IN THE 5TH CENTURY BCE

Lesson 1 Athenians settle arguments by

discussion and debate People
skilled in doing this were called
From the Perspective of Sophists, the first teachers of
Philosophy the West
The Philosophy of the Self
“The early philosophers sought to
The Self has been defined as
understand the nature of human
“as a unified being, essentially
beings, problems of morality and life
connected to consciousness,
philosophies” (Price, 2000)
awareness, and agency (or, at
least, with the faculty of
rational choice)“ .Different Socrates
philosophers have come up 470-399 BCE
with more specific “The unexamined life is not worth
characteristics of the Self, and living.”
over time, these meanings have Who is Socrates?
transformed from pure ● The mentor of Plato
abstractions to explanations ● Wanted to discover the
that hold scientific evidences. essential nature of knowledge,
justice, beauty and goodness
APPROXIMATELY 600 BCE (Moore and Bruder, 2002)
The Birth of Philosophy or the ● He didn’t write anything, he is
“love for wisdom” in Athens of
not a writer
Ancient Greece The Greeks in
● A lot of his thoughts were only
search for knowledge came up
known through Plato’s writing
with answers that are both
(The Dialogues)
cognitive and scientific in
SOCRATIC METHOD
nature (Price, 2000)
● This is Socrates’ method for
discovering what is essential in
GREEK PHILOSOPHERS IN MILETUS
the world and in people
● They chose to seek natural
● In this method, Socrates did
explanations to events and
not lecture, he instead would
phenomena around them
ask questions and engage the
instead of seeking for
person in a discussion
supernatural explanations
● He would begin by acting as if
from the gods that was passed
he did not know anything and
down through generations
would get the other person to
● These philosophers observed
clarify their ideas and resolve
changes in the world and
logical inconsistencies (Price,
wanted to explain these
2000)
changes by understanding the
● Using this method, the
laws of nature Their study of
questioner should be skilled at
change led them to the “idea of
detecting misconceptions and
permanence” (Price, 2000)
 at revealing them by asking the themselves to their deepest
right questions. nature
● His Socratic method allowed
him to question people’s The aim of the Socratic Method is to
beliefs and ideas, exposing make people think, seek and ask
their misconceptions and get again and again. Some may be
them to touch their souls angered and frustrated, but what is
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE important is for them to realize that
● Socrates believed that the real they do not know everything, that
self is not the physical body, there are things that they are
but rather the psyche (or soul). ignorant of, to accept this and to
He further posited that the continue learning and searching for
appearance of the body is answers (Moore and Bruder, 2002)
inferior to its functions.
● Socrates believed that his Good and Evil
mission in life was to seek the ● Good
highest knowledge and ○ Wealth, status, pleasure,
convince others who were social acceptance are
willing to seek his knowledge the thing we considered
with him the greatest good in life;
● He wanted to discover the ● Evil
essential nature of knowledge, ○ ‘all human beings strive
justice, beauty and goodness( for happiness, for
Moore and Bruder, 2002) happiness is the final
end in life. Everything we
Be true to thine self do because we think it
will make us a happy.
True self Therefore, we follow the
● The touching of the soul, may label that what will bring
mean helping the person to us happiness is good
get in touch with his true self and what will bring us
● The true self, Socrates said, is suffering and pain is evil”
not the body but the soul. Virtue
Virtue is inner goodness, and ● One supreme good, ultimate
real beauty is that of the soul good and moral excellence
(Price, 2000) ● Virtue – “a virtuous person is
one whose character is made
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE up of the moral qualities
● According to Socrates, real accepted as virtues include
understanding comes from courage, justice, prudence,
within the person and temperance.
● His Socratic method forces ● Virtue is greatest good in life,
people to use their innate for it can alone secure
reason by reaching inside happiness
 ● It is most important of the ● Plato explained that forms
state of soul refers to what are real and they
Happiness are not object that can be seen
● “human being naturally desires but can only be grasped
good as it alone secure intellectually.
happiness, with that knowledge 1. The Forms are ageless and
they have no choice but to be therefore eternal
virtuous” 2. The Forms are unchanging
● When we arrived at the and therefore permanent
knowledge of virtue we would 3. The Forms are unmoving and
become virtuous and we will indivisible
make our soul good and PLATO’S DUALISM
beautiful and when we perfect THE REALM OF SHADOWS
our soul we will attain true ● Composed of changing,
happiness. ‘sensible’ things which are
● Knowledge=virtues=happiness lesser entities and therefore
imperfect and flawed
THE REALM OF FORMS
PLATO
● Composed of eternal things
428 – 348 BCE which are permanent and
Wise men speak because they have perfect. It is the source of all
something to say; fools because they reality and true knowledge
have to say Plato’s View of Human Nature
Who is Plato? ● Think more and Know Yourself
● His real name is Aristocles ● Give ourselves a time to think
● He was nicknamed “Plato” about our lives and how to
because of his physical built lead them.
which means wide/broad ● Strengthen your self knowledge
● Left Athens for 12 years after you don’t get yourself easily
the death of Socrates pulled around by feelings by
● When he returned he subjecting your ideas to
established a school known as examination rather acting on
“The Academy” impulse.
