The Von Neumann

Model
The Stored Program Computer
1943: ENIAC
• Presper Eckert and John Mauchly -- first general electronic computer.
• Hard-wired program -- settings of dials and switches.

1944: Beginnings of EDVAC

• among other improvements, includes program stored in memory

1945: John von Neumann

• wrote a report on the stored program concept,
known as the First Draft of a Report on EDVAC

The basic structure proposed in the draft became known

as the “von Neumann machine” (or model).
• a memory, containing instructions and data
• a processing unit, for performing arithmetic and logical operations
• a control unit, for interpreting instructions
Von Neumann Model

System Bus

CPU Central Mass

Memory Memory Peripheral Peripheral
Interface 1 Interface 2

External Units
Von Neumann Model - Components

System
CENTRAL Bus
PROCESSING UNIT
Input Units Output Units
(MICROPROCESSOR OR CPU)

CENTRAL MEMORY
(RAM)

Mass memories
Von Neumann Model - Components
Microprocessor or CPU
It executes the program instructions and supervises the operation of the entire machine.
System Bus
Random Access Memory (RAM)
It is the memory where the data being processed (open documents) and the instructions of the
running program are stored; this is temporary or volatile memory that is completely erased
when the computer is turned off.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

it is a permanent read-only memory that is written only once during the manufacturing phase
of a computer. Subsequently, it can no longer be modified (however, there are other
memories, such as PROM, EPROM, FLASH, created according to a technology that allows, in
particular conditions, deletion and rewriting of the content). Permanent information is recorded
there, such as code conversion tables or the boot program that is activated when the machine
is turned on.

Hard Disk
it is the computer's permanent memory unit, where all documents, data and programs are
stored. It is used as storage memory (for this reason it is also called mass memory).
Von Neumann Model - Components
All the devices that interconnect a computer (in the broadest sense) with the outside are
generically called as Peripherals or Input/Output Peripheral Devices (or I/O, or Input/Output).
System Bus
Some devices are input only, because they transfer data from the outside (such as the
mouse and keyboard), others are output only (such as monitors and audio speakers), and
others are both input and output at the same time (such as discs or touch screens).
The most common devices are:
o Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, and CD-Rom - almost always present;
o Printer and Audio (speakers, microphone) - often present, but not essential for the
operation of the machine;
o Network (with direct connection, or through a Modem).
Furthermore, there may be: Recorder, Scanner, Video Camera, etc.
To be connected to a computer, some I/O devices require the presence of an additional
hardware component (expansion card) installed on the same computer.
A monitor usually requires the presence of a video card and speakers require a sound card
Von Neumann Model

System Bus

CPU Central Mass

Memory Memory Peripheral Peripheral
Interface 1 Interface 2

External Units
Main memory organization
The central memory is organized as a set of registers of the same size,
each of the which is identified through a progressive number, said
address.

It is NOT immediate to interpret the content of 0 01101101

each register: instructions and data are 1 10010110

represented using the same approach. 2 00111010
An instruction or data can reside even on 3 11111101
more consecutive registers, whether the size
..
of a register is not sufficient.
1022 00010001
1023 10101001

How many bits are necessary

to code an address ?
Main memory organization

The module of the main memory is 0 01101101

connected to rest of the system 1 10010110
using the BUS. 2 00111010
In particular, three line types are 3 11111101
supported by the bus: ..
• Address line
1022 00010001
• Data line 1023 10101001
• Read/Write line

Read/
addresses data
Write

BUS
Main memory - operations

The possible operations on each module of the main memory are

oriented to the registers:
• writing a value in a register
• reading the value of a register

For each operation to execute, the information to provide are:

