Oracle SQL

INTRODUCTION TO DBMS
Why DBMS: Human needs have increased tremendously. Now people are
doing much more composite tasks than ever before. The society has become very
complex. a person has to work with huge amount of information every day. In
order to work with the enormous information, we must have a system where we
can store, manipulate and share the information all over the world. It is one of the
core reasons for introducing Database Management Systems (DBMS) as well as
Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS) now-a-days.

So, one thing is clear to us that we store and manipulate data / information into
a database, where the database contains various types of tables for storing
various types of data / information.

Data:
 Whatever we are inputting from the keyboard is known as Data. It can
also be called as RAWFACTS / FIGURES
 Data never provides any meaning for us

Information:
 Processed Data is known as Information
 Information always gives meaning for us

Database:
 Collection of information belongs to a particular topic (an organization)
written in a predetermined manner stored at a particular place is called
as database.

DBMS (Data Base Management System):

 It is software which is present inside the database, which can maintain
and manage the data within the database.
Types of DBMS:
1) FMS / FDMS (File Management System /File Management Database
System):
 This is first model released into the market in 1950‟s. In this model there is
always arranged in a continue stream of character (or) in a sequential
fashion (or) manner.

Disadvantages:

 The Main disadvantage of this model is whenever we need to retrieve

any data we have to start the searching from the beginning of the file so,
it automatically leads to increases the searching time.
 Costly in maintains
 Required more man power
 There is no security

2) HMS/HDMS (Hierarchy Management System / Hierarchy Database

Management System):
 This model was developed by IBM in 1960‟s, When they developed a
project called IMS (Information Management System)
 In this model data is always arranged in the form of a tree structure
in different levels
 The top level can be called as root. The 2nd , 3rd can be called as parent and
child levels respectively
 The main advantage of this model is we can easily retrieve the value
without wasting much time

ROOT

Parent Parent Parent

Child Child
 Drawback:
 Only one person can share the database simultaneously
 No security

3) NDBMS (Network Database Management System):

 This model was developed by IBM in 1969, when developing a project
is called IMS (Information Management System)
 This model was developed on the basis of an Operating System
called MULTICS (Multiplex Information Computing System)
 The main advantage of this model is more than one person can share
the database concurrently (Simultaneously)

Disadvantage:
 There is no proper security for the centralized database
 Redundancy of the database is increased
 It occupies lot of memory and it leads to decrease system performance
and increase the inconsistency.

4) RDMS (Relational Database Management System):

 This model was developed by a German scientist Mr. EF.CODD in 1970
 Here relation can be defined as commonness between objects these
relations are classified into 3 types
 One to One relation
 One to Many relation / Many to One relation
 Many to Many relation

One – One relationship:

 In this relationship one object can have a relationship with another object

EMP EMPID

STUDENT HALL-NO
One - Many relationships:
 In this relationship one object can have a relationship with many objects

SQL
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Student Java Faculty .Net

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Many – Many relationship:

 In this relationship many vendors (or) many objects can have
the relationship with many other objects

Vendor 1 P1

Vendor 2 P2

Vendor 3 P3

 All the above relationships can be called as “Degree of Relationships”

 This model was developed on the basis of a mathematical concept can be
called as “Relation Algebra” (i.e. sets & Relations)
CODD RULES: E.F. Codd, the famous mathematician has introduced 12
rules for the relational model for databases commonly known as Codd's rules. The
rules mainly define what is required for a DBMS for it to be considered relational
i.e. an RDBMS. The rules are as follows:-

Rule 0: Foundation Rule

A relational database management system should be capable of using its relational

facilities (exclusively) to manage the database.

Rule 1: Information Rule

All information in the database is to be represented in one and only one way. This
is achieved by values in column positions within rows of tables.

Rule 2: Guaranteed Access Rule

All data must be accessible with no ambiguity, that is, Each and every datum
(atomic value) is guaranteed to be logically accessible by resorting to a
combination of table name, primary key value and column name.

Rule 3: Systematic treatment of null values

Null values (distinct from empty character string or a string of blank characters and
distinct from zero or any other number) are supported in the fully relational DBMS
for representing missing information in a systematic way, independent of data
type.

Rule 4: Dynamic On-line Catalog Based on the Relational Model

The database description is represented at the logical level in the same way as
ordinary data, so authorized users can apply the same relational language to its
interrogation as they apply to regular data. The authorized users can access the
database structure by using common language i.e. SQL.

Rule 5: Comprehensive Data Sublanguage Rule

A relational system may support several languages and various modes of terminal
use. However, there must be at least one language whose statements are
expressible, per some well-defined syntax, as character strings and whose ability to
support all of the following is comprehensible:
 a. data definition
b. view definition
c. data manipulation (interactive and by program)
d. integrity constraints
e. authorization
f. Transaction boundaries (begin, commit, and rollback).

Rule 6: View Updating Rule

All views that are theoretically updateable are also updateable by the system.

Rule 7: High-level Insert, Update, and Delete

The system is able to insert, update and delete operations fully. It can also perform
the operations on multiple rows simultaneously.

Rule 8: Physical Data Independence

Application programs and terminal activities remain logically unimpaired

whenever any changes are made in either storage representation or access methods.

Rule 9: Logical Data Independence

Application programs and terminal activities remain logically unimpaired when
information preserving changes of any kind that theoretically permit unimpairment
are made to the base tables.

Rule 10: Integrity Independence

Integrity constraints specific to a particular relational database must be definable in
the relational data sublanguage and storable in the catalog, not in the application
programs.

Rule 11: Distribution Independence

The data manipulation sublanguage of a relational DBMS must enable application
programs and terminal activities to remain logically unimpaired whether and
whenever data are physically centralized or distributed.

Rule 12: No subversion Rule

If a relational system has or supports a low-level (single-record-at-a-time)
language, that low-level language cannot be used to subvert or bypass the integrity
rules or constraints expressed in the higher-level (multiple-records-at-a-time)
relational language.
Note that based on these rules there is no fully relational database management
system available today. In particular rules 6, 9, 10, 11 and 12 are difficult to
satisfy.