THEORY OF FORMS ● According people we just go
● Plato’s Metaphysics along with “doxa” means
(philosophical study on the popular opinion.
causes and nature of things) ● In honor of his mentor he
● Plato explained that Forms called to process of
refers to what are real examination “Socratic
● They are not objects Discussion”
encountered with the senses View of human nature
but can only be grasped ● He believed that knowledge lies
intellectually within the person’s soul
● He considered human beings
THEORY OF FORMS as microcosms of the universal
 macrocosms i.e. everything in ● The story of the cave is an
the universe can also be found allegory of the life of
on people – earth, air, fire, enlightened people.
water, mind and spirit (Price, ● For Plato we are most of our
2000) lives in shadow, many of the
Soul things we get excited about like
Plato described the soul as having fame, perfect partner, high
three components: status job are infinitely less real
1. The Reason is rational and is that we suppose they are for
the motivation for goodness the most are phantoms
and truth projected by our culture.
2. The Spirited is non-rational
and is the will or the drive Theory of Love and Becoming
toward action ● Theory of Being
3. The Appetites are irrational ○ In knowing the truth,
and lean towards the desire for according to Plato, the
pleasures of the body person must become the
truth.
Plato believed that people are ○ To know for Plato is to
intrinsically good. Sometimes be. The more the person
however, judgements are made in knows, the more he is
ignorance and Plato equates and the better he is.
ignorance with evil. (Price, 2000) Plato’s Love
● Plato’s love begins with a
Theory of Love and Becoming feeling or experience that there
● ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE is something lacking
○ What people see are only ● This then drives the person to
shadows of reality which seek for that which is lacking
they believe are real ● Thoughts and efforts are then
things and represents directed towards the pursuit of
knowledge which is lacking
○ What these people fail to ● The person you need to get
realize is that the together with should have
shadows are not real for good qualities which you
according to Plato, “only yourself lack.
the Forms are real” ● For Plato, in a good
relationship, a couple should
Allegory of the Cave not love each other exactly as
● The most famous allegory in they are right now; rather they
philosophy. should be committed to
● The story was intended to educating each other to be the
compare “the effect of best version of themselves.
education and lack of it on our ● The deeper the thought, the
nature”. stronger is the love.
 Love is a process of seeking higher him answers to questions that
stages of being. interested him
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
The GREATER the love, the MORE 1. GOD as the source of all reality
intellectual component it will contain. and truth.
○ Through a mystical
● Lifelong longing and pursuit experience, a man is
seek even higher stages of love capable of knowing the
which lead to the possession of eternal truths
absolute beauty (Moore and ○ This is possible through
Bruder, 2002) the existence of one
eternal truth which is
To love the highest according to Plato God
is to become the best ○ God is within man and
transcends him
Christian Philosophers… 2. The sinfulness of man
● Their concern was with God ○ The cause of sin or evil is
and man’s relationship with an act of man’s freewill
God ○ MORAL GOODNESS CAN
● These Christian philosophers BE ONLY ACHIEVED
did not believe that THROUGH THE GRACE
self-knowledge and happiness OF GOD
were the ultimate goals of man The Role of Love
Greek Philosophers “For God is love and he created
They see man as basically humans for them to also love”
good and becomes evil ● Disordered love results when
through ignorance of what is man loves the wrong things
good which he believes will give him
Christian Philosophers happiness
They see man as sinners who St. Augustine explains
reject/go against a loving 1. Love of physical objects leads
God’s commands to sin of greed
2. Love for other people is not
St. Augustine of Hippo lasting and excessive love for
them is the sin of jealousy
354 – 436 CE
3. Love for the self leads to the
“God loves each of us as if there were
sin of people
only one of us. “
4. Love for God is the supreme
Who is St. Augustine?
virtue and only through loving
● Hippo, Africa God can man find real
● Became a priest and bishop of
Hippo
● Initially rejected Christianity for Rene Descartes
it seemed to him then that 1596 - 1650
Christianity could not provide “Cogito ergo sum.”
Who is Rene Descartes?
