CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

OUTLINE

1.1 BACKGROUND
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
1.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY OF PAVEMENTS
1.4 PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE & DISTRESSES
1.5 PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS
1.6 DESIGN FACTORS
1.1 BACKGROUND
• A highway pavement is a structure consisting of layers of natural and
processed materials above the natural ground (often called Subgrade or Road
Bed).
• A pavement’s primary function is to distribute the vehicle loads from the top of
the pavement to a larger area of the subgrade without causing any damage to
the subgrade.
• The pavement structure should be able to provide an acceptable riding quality,
satisfactory skid resistance, favorable light-reflecting characteristics, and low
noise.
• The aim is to ensure that the transmitted wheel loads are sufficiently reduced,
so that they do not exceed the capacity of all the layers of pavement including
the subgrade.
1.1 BACKGROUND
A pavement is expected to meet the following requirements:
• Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel-induced stresses to a reduced value on the subgrade soil.
• Structurally adequate to keep the cracking and deformation within tolerable limits.
• Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it.
• Drains water laterally or vertically without washing layer particles.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
• Two types of pavements are generally recognized: Flexible Pavements and
Rigid Pavements, as shown in Figure 1.1.
• A combination of these two pavements is also possible, and is termed
Composite Pavement as shown in Figure 1.1.a.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES

Figure 1.1.a Composite Pavement

1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
1.2.1 Flexible Pavements
• Flexible pavements are usually surfaced with Asphalt Materials. These pavements are
called flexible because the pavement structures can flex or bend under a traffic
loading.

• A flexible pavement structure requires several layers of materials because these layers
are not stiff enough to distribute the wheel load to a large area (Figure 1.2).

• Beneath the asphalt layer, a crushed aggregate base layer is commonly seen. Below
the base layer, a subbase layer is also used based on the subgrade strength.

• The natural subgrade soil can be improved by compaction or mixing of some

improved soil, asphalt millings, low-quality aggregate based on the availability of
these materials, and degree of improvement required.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES (FLEXIBLE AC)
Flexible
Conventional Full Depth

Tack Coat
Prime Coat Wearing Course (1”-3”)
Asphalt Wearing Course
Binder Course (2”-4”)
Asphalt Binder/Base Course
Crushed Aggregate Base - CAB Base Course (4”-12”)

Gravel or Lower Quality of Subbase Course (4”-12”) Prepared Subgrade

Crushed Aggregate
Compacted Subgrade ( 6”)
Natural Subgrade
Natural Subgrade
 1.2 Pavement Types (Flexible AC)
Full-Depth Asphalt
 1.2 Pavement Types (Flexible AC)
Tack Coat
– Asphalt emulsion diluted with water
– Bond between surface being paved & overlying course
– Very thin & uniformly cover entire surface
 1.2 Pavement Types (Flexible AC)
Prime Coat
– Low-viscosity cutback asphalt applied to an absorbent surface to bond unbound
Granular layers with asphaltic layers.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
1.2.1 Flexible Pavements

Flexible Pavement: Load transfer in

granular structure
Flexible pavements transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the
by grain-to-grain transfer through the points of contact in the wheel load stresses to a wider area below.
granular structure.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
1.2.2 Rigid Pavements
• Rigid pavements are composed of reinforced or non-reinforced Portland cement concrete (PCC)
surface course.

• Such pavements are stiffer than flexible pavements due to the high modulus of elasticity
[typically 3000–4000 Ksi (21–28 GPa) for PCC and 500–1000 Ksi (3.4–6.9 GPa) for asphalt layer]
of the PCC material.

• These pavements can have reinforcing steel to reduce thermal cracking or eliminate joints.

• The concrete slab itself supplies most of a rigid pavement’s structural capacity.
 1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
• Pavement structure deflects very little under loading.
• High PCC Modulus of Elasticity.
• Rigid pavement structure is typically composed of:
– PCC surface course built on top of either:
(1) the subgrade or (2) an underlying base course.
The rigid pavement structure distributes loads over a wide area with only one, or at
most two, structural layers.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
1.2.2 Rigid Pavements
• Compared to flexible pavements, rigid pavements are placed either directly over the prepared subgrade or over a single
layer of granular or stabilized material called base course.