• The target register to consider ® address
• The operation to perform ® Read/Write
• Just in case of writing, the value to store
Main memory - Parameters
Capacity
It provides a measure about the amount of information that it can
store. It depends on both the number of registers and their size.
The memory capacity can be measured in terms of byte And of its multiples:
• The KiloByte (KB) corresponding to 1024 Byte (about 1000 Byte)
• The MegaBytes (MB) corresponding to 1.048.576 Byte (about a million of
byte)
• The GigaByte (GB) corresponding to 1,073,741,824 Byte (about a billion
of byte)
• The TeraBytes (TB) corresponding to 1,099,511,627,776 Byte (about one
thousand billion of byte)
Time Of access
It is the minimum time elapsed between two memory operations
(accesses). It depends on the technology used to create the
memory. It can be measured in terms of seconds (nanoseconds =
10-9 seconds).
Types of memories
RAM Memory
Main memory can be used to exclusively perform reading and writing
operations. This memory is known as RAM (Random Access Memory) and it
has the characteristic to store data only if power supply is guaranteed.
RAM memory can be of two types:

Dynamic RAM or DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)

High density of integration, cheap, slow, low power supply
Dynamic: contents must be regenerated periodically (refresh)

Static RAM or SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

Low density of integration, expensive, fast, higher power
supply
Static: contents are permanently stored only if power supply is
guaranteed
Types of memories

ROM Memory
Some programs and data are vital for a computer to work.
These programs and data must be permanently stored, even
when the power supply is NOT provided. Once stored, they
do not have to be modified or deleted.
e.g. the bootstrap programs

ROM memory (Read Only Memory) is used in this case.

Memory Systems - Organization

Ideal requirements for a memory system are:

Infinity capacity
Infinity speed
Evidence:

® Large and cheap memories (DRAM) are slow

® Fast memories (SRAM) are expensive

How to obtain a large, cheap, and fast memory system?

A system based on a hierarchy of memories

Cache memory

A memory system consists of memory modules with heterogenous

characteristics and organized along different levels.
Cache memory is an intermediate memory module (cache) between
CPU and main memory, which is very fast, but limited in capacity.
Stored data are distributed on various modules and can be
transferred between adjacent modules.
The data distribution is accomplished by trying to store on the cache
memory data and instructions that it is prevented to be the more
frequently requested to the cache memory, making the CPU in condition
to access them in a more quickly way.
Memory system of a current calculator

Control Unit

Arithmetic-
Logical Unit
First
Level Second Main
Cache Level Memory
(on chip Cache (DRAM)
cache) (SRAM)
registers
Von Neumann Model - The Bus

BUS

CPU Main Mass

Memory Memory Peripheral Peripheral
Interface 1 Interface 2

External Units
Von Neumann Model - The Bus
It implements a communication channel between the various units
of a computer.
In general, a single data transmission a time can be possible
between two units called:
master takes the bus control and starts the transmission
slave that is enabled by the master.
The bus consists of a line set used to transmit signals. The line set
includes:
• Data lines
• Address lines Master Slaves
• Control lines
Control Line

Address Line

Data Line
Von Neumann Model - CPU

CPU Main Mass

Memory Memory Peripheral Peripheral
Interface 1 Interface 2

External Units
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
Function:
it executes the programs stored in the main memory by
retrieving the instructions, and the corresponding data,
interpreting and executing them one by one

It consists of: Control unit

• Control unit
Arithmetical-
• Arithmetical-logical logical unit
unit Main
memory
• Registers

registers

Each CPU is also characterized by its corresponding instruction

set it can support (instruction set)
Control Unit (1/2)
It is delegated to direct and coordinate the internal activities
of a CPU that bring to the execution of an instruction

The execution of an instruction happens through specific

phases:
Fetch
Each instruction to be executed must be retrieved from the
Processor’s Cycle

memory and transferred inside the CPU’s registers

Decode
Each instruction must be interpreted before starting the internal
actions necessary for its execution
Operand Assembly
The data that each instruction needs for its execution are retrieved
from the memory
Execute
The execution process of each instruction is terminated by
perfoming the operation set the same instruction provides
Store
He comes stored The result of the operation expected from the
instruction
Control Unit (2/2)

Fetch instruction from memory

Decode instruction
The Control Unit is
responsible for cycling
Evaluate address performing the
necessary phases for
executing the
Fetch operands from memory instruction sequence of
a program
Execute operation

Store result
Arithmetic-Logical Unit

It is responsible for performing the arithmetic and logic

operations possibly the execution of an instruction imply

Arithmetic Operators Logic Operators

ADD CMP
SUB AND
MUL OR
DIV NOT
REM
SET
Registers
They are used to store data and instructions to be executed
inside the CPU