Features of RDBMS

 In this model data should be stored in the form of tables

 A table can be defined as collection of rows & columns
 The horizontal lines are known as rows/ records / tuples
 The vertical lines are known as columns / fields / Attributes
 The intersection of rows & columns is known as cell
 A cell is a place where we can store our actual data
 The other name of table can be called as “Entity”
 It will provide high level security to database information
 Avoiding data redundancy problems
 Accessing the data from the table is not take much time
 When we define the column in the table user no need to follow any specific
order

ER Diagram (Entity & Relationship diagram):

This is the pictorial representation of Manual database. This concept was
developed by a US Scientist Mr.Chen

 Whenever we design ERD‟s the user has to follow the following symbols

 Rectangle box represent Entity

 Oval represent Attribute

 Diamond represents Relationship Name

 Arrow represent Connection

  Draw an ER-Diagram to represent the relationship between sales
representative & the customer

Mb no EID P-ID

Store
Products Warehouse
Sales s
Representative OrderId

Cost PName
Salary EName

Servi
ces
CID
MbNo

Customer Plac ORDER

es

Address CNAME Quantity

ordate

What is the Oracle database?

Oracle database is a relational database management system. It is also called OracleDB, or simply Oracle. It is
produced and marketed by Oracle Corporation. It was created in 1977 by Lawrence Ellison and other
engineers. It is one of the most popular relational database engines in the IT market for storing, organizing, and
retrieving data.

Editions of Oracle database

Oracle database is compatible with a wide range of platforms such as Windows, UNIX, Linux, and
macOS. It supports several operating systems like IBM AIX, HP-UX, Linux, Microsoft Windows Server,
Solaris, SunOS, macOS, etc. In the late 1990s, Oracle began supporting open platforms like GNU/Linux.
 The following is a list of Oracle database editions in order of priority:

o Enterprise Edition: It is the most robust and secure edition. It offers all features, including superior
performance and security.
o Standard Edition: It provides the base functionality for users that do not require Enterprise Edition's
robust package.
o Express Edition (XE): It is the lightweight, free and limited Windows, and Linux edition.
o Oracle Lite: It is designed for mobile devices.
o Personal Edition: It's comparable to the Enterprise Edition but without the Oracle Real Application
Clusters feature.

Oracle Data Types

Oracle String data types

CHAR(size) It is used to store character data within the predefined length. It can be stored up to 2000
bytes.

NCHAR(size) It is used to store national character data within the predefined length. It can be stored up
to 2000 bytes.

VARCHAR2(size) It is used to store variable string data within the predefined length. It can be stored up to
4000 byte.

VARCHAR(SIZE) It is the same as VARCHAR2(size). You can also use VARCHAR(size), but it is suggested to
use VARCHAR2(size)

NVARCHAR2(size It is used to store Unicode string data within the predefined length. We have to must
) specify the size of NVARCHAR2 data type. It can be stored up to 4000 bytes.
Oracle Numeric Data Types

NUMBER(p, s) It contains precision p and scale s. The precision p can range from 1 to 38, and the scale s
can range from -84 to 127.

FLOAT(p) It is a subtype of the NUMBER data type. The precision p can range from 1 to 126.

BINARY_FLOAT It is used for binary precision( 32-bit). It requires 5 bytes, including length byte.

BINARY_DOUBL It is used for double binary precision (64-bit). It requires 9 bytes, including length byte
E

Oracle Date and Time Data Types

DATE It is used to store a valid date-time format with a fixed length. Its range varies from January 1,
4712 BC to December 31, 9999 AD.

TIMESTAM It is used to store the valid date in YYYY-MM-DD with time hh:mm:ss format.
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 STRUCTURE QUERY LANGUAGE:
It is a non procedural language which is used to communicate with any database
such as Oracle, sqlserver etc.

 This Language was developed by the German Scientist Mr. E.F.Codd in

1968
 ANSI (American National Standard Institute) approved this concept and in
1972 sql was released into the market

Features of SQL:
 SQL is not a case sensitive language it means that all the commands of
Sql are not case sensitive
 Every command of sql should ends with a semicolon (;) (It is exemption
for SQL Server)
 SQL can be pronounced as Sequel (Structured English Query Language)
 SQL can be called as Common Language Interface, which is used to
communicate with any type of database
 SQL can be called as NLI (Natural Language Interface). It means that all
the SQL Commands are almost similar to normal English language
 Structured query language is mainly divided into 4 sub languages
1. DDL (Data Definition Language)
2. DML (Data Manipulation Language)
3. TCL (Transaction Control Language)
4. DCL(Data Control Language)

SQL

DDL (DR.CAT) DML (SUDI) TCL (CRS) DCL

DROP SELECT COMMIT GRANT

RENAME UPDATE ROLLBACK REVOKE
CREATE DELETE SAVE POINT
ALTER INSERT
TRUNCATE
 DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE
Data Definition Language: This is a 1st sub Language in SQL which is
used to define the database objects such as table, view etc.

 This language contains five commands

1. Create
2. Alter
3. Rename
4. Truncate
5. Drop

1. Create:
 This command is used to create the database objects within the database
Syntax: CREATE TABLE <TABLE NAME>
(COL 1 DATA TYPE (size),
COL2 DATA TYPE (size),
:
:
:
COLN DATA TYPE (size));
Ex: CREATE TABLE EMP (EID NUMBER, ENAME Varchar 2(15), SAL
NUMBER(6, 2));

Rules for Creating a Table:

 Table name must be unique under the database.
 Column names must be unique within the table.
 Never start table name with numeric or special characters
except underscore‟_‟.
 Do not use space in table name if we want give space in table name then
use underscore symbol only.
 Every object name should contain minimum one character and maximum
128 characters.
 The maximum no. of columns a table can have 1024 columns.
2. ALTER:

 This command is used to modify the structure of a table using

this command, we can perform four different operations
 Using this command we can increase (or) decrease the size of the data
type & also we can change the data type from old data type to new
data type
 We can add a new column to the existing table
 We can change the column name from old column name to
new column name
 We can remove the column from the existing table
 This command contains 3 sub commands
1. ALTER -MODIFY COLUMN
2. ALTER- ADD
3. ALTER- DROP

a. ALTER-ALTER COLUMN:

 Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME> MODIFY

<COLUMN NAME> DATA TYPE (SIZE)
 Ex: ALTER TABLE EMP ALTER COLUMN ENAME char (25);

b. ALTER-ADD:

 Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME> ADD <COLUMNNAME

>DATA TYPE(size);
 Ex: ALTER TABLE EMP ADD DEPTNO int;

c. ALTER-DROP:

 Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME> DROP COLUMN <COLUMN

NAME>;
 Ex: ALTER TABLE EMP DROP COLUMN SAL;
d. RENAME TABLE NAME

 Syntax:RENAME OLDNAME TO NEWNAME

 Ex: RENAME EMP TO EMP1

e.RENAME COLUMN NAMME

 This command is used to change the table name from old table name to
new table name
 Syntax: ALTER TABLE TANLENAME COLUMN OLDNAME TO NEWNAME
 Ex: ALTER TABLE EMP COLUMN SAL TO SALARY