• In rigid pavements, the load is distributed by the slab action, in which the pavement behaves like an elastic plate resting
on an elastic medium.

• Rigid pavements should be analyzed by the “plate theory” instead of the “layer theory”, assuming an elastic plate
resting on an elastic foundation.

• The “plate theory” assumes the concrete slab as a medium thick plate that is plane before loading and remains plane
after loading.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
1.2.2 Rigid Pavements
Rigid pavements can be classified into four
types:

1. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement

(JPCP)
2. Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
(JRCP)
3. Continuously Reinforced Concrete
Pavement (CRCP)
4. Prestressed Concrete Pavement (PCP)
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
1.2.2.1 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
• Jointed plain concrete pavement (Figure 1.3) uses plain concrete slabs without any reinforcement and it has
transverse and longitudinal joints between slabs.

• Dowel Bars are typically used at transverse joints to assist in load transfer.

• Transverse Joint spacing is selected such that temperature and moisture stresses do not produce intermediate
cracking between joints.

• JPCP is commonly no longer than about 20 feet (6 m).

• Tie Bars are typically used at longitudinal joints or between an edge joint and a curb or shoulder

• Tie Bars are not load transferring device, but they transfer some loads.

• Tie Bars are about 0.5 in. (12.5 mm) in diameter and between 24 and 40 in. (0.6 and 1.0 m) long.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
• In JPCP pavements, if no Dowel Bars are provided or if inadequate amount of dowel bars are
provided, then load transfer across the joint causes substantially higher stresses and deflections
due to joint loading than those due to interior loading (Figure 1.4).

• A dowel bar transfers a portion of the applied wheel load from the loaded slab across the joint
to the adjacent unloaded slab.

• Load transfer through dowel bars significantly reduces stresses and deflections due to joint
loading and minimizes faulting and pumping.

• Faulting is a difference in elevation across the joint of two slabs, while pumping is defined as
the expulsion of subgrade material through joints and along the edges of the pavement.
 Pumping

➢ Creation of voids spaces where water

can accumulate

➢ Under repeated loads the slab

deflects and the soil of subgrade
become suspension with water and
go out causing large voids spaces
under slab and additional cracks
occur.
Factors Affecting Pumping
➢ Heavy loads
➢ Free water in subgrade
➢ Fine-grained subgrade (P.I > 6 and %ge passing No. 200 sieve > 45
pumping occurs)

Pumping Prevention
➢ Provide granular subbase 4-6 inches.
➢ Increase distance between joints (especially expansion joints)
➢ Joints must be filled with joints sealants (silicone) or rubberized
bitumen fillers (accommodating movement and preventing water
infiltration).
➢ Provide good drainage system so that water can not be
accumulated in subgrade.
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)

• 100% Load Transfer Efficiency

• Zero Load Transfer

 1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)

• JPCP (most common), JRCP & CRCP

Transverse Joints Spacing:

JPCP: 12 to 20 ft.
JRCP: as long as 50 ft.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
1.2.2.2 Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)
• Jointed reinforced concrete pavement is similar to the JPCP with the exception that
some reinforced is used in the concrete slabs to control cracking with contraction
joints.

• Using reinforced slabs, transverse joint spacing can be provided longer than that for
JPCP and ranges from about 25 feet (7.5 m) to 50 feet (15 m).

• Temperature and moisture stresses are expected to cause cracking between joints.

• Reinforcing steel or a steel mesh is used to avoid these cracks or hold these cracks
tightly together.

• Dowel bars are typically used at transverse joints to assist in load transfer.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
1.2.2.3 Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)
• Continuous reinforced concrete pavement completely eliminates the transverse joints,
except as required at end-of-day construction and at bridge approaches and
transitions to other pavement structures, by providing continuous reinforcement as
shown in Figure 1.5.
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
1.2.2.4 Prestressed Concrete Pavement (PCP)

• Prestressed concrete pavement is built using precast concrete pavement slabs that are
fabricated at manufacturers’ plant and transported to and installed at the project site.

• PCP is very applicable in busy areas where high traffic volume requires stronger
pavement and construction time is very challenging considering traffic controls.