• General registers
• Special registers
Special registers are
•Program Counter (PC)
not directly accessible
•Memory Address Register (MAR) by instructions
• Memory Data Register (MDR)
•Instruction Register (IR)
CPU - connection with the system

Arithmetic
Control
Logical
Internal components of a CPU are Unit
Unit
interconnected using internal
connections.
Program Instruction
The CPU is connected to the rest of Counter Register
the system through the BUS
(address, data and control lines). Register A Register B

Mem.Addr. Mem. Data

Register Register

address Read/ data

Write

BUS
CPU-Memory transfer

Independently from the transfer to perform, the CPU

(master) needs to specify the address of the data to be
retrieved.

During these operations, the memory acts as slave and must

accomplish to the commands issued by the CPU, receiving
from it the address of the data to be transferred, along with
the operation to be performed (reading or writing)
CPU-Memory transfer - Reading

1) CPU writes the address of the data to be transferred on

the MAR register, which will propagate it on the address
lines of the bus. At the same time, CPU opportunely
enables the control lines of the bus to specify that reading
is the operation to be performed.
2) The memory receives the address and the operation to
be performed by consulting the corresponding lines of
the bus. It copies the data from the register identified by
the given address on the data lines of the bus.
3) The required data is transmitted to the MDR register of the
CPU using the data lines of the bus. From here, it will be
moved towards the others internal registers.
 0 01101101
Control Arithmetic
Unit Logical 1 10010110
Unit
2 00111010
3 11111101
Program Instruction
Counter Register
1022 00010001
Register A Register B
1023 10101001
Mem. Addr. Mem. Data
Register Register

Read Read

address
BUS
data
 0 01101101
Control Arithmetic
Unit Logical 1 10010110
Unit
2 00111010
3 11111101
Program Instruction
Counter Register
1022 00010001
Register TO Register B
1023 10101001
Mem. Addr. Mem. Data
Register Register

Read Read

address
BUS
data
CPU-Memory transfer - Writing

1) CPU writes the address of the data to be transferred

on the MAR register, while the data is copied on the
MDR register. The content of each register is then
copied on the corresponding lines of the bus
(address and data). At the same time, the CPU
opportunely enables the control lines of the bus to
specify that writing is the operation to be performed.
2) The memory receives address, data, and operation
to be performed by consulting the corresponding
lines of the bus. It copies the data from the data lines
of the bus to the register identified by the given
address.
 0 01101101
Arithmetic
Control
Logical 1 10010110
Unit
Unit
2 00111010
3 11111101
Program Instruction
Counter Register
1022 00010001
Register A Register B
1023 10101001
Mem. Addr. Mem. Data
Register Register

Write Write

address
BUS
data
 0 01101101
Arithmetic
Control 1 10010110
Logical
Unit
Unit
2 00111010
3 11111101
Program Instruction
Counter Register
1022 11001100
Register A Register B
1023 10101001
Mem. Addr. Mem. Data
Register Register

address
BUS
data
Execution of an instruction - Example
Let's consider the following instruction:
ADD (1021),(1022),1023
which means
”add the values stored in the memory registers having address
1021 and 1022 and memorize the result in the register having
address 1023”
Let’s suppose that the instruction is stored on the memory
register having address 3.

Let’s analyse the various phases necessary for executing this

instruction…
 FETCH phase

0 01101101
Arithmetic
Control
Logical 1 10010110
Unit
Unit
2 00111010
3 11111101
PC 00000011 IR

1021 11001100
A B 10101001
1022
MAR 00000011 MDR 1023 00000000

Read
address
BUS
data
 FETCH phase

0 01101101
Arithmetic
Control
Logical 1 10010110
Unit
Unit
2 00111010
3 11111101
PC 00000110 11111101 IR

1021 11001100
A B 1022 10101001
MAR 00000011 11111101 MDR 1023 00000000

address
BUS

data
 OPERAND ASSEMBLY phase

0 01101101
Arithmetic
Control
Logical 1 10010110
Unit
Unit
2 00111010
3 11111101
PC 00000110 IR

