (x * y ) mod 8 = 1 mod 8.

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 11 2/18/2019

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 12 2/18/2019
Define the set Zn as the set of nonnegative integers less than n:
Zn = { 0 , 1 , . . . . . . . . , (n-1)}

In ordinary arithmetic, the following statement is true only with the

attached condition:
if (a x b) = (a x c) (mod n) then b = c (mod n) if a is relatively prime
to n

In general, an integer has a multiplicative inverse in Zn if that integer

is relatively prime to n.

Table shows that the integers 1, 3, 5, and 7 have a multiplicative

inverse in Z8, but 2, 4, and 6 do not.

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 13 2/18/2019

 Modular arithmetic

Prime and relative prime numbers

Euler’s Theorem

Euclidean algorithm

Finite field of the form GF(p)

Polynomial arithmetic

Finite field of the form GF(2n)

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 14 2/18/2019
An integer p>1 is a prime number if and only if its only divisors are
± 1 and ± p.

Any integer a > 1 can be factored in a unique way as

a = p1a1*p2a2…ptat
Where p1 < p2 < ….. < pt are prime numbers and where each ai is a
positive integer.

Examples:
91 = 7 * 13
3600 = 24 * 32 * 52
11011 = 7 * 112 * 13
Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 15 2/18/2019
If P is the set of all prime numbers, then any positive integer a can
be written uniquely in the following form:

a= 𝑝є𝑃 𝑝𝑎𝑝 where each ap ≥ 0

If gcd ( p , q ) = 1 then, p & q both are relative prime numbers to

each other.
Examples:
1. p = 3, q = 5 then gcd ( 3 , 5 ) = 1 (Both Prime numbers)
2. p = 7, q = 13 then gcd ( 7 , 13 ) = 1 (Both Prime numbers)
3. p = 31, q = 84 then gcd ( 31 , 84 ) =1 (Both are not Prime
numbers)
Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 16 2/18/2019
Note:
All prime numbers are relative to each other.
Non prime number also can be relative to each other.

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 17 2/18/2019

 Modular arithmetic

Prime and relative prime numbers

Euler’s Theorem

Euclidean algorithm

Finite field of the form GF(p)

Polynomial arithmetic

Finite field of the form GF(2n)

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 18 2/18/2019
Euler’s theorem states that for every a and n that are relatively
prime:
aø(n) ≡ 1 (mod n)
Examples:
a=3; n=10; ø(10)=4;
hence 34 = 81 = 1 mod 10
 a=2; n=11; ø(11)=10;
hence 210 = 1024 = 1 mod 11

Alternative form of the theorem is:

aø(n)+1 ≡ a (mod n)

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 19 2/18/2019

Euler’s Totient function:
Euler’s totient function, written as ∅(n), defined as the number of
positive integers less than n and relatively prime to n.

If n is prime number, then ∅(n) = (n - 1).

Example: n = 37 (prime number)
So all the positive integers from 1 through 36 are relatively prime to
37.
∅(n) = (n – 1) = 36 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ………, 36}

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 20 2/18/2019

If n is non-prime number, and whose factors are two prime
numbers p and q, with p ≠ q, then
∅(n) = ∅(pq) = ∅(p) * ∅(q) = (p – 1) * (q – 1).

Example: n = 35 (Non-prime number)

n = 35 = 7 * 5 (factors of 35, both prime and p ≠ q)
∅(35) = (p – 1) * (q – 1) = ( 7 – 1) * (5 – 1) = 6 * 4 = 24
∅(35) = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27,
29, 31, 32, 33, 34}

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 21 2/18/2019

 Modular arithmetic

Prime and relative prime numbers

Euler’s Theorem

Euclidean algorithm

Finite field of the form GF(p)

Polynomial arithmetic

Finite field of the form GF(2n)

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 22 2/18/2019
One of the basic techniques of number theory is the Euclidean
algorithm,
which is a simple procedure for determining the greatest
common divisor of two positive integers.

Use the notation GCD(a , b) which is the greatest common

divisor of a and b.
Example:
GCD(60,24) = 12
GCD(8,15) = 1 , hence 8 & 15 are relatively prime

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 23 2/18/2019

Finding the Greatest Common Divisor:
The Euclidean algorithm is based on the following theorem:
For any nonnegative integer a and any positive integer b,

GCD (a, b) = GCD (b, a mod b)

Example:
GCD(55, 22) = GCD(22, 55 mod 22) = GCD(22, 11) = 11
GCD (18, 12) = GCD(12, 18 mod 12) = GCD(12, 6) = 6

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 24 2/18/2019

The algorithm has following progression:

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 25 2/18/2019

Example GCD(1970, 1066) = 2
1970 = 1 x 1066 + 904 gcd(1066, 904)
1066 = 1 x 904 + 162 gcd(904, 162)
904 = 5 x 162 + 94 gcd(162, 94)
162 = 1 x 94 + 68 gcd(94, 68)
94 = 1 x 68 + 26 gcd(68, 26)
68 = 2 x 26 + 16 gcd(26, 16)
26 = 1 x 16 + 10 gcd(16, 10)
16 = 1 x 10 + 6 gcd(10, 6)
10 = 1 x 6 + 4 gcd(6, 4)
6=1x4+2 gcd(4, 2)
4=2x2+0 gcd(2, 0)
Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 26 2/18/2019
Example GCD(1160718174, 316258250) = 1078

Dividend Divisor Quotient Remainder

a = 1160718174 b = 316258250 q1 = 3 r1 = 211943424
b = 316258250 r1 = 211943424 q2 = 1 r2 = 104314826
r1 = 211943424 r2 = 104314826 q3 = 2 r3 = 3313772
r2 = 104314826 r3 = 3313772 q4 = 31 r4 = 1587894
r3 = 3313772 r4 = 1587894 q5 = 2 r5 = 137984
r4 = 1587894 r5 = 137984 q6 = 11 r6 = 70070
r5 = 137984 r6 = 70070 q7 = 1 r7 = 67914
r6 = 70070 r7 = 67914 q8 = 1 r8 = 2516
r7 = 67914 r8 = 2516 q9 = 31 r9 = 1078
r8 = 2516 r9 = 1078 q10 = 2 r10 = 0

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 27 2/18/2019

 Modular arithmetic

Prime and relative prime numbers

Euler’s Theorem

Euclidean algorithm

Finite field of the form GF(p)

Polynomial arithmetic

Finite field of the form GF(2n)

Purvi Tandel, CE & IT Dept., CGPIT 28 2/18/2019