3. TRUNCATE:

 This command is used for to delete all the records from existing
table permanently
 Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE <TABLE NAME>
 Ex: TRUNCATE TABLE EMP;

4. DROP:

 This command is used to remove the table permanently from the database
 Syntax: DROP TABLE <TABLE NAME>
 Ex: DROP TABLE EMP;

DECRIPTION OF TABLE:

 DESC TABLENAME

 DESC EMP
 DATA MANIPULATING LANGUAGE
Data Manipulating Language: This is the 2nd sub language in SQL,
which is used to manipulate the data within database. This Language contains 4
commands

1. Insert
2. Update
3. Delete
4. Select

1. INSERT:

 Using this command we can Insert the records into the existing table
 We can insert the records into the table in two methods
Explicit method
Implicit method

Explicit method:

 In this method user has to enter all the values into all the columns
without anything omitting (or) left any column data
 Syntax: INSERT INTO <TABLE NAME> VALUES <VAL1, VAL2,
….VALN>;
(OR)
INSERT <TABLE NAME> VALUES <VAL1, VAL2, .VALN>;
(Here “INTO” Keyword is optional)

 Ex1: INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (101,‟RAJ‟,9500);

 Ex2: INSERT EMP VALUES (101,‟RAJ‟,9500); 1
Row(s) affected
Implicit method:

 In this method we can enter the values into the required columns in the
table, so that user can omit (or) left some columns data while he enters the
records into the table
 If the user omit any column data in the table then it automatically
takes NULL
 Syntax: INSERT INTO <TABLE NAME> (COL1, COL2….COLN)
VALUES (VAL1, VAL2… VALN);
 Ex: INSERT INTO EMP (EID, SAL) VALUES (106,9999);

2. UPDATE:

 This command is used to modify the data in the existing table

 By using this command we can modify all the records in the table &
also specific records in the table (Using „where‟ clause)
 Syntax: UPDATE <TABLE NAME> SET COL=VALUE;
 Ex: UPDATE EMP SET SAL=10000;

Syntax change for more than one data simultaneously

 Syntax: UPDATE <TABLE NAME> SET COL1=VALUE,

COL2=VALUE………COLN=VALUE;
 Ex: UPDATE EMP SET EID=007,SAL=10000;

3. DELETE:

 This command is used to delete the records from existing table

 Using this command we can delete all the records and also to delete
specific record (by using „where‟ clause)
 Syntax: DELETE FROM <TABLE NAME>
 Ex: DELETE FROM EMP;
 Syntax: DELETE FROM <TABLE NAME> WHERE CONDITION
 Ex: DELETE FROM EMP WHERE ID=1
 Difference between TRUNCATE and DELETE Command:

SRNO TRUNCATE DELETE

01 It is a DDL command It is a DML command

02 It is a permanent deletion It is temporary deletion

03 Specific record deletion is not We can delete the specific record

possible

04 It doesn‟t support WHERE It supports WHERE clause

clause

05 We cannot Rollback the data We can Rollback the data

06 Truncate will reset the identity Delete will not reset the identity
Values value

4. SELECT:

 This command is used to retrieve the data from existing table.

 Using this command we can retrieve all the records & also specific
records from existing table (by using „where‟ clause)
 Using this command we can retrieve the data from the table in 3 ways
1. Projection
2. Selection
3. Joins
 Syntax: SELECT * FROM <TABLE NAME>
 Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP;
 * represents all columns
Projection:

 Retrieving the data from specific columns is known as Projection

 Syntax: SELECT COL1,COL2……..COLN FROM <TABLE NAME>
 Ex: SELECT EID,ENAME FROM EMP;

Selection:

 Retrieving the data based on some condition is called selection

 In SQL, whenever we need to check a condition, we need to use a
special clause called „where‟
 Syntax: SELECT * FROM <TABLENAME> WHERE (CONDITION);
 Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE EID=101;

WHERE CLAUSE:

 This clause is used to check the condition based on the condition, we

can retrieve, update, delete specific records in the table
 So we can apply the where clause only in select, update & delete

Select Command With Where clause:

 Syntax: SELECT * FROM <TABLE NAME> WHERE <CONDITION>

 Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE EID=102;

Update Command With Where clause:

 Syntax: UPDATE <TABLE NAME> SET <COLUMN NAME>=VALUE

WHERE (CONDITION);
 Ex: UPDATE EMP SET ENAME=”sai” WHERE EID=102;

Delete Command With Where clause:

 Syntax: DELETE FROM <TABLE NAME>WHERE <CONDITION>

 Ex: DELETE FROM EMP WHERE EID=102;
ALIAS:

 ALIAS is a duplicate name (or) alternate name for the original column
name (or) Table name (or) an expression name.

 Column level Alias:

 Syntax: SELECT COLUMN NAME AS “ALIAS
NAME”, COLUMN NAME AS “ALIAS
NAME”,
:
:
COLUMN NAME AS “ALIAS NAME” FROM <TABLE NAME>;
 EX: SELECT EID AS “EMPLOYEE ID”, ENAME AS
“EMPLOYEE NAME”, SAL AS “SALARY” FROM EMP;
 NOTE: In the above example the keyword „as‟ is optional
 EX: SELECT EID “EMPLOYEE ID”, ENAME “EMPLOYEE NAME”,
SAL “SALARY” FROM EMP;

 NOTE: In the above example quotations is also optional but there

should not be space between column name

 EX: SELECT EID EMPLOYEEID, ENAME EMPLOYEENAME, SAL

SALARY FROM EMP;
 Ex: SELECT EID EMPLOYEEID, ENAME EMPLOYEENAME, SAL
SALARY, SAL*12 ANNUALSALARY FROM EMP;
 EX: SELECT EID EMPLOYEEID, ENAME EMPLOYEENAME, SAL
SALARY FROM EMP WHERE ANNUALSALARY > 115000

 In the above example returns the runtime error message invalid column
name „annual salary‟ because we cannot check the conditions on Alias name
Built In Functions(System Functions) IN SQL: SQL server
provide number of built in functions like mathematical functions, character
functions, date and time functions, aggregative functions,convertion functions
etc.these can be used to perform certain operations and return a value.

Syntax: SELECT <Function Name> [Expressions]

Mathematical Functions: These functions perform a calculation based on

input values provided as arguments, and return a numeric value.

ABSOLUTE (): Returns the absolute, positive value of the given numeric expression.