• Panels (Figure 1.6) are manufactured in sizes to match the width of one, two, or three
lanes of the pavement permitting one or multiple lanes of an existing pavement to be
reconstructed at one time.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
Joints in Concrete Pavements
➢ Longitudinal Joints
➢ Transverse Joints (Expansion and Contraction Joints)
➢ Construction Joints
Load Transfer Devices
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
Contraction Joints
Contraction joints provide for an orderly arrangement
of the cracking that occurs when concrete undergoes
curing. If the joints are properly designed and spaced,
a minimum of cracking outside the joints can be
expected.

Contraction joints may be sawed in the hardened

concrete, formed by plastic inserts, or tooled into the
concrete at placement time. Depth of joint should be
about one-quarter the thickness of the pavement
slab. The design of the joint should be related to the
expected joint opening and the elongation of the joint
filler used. Adequate load transfer through
mechanical means or aggregate interlock should be
provided at all joints.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
Expansion Joints
The primary functions of an expansion joint are preventing
development of damaging compressive stresses caused by
volume changes in the pavement slab and preventing excessive
pressures from being transmitted to adjacent structures.

Frequent expansion joints are not necessary for rigid

pavements. At these locations, expansion joints should be
protected with satisfactory load-transfer devices or suitable
joint fillers. A 3/4 to 1-in width of joint is generally used. Joint
widths of 4 to 5 ft are used for relieving stresses in some
locations, such as at bridges and other structures.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
Longitudinal Joints
Longitudinal joints are used to prevent formation of irregular longitudinal cracks and to allow for lane construction.
They may be keyed, butted, mechanically formed, or sawed grooves. To keep adjacent lanes from separating and
faulting, steel tie bars or connections should be embedded in the concrete transversely to the joint. The depth of
formed or sawed grooves should not be less than one-quarter the thickness of the pavement slab.

Tie bars
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
1.2.3 Dowel Bar Retrofit
A dowel bar retrofit (DBR) is a method of
reinforcing cracks in highway pavement by
inserting steel dowel bars in slots cut across the
cracks. It is a technique which several U.S. states'
departments of transportation have successfully
used in repairs to address faulting in older jointed
plain concrete pavements.

The primary advantage of dowel bars is to transfer

load without restricting horizontal joint
movements due to temperature and moisture
expansion and contraction in the concrete slabs.
Also, dowel bars play a role to maintain the vertical
and horizontal alignment of slabs.
1.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
Conventional
Flexible
(HMA)
Full Depth

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

Rigid
Pavement Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)
(PCC)

Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pvt. (CRCP)

Black Topping
Composite
(HMA + PCC)
White Topping
 1.2 Pavement Types (Flexible AC)
Unbound Layers Compaction

• FAA Item P-209 Crushed Aggregate Base Course

– The maximum depth of a compacted layer shall be 6 in (150 mm). If
the total depth of the compacted material is more than 6 in (150 mm),
it shall be constructed in two or more layers.

• FAA Item P-154 Subbase Course

– The subbase course shall be constructed in layers. Any layer shall be
not less than 3 in (75 mm) nor more than 8 in (200 mm) of compacted
thickness.
 1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
• Base Course
– Does not directly contribute to the Structural Capacity of the pavement system.
• Base Course used to:
– Control pumping
– Control frost action
– Drainage layer
– Control shrinkage & swelling of subgrade
– Construction platform
• FAA AC 150/5320-6F: Stabilized materials are required for subbase under PCC
(&AC) serving airplanes weighing 100,000 pounds (45,359 kg) or more.
 1.2 Pavement Evaluation (Flexible AC)
NOTE: For Structural Analysis Purposes, Wearing & Binder Courses are combined into
one layer unless they are composed of two different materials.
• For Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) back-calculation, combine all asphalt layers into one.
1.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY OF PAVEMENTS
• The design philosophy of a pavement is quite different from the other classical civil
engineering structures such as steel structures, reinforced concrete structures, and so on.
These classical structures are designed such that they do not show any crack, significant
deformation, or collapse during the service life.

• For example, a concrete beam in a building is not expected to show any crack. However,
a pavement structure is designed with the consideration that there might be many cracks
or some permanent deformation, and or roughness, during its service life, as shown in
Figure 1.7. However, these distress severities are expected to be within some tolerable
limits set by the designers.