1021 11001100
A B 10101001
1022
MAR 11111101 MDR 1023 00000000

Read
address
BUS
data
 OPERAND ASSEMBLY phase

0 01101101
Arithmetic
Control 1 10010110
Logical
Unit
Unit 2 00111010
3 11111101
PC 00000110 11111101 IR

1021 11001100
A 11001100 B 1022 10101001
MAR 11111101 11001100 MDR 1023 00000000

address
BUS

data
 OPERAND ASSEMBLY phase

Arithmetic 0 01101101
Control
Logical 1 10010110
Unit
Unit
2 00111010
3 11111101
PC 00000110 IR

1021 11001100
A 11001100 B
1022 10101001
MAR 11111110 MDR 1023 00000000

Read
address
BUS
data
 OPERAND ASSEMBLY phase

0 01101101
Arithmetic
Control
Logical 1 10010110
Unit
Unit
2 00111010
3 11111101
PC 00000110 11111101 IR

1021 11001100
A 11001100 10101001 B
1022 10101001
MAR 11111101 10101001 MDR 1023 00000000

address
BUS

data
 EXECUTE phase

0 01101101
Arithmetic
Control
Logical 1 10010110
Unit
Unit
2 00111010
3 11111101
PC 00000110 11111101 IR

1021 11001100
A 11001100 01110101 B
1022 10101001
MAR MDR 1023 00000000

address
BUS

data
 STORE phase

0 01101101
Arithmetic
Control
Logical 1 10010110
Unit
Unit
2 00111010
3 11111101
PC 00000110 11111101 IR

1021 11001100
A 11001100 01110101 B
1022 10101001
MAR 11111111 01110101 MDR 1023 00000000

Write
address
BUS

data
 STORE phase …and then?

Arithmetic 0 01101101
Control
Logical 1 10010110
Unit
Unit
2 00111010
3 11111101
PC 00000110 11111101 IR

1021 11001100
A 11001100 01110101 B
1022 10101001
MAR 11111111 01110101 MDR 1023 01110101

Write
address
BUS

data
Clock

• The CPU is synchronized by an internal clock that

proceeds at constant speed (clock)
• The “clock ticks” define the possible instants for the CPU
to move to the next phase of an instruction execution:

time

• Cycle time = interval between two ticks = seconds per cycle

• Clock rate (frequency) = cycles for second (1 Hz. = 1 cycle/sec)

1 MegaHertz = 1MHz = 106 cycle/sec

1 GigaHertz = 1GHz = 109 cycle/sec

Greater clock frequency means faster CPU

CPU Performance

• In addition to clock frequency, other

parameters exist for measuring the CPU
performance
• For example, the number of
instructions executed per second,
which is measured in MIPS (millions of
instructions executed per second)
Von Neumann Model – Mass memory

CPU Main Mass

Memory Memory Peripheral Peripheral
Interface 1 Interface 2

External Units
Mass memory

• To be honest, the Von Neumann model

includes the mass memories among the
peripherals, considering that the
interaction with the rest of the system is
similar to the devices interconnected with
the outside.
• Anyway, considering the importance of the
role that mass memories cover, they are
assumed as independent functional units.
Mass memories
They are units targeted to Not volatile storage of large data
amount.
With respect to the main memory
- they have a larger capacity
- they have a minor access speed

Technology used for storing data can be magnetic or optical.

The support is typically a disk.
Magnetic disks can be:
• Hard disks
• Removable disks
 Hard disk

mercoledì 6 giugno 12
Hard disk - Organization

arm heads

actuator disks

Each unit encompasses various disks. Both surfaces of a disk are

covered by magnetic material on which data are memorized.
Reading and writing operations are performed by using heads,
located on arms and moved by an actuator.
Hard disk - characteristics

• Hard disk is typically not visible from the outside (even if

removable hard disks exist). The capacity of a hard disk
can be measured in GigaByte(GB) or TeraByte (TB).
• Currently hard disks mainly refer to two different
technologies for communicating with the rest of the
system: EIDE(Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics)
and SCSI (Small Computer Systems Interface); the first
is cheaper, the second is faster.
• The rotation speed (rotation rate) corresponds to the
speed a disk rotates under the head. Typical values for
the rotation speed of a disk are: 4,000 RPM
(revolutions per minute) and 5,400 RPM. High
performance disks offer 7,200 RPM, or 10,000 RPM
Hard disk - characteristics

• The speed of a disk does not generally affect the

performance of a computer, unless it is used for
benchmarking frequent data reading/writing (e.g.
servers that offer centralized net services, like email).
Common PCs use EIDE disks.

