•

Ministry of Higher Education

and Scientific Research

University of Technology
Petroleum and Gas Engineeri11g Department
Second stage

T , T,-

Prepared by :
Ass. Leet. Anfal Hayder Sadeq
 lAB MANIJAl
Fltaid mecha ni cs p1·ovides tt1e knowledge
necessary for petrole u1n engi11eers to develop
design rnethods fo1· drilli11g, production, and
transport of oil a nd gas. Basic mechanical laws
a1·e applied for perfect fluid flow, Newtonian
fluid, non-Newto11ia11 fluid, and multiple-pl1ase
flows.
The cot1rse of ai>plied fluid mechanics
labo1·atory is designed to enhance petroleum
engi11eering students' understanding and
knowledge of experime ntal methods and the
basic principles of fluid mechanics and apply
those co11cepts in practice.
The Jab 1nanual provides students with an
overview of ten different fluid mechanics
laboratory experiments and their practical
applications. The objectives, practical
applications, methods, theory, and equipment
required to perform each experiment are
presented. The experimental procedure, data
collection, and presentation of the results are
explained in detail.
 Volumetric Flow Rate Measurement

OBJECTIVE
Hydraulic bench is a very useful apparatus nuid used to measure
the volumetric flow rate at different valve positions using the
volumetric tank of hydraulic bench. Various apparatus can be set
on its top surface, like an orifice meter, head losses in pipes, a
venture device, etc.

APPARATUS

I
r 7 1. Walef Olannel

l 6
2 i &.. 7
2. Wolllin9 Bendl
3. AowCM!IOIVM
4. Main Swit:11
J 8
-4
s. ~~
9 6. OumpV.twe

~ 10 7. VabnMric Tri
8. Sight Tube
9. °""P var..

10. Sump Tri

'· WATER CHANNEL

It is used in a number of experiments because it provides passage
for water for different experiments. A valve is also attached to the
channel to n1easure the depth of water in the channel.

T.WORKING BENCH
This is t~e upper side of the channel. It is used to attach
accessories on tests.
,._ CON'TROL/FLOW VALVI~
lt is used to regulate the now in the pipe, i.e., to increase or
decrease the inflow of water into the hydraulic bench.

t. MAIN SWITCH/STAR'fER
It is (on /off) the hydraulic bench.

0 .CENTRIFUGAL l'UMI'
It draws water from the sump tank and supplies it for performing
experiments.

i. DUMP VALVE
It is used for emptying volumetric tanks. It is located at the
bottom of the volumetric tank.

v. A VOLUMETRIC TANK
It stores water coming from the channel. This tank is stepped to
accommodate low or high flow rates. It has a capacity oft' liters.

A. SIGHT TUBE (SCALE AND TAPPING)

A sight tube and scale are connected to a tap in the base of the
volumetric tank and give an instantaneous indication of water
level.

~- OVERFLOW
It is an opening in the upper portion of the volumetric tank. It
sends the water level above ti liters to the sump tank.

'•. SUM P TANK

It stores water for the hydraulic bench. It is located on the bottom
portion of the hydraulic bench. Water from here is transported to
other parts by using a pump. It has a capacity of ' ' · liters.

PROCEDURE

'. Switch on the centrifugal pump.

". Open the dump valve to empty the measuring tank.When
the measuring tank is empty, connect the pump and close
the dump valve.
Y'. Write down the reading of the level tube, si multaneously
switch the chronometer on.

With these readings, you can calculate the flow as illustrated in

the follo"'ing equation:
final level(liters) - starting level(liters)
o umetri c ·fl. ow rate Q = _____,;._ __,,;____::._ ___;:..-~
V- I _ _ _ time(sec)_ _ _~_ __.

t. Tabulate the res11lts :

0• Draw graphically the Q (Lisee) vs. V (L).

'\, Draw graphically the Q (Lisee) vs. T (sec).
 Osborne Reynolds Demonstranon

OBJECTIVE

'· Observation of the laminar, transitional, and turbulent

•
regimes.
'. Study the velocity profile and calculate Reynolds' s number.