Ex: select ABSOLUTE(-15) from dual 15

select ABSOLUTE(45) from dual 45

CEILING (): Returns the smallest integer greater than, or equal to, the given
numeric expression.
Ex: select ceil(15.000) from dual 15
select ceil(15.0001) from dual 16
select ceil(-12.34) from dual -----(-12)

FLOOR (): Returns the largest integer less than or equal to the given numeric
expression.

Ex:Select floor(20.5) from dual

SQUARE (): Returns the square of the given expression.

Ex: select SQUARE(5) from dual---25

SQRT (): Returns the square root of the given expression.

Ex: select Sqrt(25) from dual---5

POWER (n, m): Returns the power value of given expression

Ex: select POWER (2, 3) from dual ---8

SIN (): Returns the trigonometric sine of the given angle (in radians) in an
approximate numeric expression.

Ex: select SIN (0) from dual-- 0

COS (): A mathematic function that returns the trigonometric cosine of the given
angle (in radians) in the given expression.

Ex: select COS (0) from dual--1

TAN (): Returns the tangent of the input expression.

Ex: select TAN (0) from dual---- 0

String Functions: These functions perform an operation on a string input value

and return a string or numeric value.

RIGHT (): Returns the right part of a character string with the specified number of
characters.

Ex: Select RIGHT („SUDHAKAR‟, 3) ------KAR

LENGTH (): Returns the number of characters, rather than the number of bytes,
of the given string expression.

Ex: Select LENGTH (‘WELCOME’) FROM DUAL-- 7

LOWER (): Returns a character expression after converting uppercase character

data to lowercase.

Ex: Select LOWER (‘SAI’) FROM DUAL--------sai

UPPER (): Returns a character expression with lowercase character data converted
to uppercase.

Ex: Select UPPER (‘SAI’) FROM DUAL------SAI

LTRIM (): Returns a character expression after removing leading blanks.

Ex: Select LTRIM (‘HELLO’) FROM DUAL --------HELLO

RTRIM (): Returns a character string after truncating all trailing blanks.

Ex: Select RTRIM (‘HELLO’) FROM DUAL -------HELLO

REVERSE (): Returns the reverse of a character expression.

Ex: Select REVERSE (‘HELLO’) FROM DUAL --------OLLEH

SUBSTRING (expression, start, length): Returns a part of a string from

expression from starting position, where length is no. of chars to be picked.

Ex: Select SUBSTRING (‘HELLO’, 1, 3) FROM DUAL ----------- HEL

Select SUBSTRING (‘HELLO’ 3, 3) FROM DUAL----------- LLO

Aggregate functions/Group functions: Aggregate functions perform
a calculation on a set of values and return a single value. Aggregate functions are
often used with the GROUP BY clause of the SELECT statement.

SUM (): Returns the sum of all the values .Sum can be used with numeric columns
only. Null values are ignored.

Ex: SELECT SUM (SALARY) FROM EMP

AVG (): Returns the average of the values in a group. Null values are ignored.

Ex: SELECT AVG (SALARY) FROM EMP

MAX (): Returns the maximum value in the expression.

Ex: SELECT MAX (SALARY) FROM EMP

MIN (): Returns the minimum value in the expression.

Ex: SELECT MIN (SALARY) FROM EMP

COUNT (): Returns the number of records in a table. This function again use in
three ways.

1. COUNT (*): It Returns total number of records in a table

Ex: SELECT COUNT (*) FROM EMP
2. COUNT (Expression/Column name): It returns number of records
including duplicate values but not null vales.
Ex: SELECT COUNT (ENAME) FROM EMP
3. COUNT (Distinct Column name): It returns number of records without
null and duplicate values.
Ex: SELECT COUNT (Distinct ENAME) FROM EMP

Distinct Key: If we use this key word on a column with in a query then it will
retrieve the values of the column without duplicates.
OPERATORS IN SQL: Operator is a symbol which performs some
specific operation on operands or expressions. These operators are classified into 6
types in SQL.

1. Assignment operator
2. Arithmetic operator
3. Comparison operator
4. Logical operator
5. Set operator

Assignment operator: Assignment operator contain only one operator is

knows as equal „=‟ operator.

Ex1: Write a Query to display the employee details whose salary is equal to10000

 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL=10000

Ex2: Write a query to change the deptno as „10‟whose employee id is 101

 UPDATE EMP SET DEPTNO=10 WHERE EID=101

Ex3: Write a query to delete a record whose employee id is 107

 DELETE FROM EMP WHERE EID=107

Arithmetic operator: Arithmetic operators perform mathematical

operations on two expressions. The lists of arithmetic operators are + (Add), -
Subtraction,* Multiplication. / (Divide) Division and % (Modulo) Returns the
integer remainder of a division. For example, 12 % 5 = 2 because the remainder of
12 divided by 5 is 2.

Ex1: Select 100+250 from dual

Ex2: WAQ to find student TOTAL, AVERAGE AND CLASS OF a table

Step1: Create table student (Sid int, sname varchar (50), math‟s int, phy int, che
int, total int, average int, class varchar (max))

Step2: Update student set total=maths+phy+che

Step3: Update student set average=total/3

Step4: Update student set class=

Case

When average>=60 then 'First class'

When average>=50 then 'second class'

When average>=40 then 'third class'

Else

'Fail'

End

CASE (): This function is used to execute list of conditions and returns a value.

Syntax: Case

<Condition 1>-----------<Condition N>

Else

<Statement>

End
Comparison operators: Comparison operators test whether two
expressions are the same. Comparison operators can be used on all expressions
except expressions of the text, ntext, or image data types. The following table lists
the Transact-SQL comparison operators are > (Greater Than),< (Less Than)
,>= (Greater Than or Equal To) ,<= (Less Than or Equal To) ,!= (Not Equal
To),!< (Not Less Than),!> (Not Greater Than)

Examples:

 Select ename from EMP where salary<50000

 Update EMP set salary=1000 where salary>90000
 Update EMP set ename='joshitha' where salary<=25000
 Update EMP set salary=98000 where salary>=1000
 Select ename from Emp where salary !>98000
 Select ename from Emp where salary !<98000
 Select ename from Emp where salary !=98000

Logical operator: Logical operators test for the truth of some condition.
Logical operators, like comparison operators, return a Boolean data type with a
value of TRUE or FALSE. Logical operators are AND , OR , NOT, BETWEEN,
NOT BETWEEN, LIKE, NOT LIKE, IN, NOT IN, EXISTS,NOT EXISTS, ANY,
ALL, SOME.