• The disk capacity has instead very little influence on

performance, unless the disk is going to be full (in
this case, further writings can be possible only when
sufficient free space is available).
Hard disk – surface organization
All the information memorized on a disk are organized in
tracks (concentric circular crowns located on the surface of
a disk).
The tracks are numbered starting from the edge of the disk and
proceeding towards the interior.
Each track is divided into blocks (512 byte) named
sectors, that are the smaller memorization unit of a disk.

Since each unit consists of more disks, for every

track of a disk corresponds homologous tracks on
the other disks. Homologous tracks of a disk form
a cylinder.
Hard disk - reading/writing operations
The information stored on a disk are coded in the form of memorization layer of
magnetic areas located on the disk surface.
Reading/writing operations are accomplished by the heads through the
following phases:

1. Positioning the head on the track (cylinder) of interest;

2. Waiting for the head to be over the sector of interest;
3. Reading or writing of the data.
random data access

Giving the high rotation speed, the heads

do not touch the surface of the disk, but
they "plan” on it, maintaining a distance of
10-4 mm order.
CD-ROM – optical unit

• Initially used for the audio

• 650 Mbytes for around 70 minutes of audio
• Disk in polycarbonate with a soul in highly
reflecting material, usually aluminum
• Data are coded through pits and lands
CD-ROM – reading operation
1. A laser beam, issued by an IR
diode laser, crosses a prism,
reflective in part, and it focuses on
the area where the data to be read
are located.
2. If the beam finds a “land”, it is
entirely reflected by the disk, come
back on the prism, and further
reflected on a photoelectric cell,
which generates an electric signal
having intensity proportional to the
received bright energy.
If the beam meets a “pit”, it is
subject to a diffusion which means
that the resulting bright energy that
reaches the cell will be cancelled.
CD-ROM – disk organization
• A CD typically memorize data on a single track, which it
wraps itself to spiral
• The track is divided in sectors that have constant
size and that store data
• The audio CD units are "single speed”: they have
a constant linear speed of 1.2m/sec
• The track length is about 5.27 km, so it takes
around 4391 seconds (73.2 minutes) to walk it all
• With this speed, the unit ensures a transfer rate of
about 150 Kbytes/sec
• Other speeds are defined as multiples of audio
speed (e.g. 40x)
DVD-ROM

• DVD ROMs (Digital Versatile Disk) are

high-capacity memory supports (4 to the 17
GB)
• They represent a CD-ROM alternative
• They are commonly used to store large
data files (e.g. video clips).
Mass memory - other memory units
ZIP Disks
Cheap
Very common
Maximum size 100MB
Discs JAZ
Expensive
about 1 GB
Tapes
DAT
Large capacity
Slow
For backup use
Mass memories - comparison
Type Capacity Speed
RAM 256 Mbyte – 1 Gbyte High
Hard disk Tens of Gbyte Medium
CD 650 Mbyte Low
DVD Gbyte Low
Floppy 1,44 Mbyte Very Low
Disk
ZIP Hundreds of Mbyte Very Low
DAT Gbyte Very Low
Von Neumann Model – External units and interfaces

CPU Main Mass Peripheral Peripheral

Memory Memory Interface Interface
1 2

External Units
Calculator and external units - Connections
Input/output activities are performed by using external units:
• keyboard
• mouse
• monitor
Problem:
• printer
Many devices of the
• scanner same type offered by
different manufacturers.
• microphones/speakers
How to manage the
• cam
connection with the
•… calculator?
Need of standard
Calculator and external units - Connections
The connection between computer and external units happens
through standard connections (peripheral ports). Manufacturers
must produce their products in compliance with these
specifications.
The connection between computer and external units provides a
bidirectional flow of data bytes. This flow can be serial or parallel,
according to the characteristics of the channel used for the transfer.
0100100
Serial
parallelism: 1 bit