INTRODUCTION

The Osborne Reynolds Demonstration has been designed for

students experiments on laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow.
It consists of a transparent header tank and flo,v visualiz ation
pipe. The header tank is provided with a diffuser and stilling
materials at the bottom to provide a constant head of water to be
discharged through a bell-mouth entry to the tlo,v visualization
pipe. Flow through this pipe is regulated using a control valve at
the discharged end. The water flow rate through the pipe can be
measured using a volumetric tank or volun1etric cylinder. The
velocity of the water can therefore be determined to allo,v the
calculation of Reynolds number. A dye injection system is
instal.led on top of the header tank so that the flo,v pattern in the
pipe can be visualized.
APPARATUS

'. Ink tank or ink reservoir.

T. Ink injection valve.
,. . Ink injector.
 --
t. Head tank or now tank.
0
• OverOow tube.

'· Bell n1outh or nuzzle.

v. Observation tube.
"· Water inlet pipe.
~. Flow control valve.

THEORY

The Rey nolds nun1ber is a din1ens ionless ratio of inertia forces to

v iscou s forces anti is used to identify certain characteristics of
lluid Oo\v. T he l{eynolds nu,nber is extremely irnportant in
n1 odeling pipe n o,v. It can be used to detern1inc the type of fl ow
occurring: la,ninar or turbulent. Under la111ina r conditions, the
velocity distributio n of the fluid within the pipe is essentially
( parabolic. \ \/ hen turbulent n ow exis ts, the velocity profile is
\ " flatter" than in the la,ninar case because the mixing effect,
which is characteristic of turbulent llow, helps to 1nor e evenly
distribute the kinct.ic energy of the fluid over most of the cross
section. In most engineering texts, a l~eynolds nurnber great er
than ' ' • • is usually a ccepted as the v~1lue at trans ition , that is,
the va lue of the l{ey nolds n un1ber bet"'een laminar and turbulent
fl o,v regin1es. l ' he Reynolds nun1her that ex ists any,,·h ere in th e
trans ition region is called the critical l{C)'nohJs nurnber. For Ile
g reater than ,. • • • o r t • • ·, the pipe tlo" ' is us ua ll y turbulent. By
very careful ma nipulation of the apparatus to 1ninin1ize all
disturbances, s uch as vihrations, it is poss ible to have lan1inar
fl ow fo r Reynolds nu111bers n1uch s1nallcr th~,n ' ' · •.

PROCEDURE

, . Fill the ink tank or ink reservoir with a pproximately ' • • 1111 of
water and ' ml of ink.
Y. Start the pump and fill the tank slowly until reaching the
overflow level; later, close the control valve completely on the
 Hydraulic Bench to avoid that the water returns, and stop the
pump.
,. . Open and close the flow control valve several times to purge
the visualization tube.
t. Wait until the liquid in the apparatus is steady and spend ten
minutes before proceeding to the experiment. At this time, we
will proceed to measure the water temperature.
0 • Open up the ink injection valve little by little until you get a

slow current with the coloring.

'· While the ,vater flow is slow, the coloring traces a parallel line
inside the visualization tube (Laminar regime).lncrease the
flow , opening the control valve progressively and at the same
time open the flo,v control valve of the bench. When the flow is
increased, you can observe alterations in the coloring that it
wiJI begin to oscillate (transition regime), until finally the
coloring is dispersed completely in the water (turbulence
regimen).

CALCULATION
'. Calculate the volumetric flow rate

Q _ voh,me(mL)
ac11u1I - • ( )
tim e sec

,. . Calculate the velocity (m/s).

V = g_A
,. . Calculate Reynolds nun1ber.

Re= P v d
µ
t. Tabulate the results. Qac1ua1, v, and Re.

0• Plot Re. no. vs. v(m/sec). Choose the transitional at

opening the flow control valve.
'· Plot Re. No. vs. v(m/sec). Choose the transitional at
closing the flow control valve.
 ..
WJBRATION OF BOmON mE PRESSURE GAll61

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this experiment is to perform pressure

calibration on a llourdon tube pressure gage using a dead weight
tester.