Examples:

 Select * from EMP where ename='siddhu' and salary=45000

 Select * from EMP where ename='joshitha' or salary=98000
 Select * from EMP where not ename='joshitha'
 Select * from EMP where salary between 10000 and 50000
 Update EMP set ename='SAI' where eid=101 and salary=25000

Queries Using ‘Select’ with ‘where’ clause:

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose salary is less

than 10000
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL<10000
  Write a Query to display the employee details whose salary is greater than
or equal to 9000 and less than 15000
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL>=9000 AND SAL<=15000
(OR)
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL BETWEEN 9000 AND 15000
 Write a Query to display the employee details whose salary is not
between 9000 and 15000
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL NOT BETWEEN 9000 AND15000

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose name starts with „r‟
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE „r%‟

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose name ends with „y‟
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE „%Y‟

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose name contains

the letter „a‟
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE „%A%‟

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose names contains

only three letters
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE „---„

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose names contain „r‟
and salary greater than 9000
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE „%R%‟ AND SAL>9000

 Write a Query to display the employee details whose greater than ram
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME>‟RAM‟
 Write a Query to display the employee details whose employee id starts
with 1 and ends with 1
 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE EID LIKE „1%1‟

(SQL commands are not case sensitive and also data available in SQL also not case
sensitive, in oracle Data available is case sensitive)
Queries using ‘Update’ with ‘where’ clause:

 Write a query to change the deptno as „10‟whose employee id is 101, 103,

107
 UPDATE EMPSET DEPTNO=10 WHERE EID=101 OR EID=103 OR
EID=107

 Write a query to change the deptno as 20 who does not have deptno
 UPDATE EMPSET DEPTNO=20 WHERE DEPTNO IS NULL

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 12000 who are

working under 10 dept and their names starts with „r‟
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=12000 WHERE DEPTNO=10 AND ENAME
LIKE „R%‟

 Write a query to change the deptno as 30 whose second letter is „a‟

 UPDATE EMPSET DEPTNO=30 WHERE ENAME=‟-A%‟

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 8500 who are working
under 10 and 20 deptno
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=8500 WHERE DEPTNO=10 OR DEPTNO=20
(OR)
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=8500 WHERE DEPTNO IN(10,20)

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 8500 who are not working
under 10 and 20 deptno
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=8500 WHERE DEPTNO NOT IN (10,20)

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 15000 and names

ends with „m‟ & working under 10 deptno
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=15000 WHERE ENAME=‟%M‟ AND
DEPTNO=10

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 5500 whose employee

id ends with 4 and deptno starts with 2
  UPDATE EMPSET SAL=5500 WHERE EID LIKE „%4‟ AND DEPTNO
LIKE „2%‟

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 25000 whose salary

less than 10000 and the name contains letter „a‟ and working under dept
20
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=25000 WHERE SAL<10000 AND ENAME
LIKE „%A%‟ AND DEPTNO IN (20)

 Write a query to change the employee salaries as 10000 whose salary

is greater than or equal to 8500 and less than or equal to 9000
 UPDATE EMPSET SAL=10000 WHERE SAL BETWEEN 8500 AND
9000

Set Operators: Set operators combine results from two or more queries into a
single result set. SQL Server provides the following set operators.

 UNION
 UNION ALL
 INTERSECT
 MINUS

To combine the results of two queries we need to follow the below basic rules.

 The number and the order of the columns must be the same in all queries.
 The data types must be compatible(Well-Matched)

Example:

CREATE TABLE EMP_HYD (EID INT, ENAME VARCHAR (50), SALARY

MONEY)

CREATE TABLE EMP_CHENNAI (EID INT, ENAME VARCHAR (50))

EMP_HYD

EID ENAME SALARY

101 SAI 25000.00

102 SIDDHU 32000.00

103 KAMAL 42000.00

104 NEETHU 63000.00

------------------------------------------------

EMP_CHENNAI

EID ENAME

101 SAI

105 POOJA

106 JASMIN

UNION: it combines the result of two or more select statements into a single result
set that includes all the records belongs to all queries except duplicate values.

Ex: Select Ename from EMP_HYD

Union

Select Ename from EMP_CHENNAI

OUTPUT: ENAME
JASMIN

KAMAL

NEETHU

POOJA

SAI

SIDDHU
UNION ALL: it is same as union but returns duplicate values

Ex: Select Ename from EMP_HYD

Union ALL

Select Ename from EMP_CHENNAI

OUTPUT: ENAME

SAI

SIDDHU

KAMAL

NEETHU

SAI

POOJA

JASMIN

INTERSECT: INTERSECT returns any distinct values that are common in left
and right tables.

Ex: Select Ename from EMP_HYD

Intersect

Select Ename from EMP_CHENNAI

OUTPUT: ENAME

SAI
MINUS: MINUS returns any distinct values from the left query that are not
found on the right query.

Ex: Select Ename from EMP_HYD

Minus

Select Ename from EMP_CHENNAI

OUTPUT: ENAME

KAMAL

NEETHU

SIDDHU

Ex: Select Ename from EMP_CHENNAI

Except

Select Ename from EMP_HYD

OUTPUT: ENAME

JASMIN

POOJA

CLAUSES IN SQL: We can add these to a query for adding additional

options like filtering the records, sorting records and grouping the records with in a
table. These clauses contains the following clauses are,

WHERE: This clause is used for filter or restricts the records from the table.
Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL=10000

ORDER BY: The order by clause is used to sort or arrange the data in
ascending or descending order with in table. By default order by
clause arrange or sort the data in ascending order only.
  If we want to arrange the records in a descending order then
we use Desc keyword.
 We can apply order by clause on integer and string columns.
Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY EID (For Ascending Order)

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY ENAME DESC (For Descending Order)

TOP N CLAUSE: This clause is used to fetch a top n number of records from a
table.

Ex: SELECT TOP 3 * FROM EMP

Ex: UPDATE TOP 3 EMP SET ENAME=‟SAI‟

Ex: DELETE TOP 3 FROM EMP

GROUP BY: Group by clause will use for to arrange similar data into groups.
when we apply group by clause in the query then we use group functions like
count(),sum(),max(),min(),avg().

If we use group by clause in the query, first the data in the table will be divided
into different groups based on the columns and then execute the group function on
each group to get the result.

Ex1: WAQ to find out the number of employees working in the organization

Sol: SELECT COUNT (*) FROM EMP

Ex2: WAQ to find out the number of employees working in each group in the
organization.

Sol: SELECT DEPT, COUNT=COUNT (*) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPT

Ex3: WAQ to find out the total salary of each department in the organization

Sol: SELECT DEPT, TOTALSALARY=SUM (SALARY) FROM EMP GROUP

BY DEPT (Like this we can find max, min, avg salary in the organization)
HAVING CLAUSE: Having clause is also used for filtering and restricting the
records in a table just like where clause.