0 0
0
Parallel 1 1 1
parallelism: 8 bit
0
7 7
N N
o mass
o
Input And Output ports
The I/O doors are generally localized on the rear side of a calculator and are
used for connecting each kind of external device the same calculator supports
(monitor, keyboard, mouse, etc.). The disposition of the doors may vary from
calculator to calculator.
Typically, the following ports are located on the motherboard:
• PS/2 port
– Traditionally used for connecting mouse and keyboard. They are obsolete!
• Serial port
– Traditionally used for devices that do not require fast data flow.
• Parallel port
– Traditionally used for printers, but in general it is suitable for devices that
require a faster data flow with respect to the capacity of the serial port.
• USB port (Universal Serial Bus)
– Being universal, it can be used to connect any kind of device to a
computer. USB technology further allows to create "chains" of devices all
connected to a single port (until to 127). Furthermore, It allows the hot
connection (Meaning even when the computer is already switched on). On
the contrary, devices that do not support USB technology must be connected
to a switched off computer for being correctly used.
Parallel port (LPTx:)

It is commonly used for connecting devices that can transfer more

bits at the same time (printers, typically).
It does not allow high transfer speed

Currently, different modes are available:

SPP: Standard Parallel Port. Slower Mode (default)

EPP: Enhanced Parallel Port. Bidirectional Mode

ECP: Enhanced Capabilities Port. Faster Mode. It can suffer of

compatibility issues.
Serial Port
It is commonly used for connecting devices that do not require high
transmission speed (mouse, keyboard, modem).
COMx:
Typical speeds: from 1200 to 119,200 bits/sec Two
common types:
- 25 pin
- 9 pin

PS/2 Port
Serial interface introduced by IBM For connecting mouse and keyboard.

6-pins Connector.
Universal Serial Bus interface (USB)
It is a serial interface designed for:
• connecting more peripherals at the same time
• realizing “hot swap” connections
• ensuring high transfer speed
Characteristics:
• U n t i l to 127 units connected on the same connection (using hub)
• Maximum speed: 12 Mbit/sec (USB 1.1) 480 Mbit/sec (USB 2.0)
• Ideal for connecting mouse, scanner, printer, modem, …
FireWire Interface (IEEE1394)
It is a standard serial interface like USB, but with better performance:
• Contemporary connection to more peripherals
• “hot swap” connections
• high transfer speed: until to 400 Mbits/sec
• suitable for interfacing peripherals requiring a wide band (cameras digital, VCR,etc.)
Additional ports

The expansion cards that are mounted on the motherboard make it

possible to have many additional ports.
The most common are:
• Video port – makes it possible to connect additional monitors to
the same computer.
• Net port – used for directly connecting a calculator to a network,
without using the modem. Various types exist, but now the RJ45
connector represents the de-facto standard.
• SCSI port – used for devices that require a very fast data flow
(scanner, burner external, etc.). Like USB, the SCSI technology
allows the connection of device chain (up to 7), but not the hot
connection.
• Infrared port – used for supporting the communication between
devices using bundles of light radiation in the infrared field
(invisible).
Input/Output Peripherals

Input Output
Keyboard Monitor
Mouse Printer
Scanner Plotter
Cam Speakerset
Microphone ….
…

What is the aim of peripherals ?

Input peripherals - operations

Input peripherals provide to code a continuous physical

dimension using a digital representation.