INTRODUCTION

The pressure intensity at any point in static or moving fluid can

be measured using various types of pressure measuring
instrun1ents. One of these devices is the Bourdon tube press ure
gage. Bourdon tube pressure gages are most widely used
nowadays because of their reliability, compactness, low cost, and
ease of use. It consists of a curved tube of elliptical cross-section
bent into a circular arc, as shown in Fig. '. When pressure is
applied to the tube, it tends to straighten out, and the deflection of
the end of the tube is con1n1unicated through a system of levers to
a recording pointer. This gauge is widely used for steam and
compressed gases. l ' he pressure indicated is the difference
between the system pressure and the external (an1bient) pressure
and is usually referred to as the gauge pressure.

0
$« t1ot, A ,.I

e
...,,• ..,_ tl.t"..

Figun- , : Scheniatlc of a bourdon•tube pressure gage

As the Bourdon tube pressure gage is extensively used, the
stiffness of the internal components changes from factory setup,
and therefore calibration is necessary to give correct pressure
readings. Calibration means checking the pressure gage readings
against a very accurate device. One of the calibration devices that
is available in our lab is the so-called "Dead Weight Tester"

APPARATUS
This dead-weight pressure gauge calibrator consists of a
precision-machined piston and cylinder assembly mounted on
leveling sc rews. A Bourdon ga uge is supplied for calibration. The
weights supplied are added to the upper end of the piston rod,
which is rotated to minimize friction effects. The ga uge is thus
subject to known pressures, which may be compared with the
gauge readings and an error curve drawn .

Moss C - -,
piston

~ ,,., /
'

I
· Forc e F

•• c ylinder

/
/ Reference
......... ... ,,. ...
, ... ,.,·
pressure
AreaA ·.·.:
·.· ,· . .. -........
.~·•,.,:, , ...
,,.
P= FI A
.. . . ..
· 1 .,, . , ,

. . . .. .
••• •
, ..
. .•!•~: • 0 I I \..
....., .... . ,. ..,,..,.
. ... ;•. ...... JI"
. . ·.·-~ . •
.
.. . ....... . ,.,,. .., ....• •
•
, ....
l...•-t•-, . . .......'f,.· ~ · .,.. ...
•
... •

.=... •
. ..·
• '" •
\. . . ..... ~
f'
·
♦ • • I •
T
PROCEDURES
'. Fill up a cylinder and a connecting hose with water.
T. Insert the piston into the cylinder and remove as much air
(bubbles) as possible front the cylinder and hose.
,. . Load weights on the piston in an increment of •, 0 kg so as to
cover the Bourdon-tube pressure range front zero to
maximun1 pressure on the scale.
t. Read the indicated Bourdon-tube pressure gauge reading.
Prior to taking a reading for each weight, rotate the piston to
minimize the friction effect on the reading.
0 • After the maximum pressure reading is obtained, unload

weights from the piston by the same increment, and repeat

step four ..

DATA ANALYSIS
'· Mass of the piston: •, 0 kg
V. Diameter of piston: '" mm
"· Set of masses: • , 0 kg, ' kg, T, o kg, o kg

CALCULATION
'. Calculate the true pressure (kN/m ').
total load on piston (kg) • g ( 01 / sec2 )
True pressure (N/ m 2 ) = cross sectional
. area of piston
. (1n2)
'f. Total load on the piston (kg) = mass of the piston + ntass
added to the piston.

,. . Calculate the error.

Pressure error== true pressure -ga11ge pressure

t. Tabulate the results for (increasing and decreasing):

0• Plot a graph of Bourdon pressure (calibrated) for increasing
and decreasing orders of weight versus true pressure. Extend
the graphs and check if they intercept a point of origin.
Comment on the difference in the graph profiles and explain
the possible reason for the graphs not intercepting the origin
point (if so).
'· Plot a graph of the percentage of error versus true pressure.
Compare and comn1ent on the difference in the percentage of
error with respect to true pressure, and briefly discuss factors
contributing to such error.
 BERNOIJLU'S fflEOREM DEMONSTRATION

INTRODUCTION

Energy presents itself in the form of pressu re, velocity, and

elevation in fluids with no energy exchange due to viscous
dissipation, heat transfer, or shaft work (pump or so me other
device). The relationship arnong these three forms of ener1,,y was
first stated by Daniel Bernoulli (' V • • - 'VAT), based UJ>on the
conservation of energy principle. Bernoulli's theorem pertaining
to a flow streamline is based on three assumptions: steady now,
incompressible fluid, and no losses from the fluid friction. The
validity of Bernoulli's equation will be examined i11 this
experiment.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Bernoulli's theorem provides a rnathcmatical n1cans for

understanding the mechanics of fluids. It has n1any real-world
applications, ranging from understanding the aerodynamics of an
airplane to calculating wind load on buildings, designing ,vatcr
supply and sewer networks, rneasuring flow using devices such as
weirs and venture meters, estimating seepage through soil, etc.
Although the expression for Bernoulli's theo ren1 is simple, the
principle involved in the equation plays a vital role in the
technological advancements designed to irnprove the quality of
human life.