 ● Father of Modern Philosophy John Locke
● One of the Rationalist
1632 - 1704
Philosophers of Europe
“No man’s knowledge here can go
● These philosophers considered
beyond his experience.
truth as universal concept and
Who is John Locke?
reason is superior to and
● Born in Wrington, England
independent of sensory
● Interested in politics; Defender
experience
of the parliamentary system
● Cartesian Method and Analytic
● At Oxford, he studied medicine
Geometry
which would play a central role
Descartes’ View of Human Nature
in his life.
● “I think, therefore I am”
● At 57 years old, Locke
● Descartes believes that to
published a book which played
doubt is to think.
a significant role in the era of
● Skepticism refers to an attitude
Enlightenment(Price, 2000)
of doubt or disbelief, either in
general or toward a particular
He believed that knowledge results
object, or to any doubting or
from ideas produced a posteriori or
questioning attitude or state
objects that were experienced
of mind.
● The cognitive aspect of human
1. The process involves 2 forms:
nature is his basis for existence
Sensation wherein objects are
of the self.
experienced through senses
2. Reflection by which the mind
View of human nature
‘looks’ at the objects that were
Descartes deduced that a thinker is a
experienced to discover
thing that doubts, understands,
relationships that may exist
affirms, denies, wills, refuses and also
between them
imagines and feels (Price, 2000)
Locke contended that ideas are not
Descartes’ System
innate but rather the mind at birth is
Through math, he discovered that the
a “TABULA RASA” (i.e. Blank Slate)
human mind has TWO POWERS:
1. INTUITION or the ability to
Locke’s View of Human Nature
apprehend direction of certain
● He believed that we are all
truths
born as tabula rasa (blank
2. DEDUCTION or the power to
state)
discover what is not known by
● He argued that all knowledge
progressing in an orderly way
is obtained through
from what is already known
experience; he rejected the
The mind-body problem
concept of Rene’s ideas.
● The body, according to
● Locke thought that “we were
Descartes, is like a machine
born knowing nothing and
that is controlled by the will
instead all of our knowledge
and aided by the mind.
 comes to us through sensory explain the workings of the
data” mind
● Since there are no innate ideas The human mind
according to Locke, morals, According to Hume, there are two
religious, and political values types of perceptions: IMPRESSIONS
must come from experience. immediate sensations of external
View of human nature reality IDEAS recollections of the
Moral good depends on the impressions
conformity of a person’s behavior
towards some law In examining the patterns of thinking,
There a 3 laws according to Locke: Hume formulated three principles on
1. LAW OF OPINION – where how ideas relate to one another:
actions that are praiseworthy ● THE PRINCIPLE OF
are called VIRTUES and those RESEMBLANCE
are not are VICES ● THE PRINCIPLE OF
2. CIVIL LAW – where right actions CONTIGUITY
are enforced by people in ● THE PRINCIPLE OF CAUSE AND
authority EFFECT
3. DIVINE LAW – set by God on the
actions of man Hume’s View of Human Nature
Empiricism ● Hume believed that we are
● Belief that sense – experience more influenced by our feelings
is the most reliable source of than by reason.
knowledge. ● People are more motivated by
● It emphasizes the role of our feelings than any other
experience and evidence, analysis and logic.
especially sensory perception, ● Hume argued that the idea of
in the formation of ideas, and the self doesn’t persist over
argues that the only knowledge time. He said there is no you
humans can have is a based that is the same person from
on experience birth to death. He said the
concept of the self is just an
David Hume illusion.
● Hume said that the so- called
1711 - 1776
“self” is just a bundle of
“A wise proportions his belief to the
impressions, consisting of a
evidence. “
zillion different things – your
Who is David Hume?
body, your mind, emotions,
● Born in Edinburgh, Scotland
preferences, memories, even
● At the time he was enrolled at labels that are imposed on you
the University of Edinburgh, he by others.
lost his faith
● It all begins with impressions,
● He relied on the scientific without impressions there will
method, believing that it could be no ideas
analyze human nature and View of Human Nature
In looking for ‘the self’, Hume only ● He concluded that all objects
discovered sense of impressions of knowledge, which includes
● He believed that like causality, the self, are phenomenal.
‘the self’ is also a product of In the matter of God, Kant stated that
imagination the Kingdom of God is within man
● There is no such thing as ● God is manifested in people’s
‘personal identity’ behind lives therefore it is man’s duty
perceptions and feelings that to move towards perfection
come and go; THERE IS NO
PERMANENT/UNCHANGING Sigmund Freud
SELF
1856 - 1939
“The mind is like an iceberg: it floats
Immanuel Kant with one seventh of its bulk above
1724 - 1804 water.”