• The threshold values of distresses are determined considering the riding quality, safety,
and economy. This means even after showing some distresses, pavement structures
provide some services for some time.
1.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY OF PAVEMENTS
1.4 PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE & DISTRESSES
• Pavement performance is an important issue • The performance of a pavement is
in the operation and planning of highway influenced by many factors, including
engineering. Traffic (gross applied load, tire pressure,
number of load applications), thickness
and durability of the various pavement
components, and the mechanical
properties of the pavement materials, soil
and Environmental factors
1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Flexible Pavements
The cracks form due to the forces applied by the motion
of vehicles. Distortions in an asphalt pavement are
caused by instability of an asphalt mix or weakness of
the base or subgrade layers. These distresses may
include rutting, shoving, depressions, swelling and
slippage failures.

Rigid Pavements
The main causes of failures in rigid pavements due to faulting
are: The pumping or the erosion of material under the
pavement, resulting in voids under the pavement slab causing
settlement. The temperature changes and moisture changes
that cause curling of the slab edges.
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
1.4.1 Distress in Flexible Pavements
1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
 Shear
Neutral HMA Stress
Axis cracks at Crack Tip
Bending Tension

Initiation Propagation
Granular Base

Fatigue Cracking is significantly

related to the pavement structure
❖ Also called alligator or map cracking
❖ Loads too heavy for the pavement structure
❖ Too many repetitions of load
❖ Inadequate support (pavement layers/subgrade)
❖ Poor drainage
❖ Very stiff binder in surface course
❖ Occurs in wheel path, potholes develop in advanced stage
Fatigue cracking will generally start as longitudinal cracking in the
wheel path and then progress to additional cracking until it form the
alligator cracking pattern.
Traffic
Center line

Moderate
High

Shoulder
 Surface

Surface Base

Surface Base

Base Sub-base Sub-base

Subgrade
❖ Transverse cracks occur at regular intervals
❖ Asphalt too stiff at low service temperatures
❖ Rapid chilling of the road surface
❖ Age of the pavement

Transverse Cracking Block Cracking

Transverse cracks occur roughly perpendicular to the Block cracking is mainly caused by shrinkage of
centerline of the pavement. They can be caused by the asphalt concrete and daily temperature
shrinkage of the asphalt layer or reflection from an cycling, and it is not load associated. The
existing crack. They are not load-related. occurrence of block cracking usually indicates
that the asphalt has hardened significantly. Block
cracking normally occurs over a large portion of
pavement area.
 low temperature cracks on surface

tensile tensile
stress stress

Low Temperature
Crack Growth in HMA

Primarily affected by binder grade

LOW
An unsealed crack with a mean width ≤ 6 mm; or a sealed crack with
sealant material in good condition and with a width that cannot be
determined.

MODERATE
Any crack with a mean width > 6 mm and  19 mm; or any crack with
a mean width ≤ 19 mm and adjacent low severity random cracking.

HIGH
Any crack with a mean width > 19 mm; or any crack with a mean width
≤ 19 mm and adjacent moderate to high severity random cracking.
❑ Applies only to pavements with unpaved shoulders.
❑ Crescent-shaped cracks or fairly continuous cracks which
intersect the pavement edge
❑ Located within 0.6 m of the pavement edge, adjacent to the
shoulder
❑ Includes longitudinal cracks outside of the wheel path and
within 0.6 m of the pavement edge
Potholes ( stripping)
Potholes are formed when the pavement
disintegrates under traffic loading, due to
inadequate strength in one or more layers of the
pavement, usually accompanied by the presence
of water. Most potholes would not occur if the
root cause was repaired before development of
the pothole. Repair by excavating and rebuilding
(Patching).
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
1.4.1 Distress in Rigid Pavements
Longitudinal Cracking
Longitudinal cracks occur parallel to the centerline of the pavement. They can be caused by: a
poorly construction, shrinkage of the asphalt layer; cracks reflecting up from an underlying
layer; and longitudinal segregation due to improper paver operation. These cracks are not
load-related.
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Bleeding
Bleeding occurs when asphalt binder fills the aggregate voids during hot weather and then
expands onto the pavement surface. Since bleeding is not reversible during cold weather,
asphalt binder will accumulate on the pavement surface over time.

❑ Due to too much asphalt in the AC

wearing course.