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to investigate the validity of
the Bernoulli equation when it is applied to a steady flow of water
through a tapered duct.
METHOD
In this experiment, the validity of Bernoulli's equation will be
verified with the use of a tapered duct (venturi system) connected
with manometers to measure the pressure head and total head at
known points along the flow.

EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
The Bernoulli test apparatus consists of a tapered duct (venturi),
a series of n1anometers tapped into the venturi to measure the
pressure head, and a hypodermic probe that can be traversed
along the center of the test section to measure the total head. The
0
test section is a circular duct of varying diameter with a ' t
inclined angle on one side and a ,. ' 0 inclined angle on the other
side. A series of side-hole pressure tapings are provided to
connect manometers to the test section (Figure ,.).

• -~__ Air-bleed wlvc

-
• •
. : : : . - - - - - Manomc1cr tube

Unions

•
Gland nut

. - .....

fig un- • : Armfield Bernoulli' s a pparatus te st equipment

~1_ano meters a llow the simulta neo us meas urement of the pressure
beads a t alJ six sec tions a long th e duct. T he dimen sions of the test
section, th e tapping positions, a nd th e test secti on dia meters a re
sbo~·n in Figure ,. . T he test section incor pora tes O\'o unio ns, one
at eith er end , to facilitate re,·ersal fo r co nve rgent or divergent
testing. A probe is provided to measure th e tota l press ure head
a lo ng th e test sec ti on by pos it ionin g it a t a ny section of th e du ct.
T his p robe may be moved a ft er slac kenin g th e gla nd nut , which
hould be re-tightened b)' ba nd. To p revent dani age, th e pro be
s hould be full)· inse rt ed durin g tra nsport/storage. T he press ure
taps a re co nn ect ed to n1 a non1 eters th a t a re ni ounted o n a
baseboa r d. T he flo\\' through the test secti on ca n be adj usted by
the appa ra tus contr ol va lve or the bench control va lve.

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~ laooructes l\ o Test sectiou dia111clcr (llllD)

bl 25.0
~ 13.9
h3 11 8
h.l 10 7
b5 10.0
b6 2~.o

Figure • : Test sections, manon1elt-r positions. and dian1f'lers or 1hr duct along the test serlio n
 Bt•rnoulli's theorc111 11ssun1cs that the flo,v is frictionless, steady,
und inco1nprcssiblc. l ' hcse 11ssu111ptions 11rc also bused on the luws
of co11sc1"\ ution of n1nss i111d energy. l 'hus, the input 111nss nnd
1

energy for n given control ,•ol111ne nre equul to the output 1nnss
an,1 energy:

Qin = Q01u. (Ia)

Ei11 = Eoul {lb)
These n,,o h1,,·s nn,1 the definition of ,vork nnd pressure arc the
basis for Brrnoulli's theort•n1 :1nd can be expressed us follo,vs for
an~· n,•o points loc11ted on the s:1n1e stre:1n1line in the flo,v :
., ~

El.+~+
pg 2g z1 -
- El.+~
pg 2g + ,(,2
... (2)

where:
P: pressure, g: acccle1·:1tion due to gravity, v: fluid velocity, and z:
vertical elevation of the fluid.