1 1 0 10
0 1 1 01
from the 0 1 0 01 towards
outside ADC the
memory

Continuous physical dimension Digital coding

(e.g.: sound, image, mouse ADC:
movement, document, etc.) Analog to Digital
Conversion
Input Device - keyboard

Function Keys Numeric Keypad

Windows function Keys Cursor Keys

Keyboard - Keys functions

• Function Keys: the line in high (Esc, F1, F2, etc.) are keys used for issuing
commands. Their real function depends on the current running program. F1 key is
commonly used for HELP function.
• The main group: these keys correspond to those of a typical typewriter (letters,
numbers, symbols and punctuation). In addition, there are some Ctrl (Control) and Alt
(Alternate) modifier keys which along with the capital key can be used to change the
functions of some other keys. (Also in this case the real effect depends on the
current running program).
• The SHIFT keys (⇧) or the CAPS LOCK key (⇪) can be also used to enter the
characters in uppercase in a temporary or permanent way, respectively. The SHIFT
key makes it possible to activate the second function expected just for the keys that
offer two options.
• The Italian keyboard also owns the Alt Gr key, which is used just for the keys
that offer three options.
• Numeric Keypad: it corresponds to the keys on the right side. They are a replica of
the numeric keys that are organized as a calculator. The first key (Block Num or Num
lock) is used to enable or disable the numeric keypad.
• Cursor keys: between the alphanumeric keys and the numeric keypad, there are
some keys that are used to move the cursor on the screen and to scroll the pages.
 Devices Of Input: The mouse
• It is a device used to move the cursor on the screen according to
the its movement on the surface of the desk on which it is located.
The movement on the desk can be acquired by using a rotating ball
or a led-camera system (optical mouse)
• The mouse is connected to the computer using a cable or can be
wireless. It can be equipped from two to five buttons.
• The left button is the principal, and it is used to:
– operate a choice (by pointing the cursor on the screen and doing click)
– to select or drag an object
– Start up a program by doing a double click on the corresponding icon.
• The right button makes it available a command list on the screen
containing rapid and appropriate actions according to both the
position on the screen and the context in which it is used.
• Other peripherals similar to the mouse are:
– Track ball
– Touch pad
Devices Of Input: the scanner
•It is an input device capable of
acquiring Images from a paper
support and of transferring them
into the calculator memory in
order to be processed and/or
inserted into a document.
•Sometimes, it is used together with
a specific software, called
OCR(Optical Character
Recognition) which makes it
possible to obtain the electronic
format corresponding to the text
contained into a paper document.
Information representation - types
‘A’ letter ASCII
Q W E R T Y code
10000001
A S D F G H

tastiera

bit map
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 11 0
0 1 0 1 0
1 11 11 11 1
SCANNER
1 0 0 0 11
11 0 0 0 1
Output device - Operations
Output peripherals are used to obtain a representation
directly understandable by humans starting from the coded
digital information stored in the computer memory.

00110
from 10100
00001 outside
memory DAC

Information stored Output

(e.g.: Word document, Autocad (e.g.: printed text, screen image,
drawing, MP3 file, etc.) sound, etc.)
Output Devices: the monitor
• It is the main output device
• Can be produced by using different technologies:
– CRT (traditional)
– LCD
• It is connected to a specific interface (graphic) that organize the image to be
displayed before sending it to the monitor, by using a video signal.
• For specifying the monitor size, the length of its diagonal is measured using
inches (1 inch=2.54 cm).
• The monitor resolution depends on the number of lighting points that compose an
image. These points are defined as pixels; greater is the number of pixels, better
will be the quality of the image on the screen. For instance, a resolution of 1024 x
768 stands for a reticulated of 1024 (width) x 768 (height) pixels, for a total of
786,432 pixels to be displayed on the screen.
• The supported resolutions by a monitor depends on the corresponding graphic card.
Different standards exist:
–VGA 720 x 480
–SVGA 1024 x768
–Higher resolutions are provided by UltraVGA and ExtraVGA
• Another important parameter for a monitor is the scanning frequency, which is
measured in Hertz and indicates how many times per second the image on the
screen is refreshed.
• An innovative monitor is the touch screen, which is an input and output device
Output Devices: the printer
• It is used to print on paper texts, drawings, etc..
• It can be accomplished using different technologies:
– To impact (e.g needles)
– Ink Jet
– Laser
• The inkjet and laser printers can produce colour
prints
• The printer capacity is measured based on the
print resolution and and its speed.
• The resolution is measured in DPI (Dot Per Inch) and
indicates how many points a printer is able to create
in an interval wide a thumb (2.54 cm). Greater is the
DPI, better is the printer.
• The speed of a printer is measured in Pages Per
Minute (ppm)