Ex: WAQ to find out the number of employees in each department only if the
count is greater than 3

Sol: SELECT DEPT, COUNT=COUNT (*) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPT

HAVING COUNT (*) >3

Differences Between WHERE and HAVING Clause:

WHERE HAVING
WHERE clause is used to filter and HAVING clause is used to filter and
restrict the records before grouping restrict the records after grouping
If restriction column associated with But we can use HAVING clause at this
A aggregative function then we cannot situations
use WHERE clause there
WHERE clause can apply without group HAVING clause cannot be applied
by clause without a group by clause
WHERE clause can be used for Where as HAVING clause is used along
restricting individual rows with group by clause to filter or restrict
groups

SYNONYM: synonym is database object which can be created as an “alias”

for any object like table, view, procedure etc.

 If we apply any DML operations on synonym the same

operations automatically effected to corresponding base table and
vice versa.
 If we create a synonym, the synonym will be created on entire table. It is
not possible to create the synonym on partial table.
 When we create synonym based on another the new synonym does not allow
us to perform any DML operations because Synonym chaining is not
allowed.
 Synonym will become invalid into two cases,
1. When we drop the base table
2. When we change the base table name
  On invalid synonym we cannot apply any DML operations and we
cannot create synonym based on more than one table at a time.
 When we change the structure of the base table the corresponding
synonym automatically reflected with same changes.
 But, if we change the structure of the synonym that is not reflected to
the base table because we cannot change the structure of the synonym.

Syntax: Create synonym <synonym name> for <object name>

Ex: Create synonym synemp for employee
Syntax to drop a synonym: Drop synonym <synonym name>
Ex: Drop synonym synemp

Syntax to Creating a table from an existing table:

we can create a table from an existing table and maintain a copy of the actual table
before manipulating the table.

Syntax: Select * into <New Table Name> from <Old Table Name>

Ex1: Select * into New_Emp from Employee

In this case it creates a table New_Emp by copying all the rows and columns of the
Employee table.

Ex2: Select EID, ENAME into Test_Emp from Employee

In this case it creates a table Test_Emp with only the specified columns from the
employee table.

Ex3: Select * into Dummy_Emp from employee where 1=2

In this case it creates the Dummy table without any data in it.
Copying data from one existing table to another table:
We can copy the data from one table to another table by using a combination of
insert and select statement as following

Syntax: Insert into <Dummy Table name> select * from <Table Name>

Ex: Insert into Dummy_Emp select * from Employee

Constraint in SQL
Why Constraint in SQL: Constraint is using to restrict the insertion of
unwanted data in any columns. We can create constraints on single or multiple
columns of any table. It maintains the data integrity i.e. accurate data or original
data of the table. Data integrity rules fall into three categories:

 Entity integrity
 Referential integrity
 Domain integrity

Entity Integrity: Entity integrity ensures each row in a table is a uniquely

identifiable entity. You can apply entity integrity to a table by specifying a
PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE KEY constraint.

Referential Integrity: Referential integrity ensures the relationships

between tables remain preserved as data is inserted, deleted, and modified. You
can apply referential integrity using a FOREIGN KEY constraint.

Domain Integrity: Domain integrity ensures the data values inside a database
follow defined rules for values, range, and format. A database can enforce these
rules using CHECK KEY constraints.

Types of constraints in SQL Server:-

1. Unique Key constraint.
2. Not Null constraint.
3. Check constraint
4. Primary key constraint.
5. Foreign Key constraint.
1. Unique Key:- Unique key constraint is use to make sure that there is no
duplicate value in that column. Both unique key and primary key both enforces
the uniqueness of column but there is one difference between them unique key
constraint allow null value but primary key does not allow null value.

In a table we create one primary key but we can create more than one unique key
in Sql Server.

Ex: create table EMP(EID int unique,ENAME

varchar(50) unique,SALARY money);

2. Not null constraint: - Not null constraint is used to restrict the insertion of
null value at that column but allow duplicate values.

Ex: create table EMP(EID int not null,ENAME

varchar(50) not null,SALARY money);

3. Check Constraint: - This constraint is using to check value at the time of

insertion like as salary of any employee is always greater than zero. So we
can create a check constraint on employee table which is greater than zero.

Ex: create table emp4(eno int,ename

varchar(50),age int check (age between 20 and
30))

4. Primary Key:- Primary key is a combination of unique and not null which
does not allow duplicate as well as null values into a column. In a table we create
one primary key only.

Ex:create table emp(EID int primary key,ENAME

varchar(50),SALARY money)
5. Foreign Key: - One of the most important concepts in database is creating
relationships between database tables. These relationships provide a mechanism
for linking data stored in multiple tables and retrieving it in an efficient manner.

In order to create a link between two tables we must specify a foreign key in one
table that references a column in another table.

Foreign key constraint is used for relating or binding two tables with each other
and then verifies the existence of one table data in the other.

To impose a foreign key constraint we require the following things.

We require two tables for binding with each other and those two tables must have a
common column for linking the tables.

Example:

To create Department Table (PARENT TABLE):-

create table Department(Deptno int primary key,DNAME

varchar(50),LOCATION varchar(max))

Insert Records Into Department Table:

insert into Department values(10,'Sales','Chennai')

insert into Department values(20,'Production','Mumbai')
insert into Department values(30,'Finance','Delhi')
insert into Department values(40,'Research','Hyderabad')

To create Employee Table(CHILD TABLE):-

create table Employee(EID int,ENAME varchar(50),SALARY money,Deptno int

foreign key references Department(Deptno))

Insert Records Into Employee Table:

insert into Employee values(101,'Sai',35000,10)

insert into Employee values(102,'Pavan',45000,20)
insert into Employee values(103,'Kamal',74000,30)
insert into Employee values(104,'Ravi',58000,40)
The below records are not allowed in to employee table:

insert into Employee values(105,'Kamal',74000,50)

insert into Employee values(106,'Ravi',58000,60)

When we impose the foreign key constraint and establish relation between the
table,the followiong three rules will come into picture.

Rule1:- Cannot insert a value into the foreign key column provided that value is
not existing under the refernce key column of the parent table.

Rule2:- Cannot update the reference key value of a parent table provided that
value has corresponding child record in the child table with out addressing what
to do with the child record.

Rule3:- Cannot delete a record from the parent table provided that records
reference key value has child record in the child table with out addressing what to
do with the child record.