Jo this experiment, since the duct is horizontal, the clifferencc in

height can be disregarded, i.e., z ,=z,

The hydrostatic pressure (P) nlong the tlo,v is 1neasured by

n1anon1eters tapped into the duct. ·rhe press ure head (h), thus, is
calculated as:

h = pg
E (3)

Therefore, Bernoulli's equation for the test section can be ,,•ritten

as:

2
in ,vhich is ~ called the velocity heacl (hd),
2g
 ---
'l'he cotul head (h,) 111ay be n1easurcd hy the traversing
hyiuulerinic probe. 'fhis probe is inserted into the duct with its
cntl-holt· f1t,·ini.: the flo,v so thul th e no,v becomes stagnant locally
111 this cntl; thus:
'.J
lit = h+ fy (5)
'l'he conscrvution of energy or the llcrnoulli's equation can be
cxprt·sst:tl 11s:
ht 1 = ltt2 ( 6)
'l'hc no,v ,·clocity is 111c11surt:d by collecting a volume of the nuid
(V) o,•cr n ti111c period (t). 'fhc 110,v rate is calculated as:

Q =f (7)
·1·hl' ,·l'locity of tlo,,, at :1ny section of th e duct ,vith a cross-
Sl'c tionnl 11rc11 of is detrr1nined as:

V =~ (8)
f'or 1111 inco1nprrssible fluid, conservation of 1nass through the test
s,•ction should be also sn tislicd (Equation 'a), i.e.:

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

' . t>tu ce th e apJl~,r~ltus on the hydraulic bench and ensure that the
outflo,,· tube is position ed ahove the ,,otumctric tank to
f11cilit11tr tin1ed volun1e collections.
,. . Level the apparatus base by adjusting its feet. (A spirit level is
attached to the base for this purpose.) For accurate height
111easurcn1ent fron1 th e 111anon1eters, the upparatus 111ust be
horizontal.
r. lnstull the test section ,vith the 't 0 tapered section converging
in the 110,v direction. If the test section needs to be reversed, the
total head 1>robe 111ust be retracted before releasing the
n1ounting cour>lings.
t. Connect the apparatus inlet to the bench now supply, close the
bench valve, and the apparatus now control valve, and start
the purnp. Gradually open the bench valve to fill the test
section with water.
0• 'fhe following steps should be taken to purge air from the
pressure taJ>ping points and rr1anometers:

• Close both the bench valve and the arraratus now control
valve.
• Remove the cap frorn the air valve, connect a srnall tube from
the air valve to the volurnetric tank, and open the air bleed
sc rew.
• Open the bench valve and allow no,v through the n1anometers
to purge all air from thern, then tighten the air bleed scre,v and
partly open the bench valve and the apparatus flow control
valve.
• Open the air bleed sc re,v slightly to allo,,v air to enter the top of
the n1anon1etcrs (you rnay need to adjust both valves to achieve
this), and re-tighten the sc rew ,vhen the manometer levels
reach a convenient height. The n1aximum flow ,viii be
determined by having a maximum (h ,) and ,ninimum (h•)
,nanometer readings on the baseboard.

If needed, the manon1etcr levels can be adjuste<I by using an air

purnp to pressurize thcrn. This can be accomplished by attaching
the hand purnp tube to the air blee<I valve, opening the sc re,v, and
purnping air into the rnanon·1eters. Close the scre,v, after
pun1ping, to retain the pressure in the systen1.

i, Take read ings of ,nanometers h, to h, \\'hen the \Vater level in

the rnanon1 eters is steady. The total pressure probe should be
retracted from the test section durin g this rcacling.
V. Measure th e total head by traversing the total pressure probe
along the test section from h, to h,.
A, Measure the flo,v rate using a tirned volu111e collection. To do
that, close the ball valve and use a stop,vatch to measure the
tin1e it takes to accumulate a kno,vn volurne of fluid in the
tank, ,vhich is read fron1 the sight glass. You should collect
 fltiid for at least one 111i1111te tr, 111ini111izc tl111in~ t'r'r,,r~. Yt,u
may repent tl1e tlo,v 111eas11re111c11t twice f o cJ1t<'k for
repeatability. Be s11re that the tr,tal 1,rcssurc r,r,,t,cis rctru ctc(J
from the test section during this 111e11s11rc111ent.
-. . Reduce lite flo,v rutc to J!ive a hca,1 difference of at,,,ut • • ,rau 1
bct,vccn 111a110111eters ' nntl O (h 1- h•). ·rhiH i.11 tltc rninirr,11,11
flo,v cxperin1cnt. Measure the pressure head, totnl hcsecJ, anti
flo,v.
'·. Repeat the process for one n1orc n,,w rntc, with t·hc (l1 1-h•)
difference approxin1atcly half,vay l>rt,vccn those ol>tairJcd for
the minin1un1 ancl 111axin1u1n flo,vs. ·rttis is the uvcra~c now
•
experiment.
' '. Reverse the test section (,vith t.hc T ' 0 t:1pcrcd section
converging in the flo,v direction) in or<.lcr to ot>scrvc the cffccf fl
of a more rapi,lly converging section. Ensure th:1t th e total
pressure probe is fully ,vithdrawn fron1 the test section, IJut not
p11lled out of its gui,lc in the ,Jo,vnstrean1 co11r1line. Unscrew
the two couplings, re1r1ove the test section an<I reverse it, th en
reassen1ble it by tightening the couplings.
\ T. Perform three sets of flow, anti conduct pressure and now
n1easuren1cnts as above.