“I have no knowledge of myself as I Who is Sigmund Freud?
am, but merely as I appear to myself. “ ● Austrian Neurologist;
Who is Immanuel Kant? considered as one of the
● Lived in the town of Konisberg pioneering figures in the field
in East Prussia (presently of psychology
Western Russia) ● His psychodynamic theory has
● Founder of German Idealism characteristics of
● Wrote three books: Critique of philosophical thought
Pure Reason, Critique of ● Freud made use of methods
Practical reason and Critique like free association and dream
of Judgement analysis for his clinical practice

Views of the mind Structures of the mind

Kant argued that the mind is not just In Freud’s illustration, he made use of
a passive receiver of sense the typical iceberg to show how the
experience but rather actively mind works based on his theorizing
participates in knowing the objects it
experiences The three levels of the mind are
structured by the following
View of Human Nature and The Self components:
“When the self sees an object, it tends ● ID – based on the pleasure
to remember its characteristics and principle
applies on it, the forms of time and ● EGO – based on the reality
space” principle
● The term he used for this ● SUPER EGO – primarily
experience of the self and its dependent on learning the
unity with objects is difference between right or
TRANSCENDENTAL wrong
APPERCEPTION
 “Man need not be degraded into a
machine by being denied to be a
ghost in a machine.”
Who is Gilbert Ryle?
● English Philosopher
● Contradicted Cartesian
Dualism
● Stated that many of the
philosophical problems were
caused by the wrong use of
language
● He wrote the book “The
Concept of the Mind”
View of Human Nature and
Freud in his 1920 book, Beyond the Knowledge
Pleasure Principle, he presented 2 ● Ryle thought that freewill was
kinds of instincts that drive individual invented to answer the
behavior: question of whether an action
● EROS – Life Instinct; the energy deserves praise or blame.
is called LIBIDO and urges ● He assumes that “Man’s
necessary for individual and actions must be moral for it to
species survival like thirst, be free”
hunger and sex Ryle touched two types of knowledge:
● THANATOS – Death Instinct; ● KNOWING-THAT
behavior that is directed ○ Refers to knowing facts/
towards destruction in the information
form of aggression and ● KNOWING-HOW
violence ○ Using facts in the
View of Human Nature performance of some
“Man’s behavior by his pleasure skill or technical abilities
seeking life instinct and his “A person may acquire a great bulk of
destructive instinct is said to be born knowledge but without the ability to
with his ego already in conflict” use it to solve some practical
● He sees man as a product of problems to make his life easier, this
his past lodged within his bulk of knowledge is deemed to be
subconscious. worthless”
● Man then lives his life
balancing the forces of life and Patricia & Paul Churchland
death – making mere existence
a challenge “There isn’t a special thing called the
mind. The mind is just the brain.” -
Patricia Churchland
Gilbert Ryle
1900 - 1976 Who is Patricia and Paul Churchland?
● Patricia Churchland
 ○ Born on July 16, 1943 realities of the brain and the extant
○ Canadian-American reality”
Philosopher, known for
her claims that man’s Maurice Merleau-Ponty
brain is responsible for
the identity known as the 1908 - 1961
self Who is Maurice Merleau-Ponty?
● Paul Churchland ● French Phenomenological
Philosopher
○ Born on October 21, 1942
● ‘Philosopher of the Body’
○ Canadian Philosopher.
● Center of his philosophy is the
Patricia coined the term emphasis placed on the
NEUROPHILOSOPHY, who together human body as the primary
with Paul, was dissatisfied with the site of knowing the world
particular approach of philosophers ● He focus on the relationship of
and instead sought to guide self – experience and
scientific theorizing with philosophy experience of other through
and guide philosophy with scientific PERCEPTION.
inquiry View of human nature
According to Merleau-Ponty, The
The philosophy of neuroscience is world and the sense of self are
the study of the philosophy of the emergent phenomena in the ongoing
mind, the philosophy of science, process of man’s ‘becoming’
neuroscience and psychology.
● Aims to explore the relevance In addition he stated that perception
of the neuroscientific studies is not purely the result of sensations
to the philosophy of the mind nor is it purely interpretation. Rather,
consciousness is a process that
Patricia claims that the man’s brain is includes sensing as well as
responsible for the identity known as interpreting/reasoning
‘the self’ ● It is possible that one object
● The biochemical properties of may be perceived from various
the brain according to this perspectives.
philosophy is really responsible ● Man, the perceiver, may thus
for man’s thoughts, feelings experience all the perspectives
and behavior of the object from the other
objects in its environment and
at the same time perceive all
View of Human Nature the other perspective the
“Man is endowed with more than just object may have on other
physical or neurological objects/being surrounding it.
characteristics. Despite research
findings, neurophilosophy states that
the self is real, that it is the tool that
helps the person tune-in to the