If we want to delete or update a record in the parent table when they have
corresponding child records in the child table we are provide with a set of rules to
perform delete and update operations knows as cascade rules.

On delete cascade:- It is used to delete a key value in the parent table which is
referenced by foreign key in other table all rows that contains those foreign keys in
child table are also deleted.
Making a Relationship between Three Tables
CASE-1:

Create table CUSTOMER (CID Int primary key, CNAME Varchar (20),
MAILID Varchar (40))

Insert customer values (1,'a','[email protected]'), (2,'b','[email protected]'),

(3,'c','[email protected]')

CASE-2

Create table PRODUCTS (PCODE Int primary key, PNAME varchar (50),
PRICE money)

Insert products values (10,'C', 500), (20,'C++’, 1000), (30,'.NET’, 35000),

(40,’SQL’, 1800)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------

CASE-3

Create table ORDERS (ORID Int primary key, ORDATE date, QUANTITY
int,CID Int foreign key references CUSTOMER(cid) on delete cascade,
PCODE Int foreign key references PRODUCTS(pcode) on update cascade
on delete cascade)

Insert into ORDERS values (101,’2014/10/15’, 3, 2, 10) //ALLOWED

Insert into ORDERS values (102,’2014/10/25’, 3, 4, 50) //NOTALLOWED

----------------------------------------------------------

Update CUSTOMER set cid=100 where cid=1

Delete from CUSTOMER where cid=100

Update PRODUCTS set orid=21 where orid=20

Delete from PRODUCTS where orid=30

Adding Constraint on an Existing Table:

  Adding Primary Key on an existing table:
Ex: CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (EID INT, ENAME VARCHAR (50), SALARY MONEY)

 Adding Unique Key on an existing table:

Ex: ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE ADD CONSTRAINT X UNIQUE (ENAME)

 Adding Check Key on an existing table:

Ex: ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE ADD CONSTRAINT X CHECK (SALARY>8000)
  Adding Foreign Key on an existing table:
Ex: ALTER TABLE DEPT ADD CONSTRAINT Y FOREIGN KEY (EID) REFERENCES
EMPLOYEE (EID) ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE CASCADE

 Dropping Constraint from an existing table:

Ex: ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE DROP CONSTRAINT X

JOINS IN SQL: Joins are used for retrieving the data from more than one
table at a time. Joins can be classified into the following types.
 INNER JOIN OR EQUI JOIN
 OUTER JOIN
 LEFT OUTER JOIN
 RIGHT OUTER JOIN
 FULL OUTER JOIN
 SELF JOIN
 CROSS JOIN

EQUI JOIN: If two or more tables are combined using equality condition then
we call as an Equi join.

Ex: WAQ to get the matching records from EMP and DEPT tables

Sol: SELECT * FROM EMP, DEPT WHERE (EMP.EID=DEPT.DNO) (NON-

ANSI STANDARD)

Sol: SELECT E.EID, E.ENAME, E.SALARY, D.DNO, D.DNAME FROM EMP

E, DEPT D WHERE E.EID=D.DNO (NON-ANSI STANDARD)

INNER JOIN: Inner join return only those records that match in both table

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP E INNER JOIN DEPT D ON E.EID=D.DNO (ANSI)

OUTTER JOIN: It is an extension for the Equi join. In Equi join condition we
will be getting the matching data from the tables only. So we loss UN
matching data from the tables.

To overcome the above problem we use outer join which are used to getting
matching data as well as UN matching data from the tables. This outer join again
classified into three types

LEFT OUTER JOIN: It will retrieve or get matching data from both table as well
as UN matching data from left hand side table

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP LEFT OUTER JOIN DEPT ON

EMP.EID=DEPT.DNO;

RIGHT OUTER JOIN: It will retrieve or get matching data from both table as
well as UN matching data from right hand side table

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP RIGHT OUTER JOIN DEPT ON

EMP.EID=DEPT.DNO;

FULL OUTER JOIN: It will retrieve or get matching data from both table as well
as UN matching data from left hand side table plus right hand side table also.

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP FULL OUTER JOIN DEPT ON

EMP.EID=DEPT.DNO;

SELF JOIN: Joining a table by itself is known as self join. When we have some
relation between the columns within the same table then we use self join.

When we implement self join we should use alias names for a table and a table
contains any no. of alias names.
Ex: SELECT E.EID, E.ENAME, E.SALARY, M.MID, M.ENAME
MANAGERSNAME, M.SALARY FROM EMP E, EMP M WHERE
E.EID=M.MID.

CROSS JOIN: Cross join is used to join more than two tables without any
condition we call as a cross join. In cross join each row of the first table join with
each row of the second table.

So, if the first table contain „m‟ rows and second table contain „n‟ rows then output
will be „m*n‟ rows.

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP, DEPT

Ex: SELECT * FROM EMP CROSS JOIN DEPT

Making To Joins Three Tables:

CREATE TABLE STUDENTS (SID Int, SNAME varchar (20), SMBNO char (10), CID
Int)

INSERT STUDENT VALUES (1,'aa',’7894561233’, 10), (2,'bb',’9874563211’,

20), (3,'cc',’8749653215’, 30), (4,’dd’,’7788996655’, 40)

CREATE TABLE COURSES (CID int, CNAME Varchar (20), CFEE decimal (6, 2))

INSERT COURSES VALUES (10,'c', 500), (20,'c++', 1000), (50,'sql', 1800),

(60,’.net’, 3500), (70,’sap’, 8000)

CREATE TABLE REGISTER (SNO int, REGDATE date, CID Int)

INSERT REGISTER VALUES (100,’2014/10/20’, 10), (101,’2014/10/21’,

80), (102,’2014/10/22’, 90)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Select * from course c inner join student s on c.cid=s.cid inner join register r on
s.cid=r.cid

Select * from student s left outer join course c on s.cid=c.cid left outer join
register r on c.cid=r.cid

Sub Query: A select query contains another select query is called sub Query.
In this, there will be two queries those are called as inner query and outer query.
When it is executed, first inner query is executed later outer query will be executed

Syntax: select * from <Table Name> where (condition) (select *

from…….. (Select * from….. (select * from……..)));

Types of Sub Queries: We have two types of sub queries

Nested Sub queries: In a sub query, Outer query depends on result of
inner query is called as Nested sub query.

Examples:
1) WAQ to find the details of employee who is earning the highest salary.

Sol: select * from employee where Salary=(select MAX(salary) from

employee)//subquery
 2) WAQ to find the details of employee who is earning second highest salary.

Sol: select * from employee where Salary=(select MAX(salary)from employee

where Salary<(select MAX(salary) from employee)) //multiple sub query

3) WAQ to find the details of employee who is earning third highest salary.