CALCULATIONS

For each set of measurcn1cnts, calculate the flow rate; flow

velocity, velocity head, anti total heall, (pressure head+ velocity
head). Record your calculations in the Result Ta hie.
 ~
Poslllon 2: fJpe,lnc2 1°to t◄•

Dku ncr Vrloc 1ty Prr nu<r Vrlodtv C•kul.ttrd ~ .tSu,fd

lnt Flow Flow R•t• 'lou,
Tr<t Sect ,on i<>to duel (rnl, l Ht.ad (ml Htad (m) Tota,
No Atr.i (m'l (m'l•l Htold (ml
(m) Hr.ad (ml
hi 0 0 00049
h2 0.06028 OOOO I S
h3 006868 0 00011
1
h4 0.07318 0 00009
hS 0.0 8108 0000079
h6 0.14154 0 00049
hl 0 0 00049
h2 006028 0 0001 5
h3 006868 000011
2
h4 0.07318 0.00009
h5 0.08108 0.000079
h6 0.14154 0 00049
hi 0 000049
h2 006028 000015
h3 0.06868 0.00011
3
h4 0.07318 0 00009
h5 008108 0.000079
h6 0 14 )54 0.00049

Po.Ilion 1: T•perinc 1◄• to 21•

Ttit o..unc,, Flow FlowR,llt Vrloc1ty Vrl0<1ty C•lculattd M<e•su•rd

r.., S.Ct,on mto duct Prnsurr
No (m'/s) To tal Taul
(m) Ar•~ (m') (mis) Hrad (m) Hrad (m)
Hrad (m) Hrlld (m)

hl 0 000049
h2 006028 000015
h3 0 0681>8 000011
I
h4 007318 0 00009
hS 008108 0000079
h6 0 14154 000049

hi 0 000049
h2 006028 0.00015
hJ 006868 000011
2
h4 007318 000009
hS 008 108 0000079

h6 0 14154 000049
hl 0 000049

h2 0.06028 000015
h3 006868 0 00'.ll 1
3
h4 007318 000009

hS 008108 0000079

h6 0 14154 0 00049
 FmmoN LOSS IN SMOOTH AND BOUGH PIPES

OB)EC'flV E
, . To det er111in c the relationship bet,veen head loss tlue to nuid
friction and ve locit y for th e flo,v of ,vatcr through sn1ooth
and rough bore pipes and to confirn1 the he:1d loss friction
factor (t).
,. . ·r o co111pare the head loss predicted by a pipe friction
equation ,vith a tlirect n1 eas ure heacl loss.

APPARATUS

T he Arn1fiel,I C "I-MKII- ' • Fluid Fricti on Apparatus is designed

to allo,, th e cletailed study of the fluid friction hcatl losses th at
1

occ ur when an incon1pressible fluid no,vs through pipes, bends,

valves, an cl pipe flo,v n1ctcring clcvices.

.-
 -
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I

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I
I
l I .
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,
I• •

The test pipes and fittings arc n1011ntc(I on a tuhular fran1c

carried on castors. Water is fed in fron1 the hydraulics bench via
the barbed connector (' ), no,vs through the net,vork of pipes and
fittings, ancJ is fe(I back into the volumetric tank via the ex it tube
(' r). The pipes ~•re ~•rranged to provide facilities fo r testing the
follo,vi ng: The Armfield C '\-M KII-' • Fluicl Friction Apparatus
is designed to allo,v the detailed study of the fluid friction hea d
losses ,vhich occur when an incon1pressible nuid flow s through
pipes, bends, valves and pipe no,v metering devices.