❑ Excess bituminous binder occurring on

the pavement surface

❑ Loss of skid when wet

Weathering/Raveling
As pavement ages and hardens, the asphalt binder
and fine aggregate may begin to wear away. This
process is called weathering. As weathering
progresses, coarse aggregate becomes exposed,
dislodged, and missing, resulting in a distress called
raveling.
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

High Severity Fatigue Cracking Permanent Deformation

Block Cracking

Longitudinal
Transverse Cracking Cracking Pothole
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
• Permanent Deformation / Rutting in AC layer
Ruts are depressions which occur in the pavement’s wheel path as a result of traffic
loads. Some negligible amount of rutting occurs in AC surfaces due to the continued
densification under traffic after initial compaction during construction.

In fact, it is quite common for void contents of HMA surfaces to be reduced from 7 or
8 percent after construction down to 4 or 5 percent after the first 2 or 3 summers of
traffic, due to densification. In a 4-inch thick HMA pavement, this densification
results in a rut depth of approximately 0.12 inches.

original
profile

weak asphalt layer

shear plane
AC rutting can be attributed to improper mix design. Some of the most
common mistakes when designing heavy duty HMA mixtures are:

1. Selection of an asphalt content that is too high.

2. Use of excessive filler material (minus 200 material); and
3. Use of too many rounded particles in both coarse and fine
aggregates in the AC.

Probably the singly largest contributor to rutting in AC is excessive asphalt

content.
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
• Unbound Layer(s) Permanent Deformation
Record maximum rut depth to
the nearest millimeter, at 15.25-m
intervals for each wheel path.
Corrugations are caused by shear flow of the mixture or
slippage between the layers.

1 Unstable AC Mixture

2 Lack of Bond Between AC Layers

3 Braking and Accelerating Action Near Intersections

❖ Associated with slippage mechanism
❖ Poor bond between the surface and underlying layer
❖ Too much or too little tack coat
❖ Steep grades/intersections
❖ Acceleration/braking exert surface traction forces
❖ U-shaped/ Half-Moon Shaped Cracks
 HIGH
SEVERITY
SLIPPAGE
CRACKING
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
• Effect of Temperature
• Pavements, like all other materials, will expand as they rise in temperature and
contract as they fall in temperature. Small amounts of expansion and contraction are
typically accommodated without excessive damage, however extreme temperature
variations can lead to catastrophic failures.

• At what temperature
– Rutting is most critical?

– Fatigue is most critical?

– Thermal cracking is most critical?

1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

Traffic/ Climate/
Distress Type
Load Materials
Fatigue Cracking X
Block Cracking X
Transverse/Longitudinal
X
Cracking
Potholes X
Rutting/Shoving X
Bleeding X
Weathering/Raveling
X
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
1.4.2 Distress in Rigid Pavements
1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Traffic/ Climate/
Distress Type
Load Materials
Corner Breaks X
D-Cracking or ASR X

Transverse Cracking X X
Joint Spalling X
Patch/Patch Deterioration X
Joint Faulting X
Pumping X (X)
Joint Seal Damage X
Punchout X
Longitudinal Cracking X X
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Corner Breaks D-Cracking (ASR)
A crack that intersects the PCC slab joints
near the corner. “Near the corner” is
typically defined as within about 2 m (6 ft)
or so. A corner break extends through the
entire slab and is caused by high corner
stresses.
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Transverse Cracking Joint Spalling
Transverse cracks that occur adjacent to transverse Excessive compressive stress causes deterioration in the
joints commonly occur as a result of one or more joints, called as the spalling. This may be related to joint
“secondary” mechanisms. These transverse cracks infiltration or the growth of pavement, that are caused
appear to be the result of drying shrinkage in the by the reactive aggregates. Poor quality concrete or
concrete that may have occurred in the pavement construction technique will also result in joint spalling.
surface immediately after construction.

Patch Deterioration Joint Faulting

Rigid pavement patches are used to treat localized The difference in elevation between the joints is called as
slab problems such as spalling, scaling (e.g., faulting. The pumping or the erosion of material under
reactive aggregate distress, over-finishing the the pavement, resulting in voids under the pavement
surface), joint deterioration, corner breaks or slab causing settlement.
punchouts.
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Pumping Joint Seal Damage
Pumping of subgrade material is a leading cause of Joint sealant damage is any joint seal condition that
damage to and failure of rigid pavements. In the enables soil or rocks to accumulate in the joints, or
pumping process water infiltrates a pavement at the allows significant infiltration of water.
joints and edges of the slab, and, later in life, through Accumulation of incompressible materials prevents
cracks in the slab. This water accumulates in voids the slabs from expanding and may result in
between the pavement slab and the subgrade material. buckling, or spalling.