Sol: select * from employee where Salary=(select MAX(salary)from employee

where Salary<(select MAX(salary) from employee where Salary <(select
MAX(salary) from employee))) //nested subquery

4) WAQ to display employee details who are working in .NET department.

Sol: select * from employee where EID IN (select EID FROM employee where
DNAME='.NET')

5) WAQ to display employee details who are working in JAVA or

HR department.

Sol: select * from employee where EID IN (select EID FROM employee where
DNAME='.NET' OR DNAME='HR')

Co-Related Sub queries: In a sub query, inner query depends on

result of outer query is called as Co-Related sub query.

Outer query will execute first and value of the outer query will be used
by co- related sub query i.e. inner query.

When outer query is executed then the copy of the table will be stored in
memory, later co related sub query will check the values and will give Ranks
to the outer query rows in the memory ,according to the ranks the result
will be displayed.

Note: - To find Top n salaries list use “n>”.To find nth highest salary use “n-1”.

Syntax: SELECT * FROM Employee Emp1 WHERE (N-1) = or N> (

SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT (Emp2.Salary)) FROM Employee Emp2WHERE Emp2.Salary >
Emp1.Salary)
Disadvantage: Sub query execution will be fast and co related sub
query execution is slow because it will check every row of inner query with
every row of the outer query.

Examples:
6) WAQ to display top 2 salaries list from employee table.

Sol: Select * from employee E where 2>(select count(salary) from employee M

where M.salary>E.salary)

(Or)

Sol: Select * from employee E where 2>(select count(Distinct salary) from

employee M where M.salary>E.salary)

Note: - Here Distinct Key will be used when the table contain duplicate values.

7) WAQ to display least 2 salaries list from employee table.

Sol: Select * from employee E where 2>(select count(salary) from employee M

where M.salary<E.salary)

(Or)

Sol: Select * from employee E where 2>(select count(Distinct salary) from

employee M where M.salary<E.salary)

8) WAQ to display “N th” salary from employee table.

Sol: Select * from employee E where 0=(select count( salary) from employee
M where M.salary>E.salary)

Note: When condition is M.salary>E.salary / M.salary<E.salary

then N=0 then first highest salary / first least salary

N=1 then second highest salary/second least

salary N=2 then third highest salary / third

least salary
 9) WAQ to get the details of the department in which employee are working.

Select * from department D Exists (select * from employee E where

E.deptno=D.deptno)

10) WAQ to get the details of the department in which employee are
not working.

Select * from department D not Exists (select * from employee E where

E.deptno=D.deptno)

Syntax to Find Any Position Record From A table

SELECT * FROM(SELECT * ,ROW_NUMBER() OVER (ORDER BY

empid) AS RowNum FROM Employee) employee WHERE RowNum
=15

Syntax to Delete Duplicate Records from a table contains more than two same
duplicate values:

SID SNAME FEE Rownum

10 Sai 12000 1
20 Siddhu 45000 1
30 Meena 65000 1
30 Meena 65000 2
30 Meena 65000 3
30 Meena 65000 4
30 Meena 65000 5

with duplicates as
(select * ,ROW_NUMBER() over(partition by sid,sname, fee order by
sid,sname,fee) rownum from student)
delete from duplicates where rownum > 1

select the complete above query and execute then we delete all duplicate records
which are greater than 1 i.e.output is like below
SID SNAME FEE Rownum
10 Sai 12000 1
20 Siddhu 45000 1
30 Meena 65000 1

VIEWS IN SQL: View is database object which is like table but logical.
We can call it as a logical or virtual table because it does not has a physical
existence.

 It is a logical table use to get the required information from the table.
View will be created by using select statement and table used for the
creation of the view is called as base table.
 View will not store records in it and will not occupy memory space
with help of structure existing in it and records will be displayed from
table.
  View is logical representation or virtual representation .it is a dependent
where as table an independent is because view is extracted from the
table.
 If we want to access the data from the table it‟s not necessary to change the
data direct to the table but we can access by having a view.
 Views are used for security purpose in databases, views restricts the user
from viewing certain column and rows means by using view we can
apply the restriction on accessing the particular rows and columns for
specific user.
 Views display only those data which are mentioned in the query, so it
shows only data which is returned by the query that is defined at the time of
creation of the View.
Why We Need Views: To protect the data. If you have a table
containing sensitive data in certain columns, you might wish to hide those
columns from certain groups of users. For instance, customer names, addresses
and their social security numbers might all be stored in the same table;
however, for lower level employees like shipping clerks, you can create a view
that only displays customer name and address. You can grant permissions to a
view without allowing users to query the original tables.
 A view is a logical table but what it stores internally is a select statement
that is used for creating the view. So that whenever a user performs any
operation on the view like select, insert, update or delete internally the view
performs those operations on a table.
 Simply we can say that view will act as an interface between the
data provider (Table) and the User.

View is created based on a table any changes that are performed on the table
reflects into the view any changes performed on the view reflect into the table also.
View is classified into two types. These are

 Simple view(Updatable view)

 Complex view(Non-Updatable view)

Simple view: we create a view based on one table is called simple view or
Updatable view.

Complex view: we create a view based on more than one table is called complex
view or Non-Updatable view.
 Syntax: create view <view name> as select * from <table name>
Ex1: create view simpleview as select * from emp;

Ex2: CREATE VIEW COMPLEXVIEW AS SELECT

E.EID,E.ENAME,D.DNO,D.DNAME FROM EMP E INNER JOIN DEPT
D ON E.DEPTNO=D.DEPTNO
As

Begin

<Function Body>

Return <return attribute name>

End

DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE:

Authentication: Authentication is a process of verifying the credentials of a

user to login into the system.

Authorization: Authorization is process of verifying whether the user as

permissions to perform any operation on the database.
Data Control Language:

DCL commands are used to enforce database security in multiple users’ database
environment.

These are two types….

1. GRANT
2. REVOKE

GRANT: Grant command is used for giving a privilege or permission for a user to perform
operations on the database.

Syntax: GRANT <Privilege Name> on <object name> To {User} [With GRANT OPTION]

Privilege Name: Used to granted permission to the users for some rights are ALL, EXECUTE
and SELECT.

Object Name: It is the name of database objects like Table, Views and Stored Procedure
etc….
User: Used for to whom an access rights is being granted.
With Grant Option: Allows a user to grant access rights to other users.
REVOKE: Revoke command removes user access rights / privileges to the
database OR taking back the permission that is given to a user.

Syntax: Revoke <privilege name> on <object name > from {user}