Punchout Longitudinal Cracking

A localized area of concrete slab that is broken into Longitudinal cracking is cracking in the surface of
pieces will be named as punch out distress. This road that runs longitudinally along the pavement.
distress can take any shape or form. These are mainly It can consist of a single crack or as a series of
defined by joints and cracks. The joints and cracks parallel cracks.
will mainly keep 1.5 m width.
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

Corner Break D-Cracking (ASR)

Pumping

Transverse Cracking
Faulting Joint
JointSpalling
Spalling
1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

Patch Deterioration Joint Faulting

Pumping Joint Seal Damage

1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

Punchout
Punchout

Blow-up (Buckling) Longitudinal Cracking

 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
Two major pavement design guides used in the United States are the:

1) American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1993

Pavement Design Guide.

2) AASHTOWare Pavement Mechanistic-Empirical (ME) Design Guide, also known as

Pavement ME Design.
1.5 Pavement Design Methods
1.5 Pavement Design Methods
1.5 Pavement Design Methods

Flexible Rigid

• AASHTO 1993 Guide • AASHTO 1993 Guide

• Asphalt Institute (AI) • Portland Cement

Association (PCA)
• New AASHTO MEPDG
• New AASHTO MEPDG
 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
Outputs
Inputs

• Design objectives
and constraints Thickness and Layer
• Reliability level Material Types
• Soil & material Design Performance Optimization, Selection
properties
Method Prediction & Documentation for
• Traffic loads Construction
• Climatic factors Life Cycle Economic
• Unit prices Evaluation
• …….
 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
Empirical Mechanistic – Empirical Mechanistic
State-of-Practice State-of-the-Art

Based on results of  Mechanistic: determining relies on mechanics of

experiments or pavement responses due to structural behavior to
experience loading through loading
mathematical models

 Empirical:
relating pavement responses
to pavement performance

Each key distress type is

associated with a critical
pavement response
 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
1.5.1 The AASHTO 1993 Pavement Design Guide
1) The AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures (AASHTO, 1993) was developed based on
field performance data collected from the American Association of State Highway Officials
(AASHO) road test project during 1956–1960 at Ottawa, IL, shown in Figure 1.8.

2) That project focused on the performance of pavement structures of known thickness under
moving loads of known magnitude and frequency.

3) It consisted of six two-lane loops along the alignment of Interstate 80 (I-80).

4) The pavement structure within each loop was varied so that the interaction of vehicle loads
with pavement structure could be investigated.
 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
• The results from the AASHO road test were used to develop some regression equations for a
pavement design guide, first issued in 1961 as the AASHO Interim Guide for the Design of Rigid
and Flexible Pavements, with major updates issued in 1972, 1986, and 1993.

• The 1993 version (Figure 1.9) was in widespread use in the world until the AASHTOWare
pavement ME design came out in 2008.

• The design philosophy of the AASHTO (1993) method is to limit vertical stress on subgrade
• within a tolerable limit.

• This method does not consider the performance of the pavement such as cracking, rutting, and
smoothness with its service life.

• The AASHTO 1993 design method is purely empirical. The design equations, methodology,
• reliability, etc. were developed based on the road test data from Ottawa, IL. However, the
climate, materials, and traffic behavior in that test section are not similar.
1.5 Pavement Design Methods
 Major deficiencies of 72, 86 and 93 AASHTO guides:

(1) Today’s traffic loads are much higher than they were six decades ago.

(2) Rehabilitated pavements were not monitored.

(3) Only one climatic condition (one geographic location) and one subgrade type were included in

the road test.

(4) Only one hot-mix asphalt and one PCC mixture were studied.

(5) Test pavements did not include drainage.

(6) Only 2 years of monitoring were conducted rather than the entire pavement life of every

section (some sections did, however, fail within 2 years).

 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
1.5.2 The AASHTOWare Pavement Mechanistic-Empirical (ME)
Design Guide
• To overcome the limitations of the AASHTO 1993 pavement design guide, a new mechanistic-empirical
(ME) method was started to develop about the year 2000.

• The advancements in computational tools and invention of performance models enable pavement
designers to predict certain distress more accurately. These performance models use mechanistic
pavement responses (such as stress and strain) while conducting analysis and design.

• The AASHTOWare pavement ME design (also termed pavement ME design) was officially implemented
in 2008 as the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) under NCHRP project 1-37A
(AASHTO, 2015; NCHRP, 2004).

• This guide has been improved to a new version with the new name of the AASHTOWare pavement ME
design software.
1.5 Pavement Design Methods
 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
Different sequences of the AASHTOWare pavement ME design software are listed
below:

➢ First released in 2004 as an experiment with the name of Design Guide 2002 (DG
2002)
➢ Revised in 2008 with the revised name of Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design
Guide (MEPDG)
➢ Further revised in 2011 and renamed as Design, Analysis and Rehabilitation for
Windows (DARWin ME)
➢ Further revised in 2013 and renamed as AASHTOWare pavement ME design

The latest version of the AASHTOWare pavement ME design software is available

at https://me-design.com/MEDesign/.
 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
The input levels available in the AASHTOWare pavement ME design software:

• Level 1. Level 1 is used for pavement design with the greatest accuracy. All or most of
the input parameters such as material density, modulus, strength, traffic volume, traffic
distribution, axle load spectra, climate, etc. are measured directly for the site or project.

• Level 2. Level 2 input parameters represent measured regional average values. The
input parameters and the calibration coefficients of the software are estimated from
correlations or regression equations developed based on local or state-level conditions.

• Level 3. Most of the input parameters and the calibration coefficients of the software
are ME default values, which are based on global or regional default values. This input
level is the least accurate, and commonly used in non crucial pavements.
 1.5 Pavement Design Methods

MEPDG Components
 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
Superpave Mix Design

The term "Superpave" is an acronym for Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements, which evolved from
partnerships created among Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), TRB, and others in the Strategic Highway Research
Program (SHRP) community.

A New Approach to Asphalt Mix Design

Rather than a specific process or procedure, Superpave is a performance-based specification for asphalt binder and
volumetric mixture design. The idea was to allow asphalt pavement designs that could handle the unique weather and traffic
conditions of a given site in any geographic area of the U.S. The system consisted of three components:

- Asphalt binder specification: A system of classifying asphalt binder based on its performance response to temperatures
and aging characteristics.
- A design system grounded in traffic loading and environmental conditions
- Mix design system and analysis tests for performance prediction models

Superpave leverages modern asphalt paving technology to develop mixtures more resistant to cracking from low temperature
and fatigue factors and reduce permanent deformation. Superpave means mix designs can be tailored for better performance
and longer life based on a geographical area’s temperature extremes, traffic loads, and utilization of the road or highway.
 1.6 Design Factors
Factors affecting Pavement Performance:

1.6.1 Traffic and Loading

1.6.2 Environment

1.6.3 Materials

1.6.4 Failure Criteria

 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.1 Traffic and Loading

1.6.1.1 Axle Loads

1.6.1.2 Number of Load Repetitions

1.6.1.3 Tire Contact Areas

1.6.1.4 Vehicle Speed

 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.1.1 Axle Loads
1.6 Design Factors
 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.1.2 Number of Load Repetitions
- Loads → damage pavement over time.

- Each individual load inflicts a certain amount of unrecoverable damage.

- Damage is cumulative over the life of the pavement and when it reaches

some maximum value the pavement is considered to have reached the

end of its useful service life.

 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.1.3 Tire Contact Areas
• For layered theory is used for flexible pavement design, it is assumed that each tire has a circular contact area. This

assumption is not correct, but the error incurred is believe d to be small. To simplify the analysis of flexible pavements, a

single circle with the same contact area as the duals is frequently used to represent a set of dual tires, instead of using two

circular areas.
 Example

Solution

• The 18-kip (80-kN) single-axle load is applied over four tires, each having a load of
4500 lb (20 kN).
• The contact area of each tire is A, = 4500/80 = 56.25 in.2 (3.6 x 104 mm2) .
• From Eq. 1.1, L = "56.25/0.5227 = 10.37 in. (263 mm) . The width of the tire is 0.6L =
0.6 x 10.37 = 6.22 in. (158 mm) . The configuration of various contact areas is shown in
Figure 1 .15. Figure 1.15a is the most realistic contact area consisting of a rectangle and
two semicircles , as used previously by PCA (1966) .
• Figure 1.15b is the rectangular contact area for use in th e finite-element analysis of rigid
pavements with length 0 .8712L, or 9.03 in. (229 mm), and width 6.22 in. (158 mm).

• Figure 1.15c shows the contact area as two circles, each having a radius of 56.25/𝜋 or 4.23 in.
(107 mm). This assumption was also made by the Asphalt Institut e (AI, 1981a)

• Figure 1.15d considers the contact area as a single circle with contact radius 2 x 56.25/𝜋= 5.98
in. (152 mm). This contact area was used in VESYS (FHWA, 1978).
 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.1.4 Vehicle Speed
Elastic Theory
Layered elastic models assume that each pavement structural layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and
linearly elastic. In other words, it is the same everywhere and will rebound to its original form once
the load is removed. The resilient modulus is selected to be adequate with the vehicle speed.

Viscoelastic Theory
In materials science and continuum mechanics, viscoelasticity is the property of materials that
exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation. Speed is related to
the loading duration.
 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.2 Environment
Environmental conditions have a significant effect on the performance of both flexible and rigid
pavements. External factors such as temperature (freeze-thaw cycles) and precipitation (depth to
water table) play a key role in defining the bounds of the impact the environment can have on the
pavement performance.
1.6.2.1 Freeze-Thaw: When temperatures are above freezing, rainwater or snowmelt will make its way into
any small crack in the pavement. Then, as temperatures drop below freezing, the water within the cracked
pavement begins to freeze and expand, causing the crack to expand and grow as well.
1.6.2.2 Precipitation/Moisture: Water is one of asphalt's “natural enemies.” Puddles of water on an asphalt
pavement will slowly break down the asphalt and cause a pothole to form. Water deteriorates asphalt by
breaking the bonds between the asphalt binder and the rocks and sand.
 1.6 Design Factors
Precipitation/Moisture

– Asphalt Layer:
• Could impact strength & behavior if it leads to moisture damage & stripping.

– Crushed Aggregate Base and Subgrade:

• Significant impact on strength & behavior.
• The higher the moisture content, the lower the strength.

– Portland Cement Concrete:

• Could lead to freeze/thaw damage.
• Possibly alkali-silica reactivity (ASR). The alkali–silica reaction (ASR), more commonly
known as "concrete cancer", is a deleterious swelling reaction that occurs over time in
concrete between the highly alkaline cement paste and the reactive amorphous (i.e., non-
crystalline) silica found in many common aggregates, given sufficient moisture.
 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.2.3 Temperature: Pavements, like all other materials, will expand as they rise in temperature and contract
as they fall in temperature. Small amounts of expansion and contraction are typically accommodated without
excessive damage, however extreme temperature variations can lead to catastrophic failures. For example, the
high temperature of pavement makes the asphalt softer, thus the risk is high that heavy vehicles cause rutting
due to the plastic deformation, which will decrease the pavement evenness and consequently affect the traffic
safety.

AC Layer: Stiffness
Concrete Slab: Temperature Gradient – curling stresses/slab subgrade contact.
Crushed Aggregate Base and Subgrade: Unless frozen, insignificant impact on strength & behavior
 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.3 Materials
Flexible pavements are constructed of several
thicknesses of asphalt or bituminous concrete
layers overlying a base of granular material on a
prepared subgrade.

Rigid pavements are made of concrete, composed of

coarse and fine aggregate and Portland cement, and
usually reinforced with steel rod or mesh.
 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.4 Failure Criteria
The major failure criteria for flexible pavements
are the thermal fatigue cracking that initiates at
the bottom of the surfacing layer and the rutting
that happens at the surface of the subgrade layer.

The main causes of failures in rigid pavements due

to faulting are: the pumping or the erosion of
material under the pavement, resulting in voids
under the pavement slab causing settlement. The
temperature changes and moisture changes that
cause curling of the slab edges.