• An in-line s trainer ( Y) • A, • 0 clbow(YY)

• An artificially roug hened pipt~(V) • A sudden contraction (I")
•A~ · 0 mitre( ' t) • A sudden enlargc,nent ( ' ')
• A long radius , • 0 be nd (') • A ga te va h•e ( ' I )
• A s ho rt radius ~ · 0 bend (' 0 • A globe valve('·)
•At oo "Y" (t) • A~ ,0 "'f " ( I 1")
• A t 00 elbow ( 0 ) • •.<\ b:1II ,·11h•e (I ')

• A n orifice mete r m a d e of clear • A Ve n t uri ,ne te r n1ade of clenr

acrylic (' , ) acrylic (' ")

• S m ooth bore pipes of t different • ,\ pipe sectio n n1:1dc of clcur

dian1e te rs ("), ( ~). ('·) and ( 1 ') ncr)·lic with a Pitot s t:1tic tube (IV)

SPECIFICATIONS
Test Pipe Diameters:
'· ,~ . ,111m x ,v , 'l'mn1
 " · '" ,V n1111 x ' · . ~1nn1
,- • ~ • o nl 01 X V • V Ill 01
t • ' , t Ol 01 l t • o Ill 01
(artificial!)' rou~hcn cd)
o . , ~ . , 01111 " , o . " 111111

Distuncc bct"\\'CCn tapin gs: ' • · · 111

THEORY
T ,,·o t) pes of n o,,· ,na)· e'<ist in a pipe.
1

' ) La n,inar n o,v :11 lo," velocities ,,·here h oc u.

") Turbulent n o,, a t higher ,·clocitics ,,here h oc u ".
\\'here h is the hea d loss tlue t o friction and u is th e nuid
velocity:
• For a circular pi1>e n o,"i ng full, the head loss due to fric tio n
n1av• be calculated fro n1 the forn1ula :
2/lt, 2
h =---
gd
' " here:
I: is the length of the pipe between tapin gs
d: is the internal dia n1eter of the piJ>e
u: is the rnean velocity of ,vater thro ugh the pipe in m/s
g : is the acceleration due to g ravity in mis'
f: is the pipe fricti o n coefficient

• The mean velocit y is ob tained fro m

4Q
ll = - -
rrd2
Where: Q is the vo lun1e tric flo,, rate in n1"/s

• Rcyr1olds' nur11bcr, l{e, is tlefinc<l as:

pud
Re = - -
µ
Where:
µ is th e dynamic viscosity (' , ' 0 x ' •·" Ns/n1 ' at ' 0 °C) a11d p
--
is th,• ,1,•nsit ~• ( \ \ \ k~/ 111 r u t ' 0 °C).
\
l 'l1c , 111lue of f 111ny Ile ,lctrr111in,·,I us n function tJf Re nnd the
r,·lnti,•c ro11~l111,·ss t: =-,•/J nsin~ a Moo,ly tlinJ!rnn, (1>rovillcd at the
cn,1 of the hun,lout).
1-~quntior, (') l'!III he usc,I to ,l,·tcr111i11c the thcorcticnl hcntl loss hy
r,•:,,lin)! the vnluc of f ftlr th,· lliJlC in th,• ~l oot.ly ,lingrnn1 if you
kno,,· Re nn,1 a:.
• \Vhcn h is 11,cnsur,·,I cx11cri111c11t11lly. Eq. ( ') cnn be
rcnrrungetl to co1111,11t(• 1111 cx1,cri111,·11tnl \':1luc for f.

. l1,11,I
I = 21,,2
PROCEl)URE

'. r•ri111,· the J>ipc 11,·t,, ork ,, ith ,,,:1ter. Op,·11 :111,I close the
1

11p1>ro1lriatc , 111lv,·s to ol>lnin th,· llo,,· of ,vatcr throu gh the

rcquir,•tl t,·st J>ip,·.
T . l ':,kc r,•uclings at u 11u111bcr <>f tliff,·rcnt no,v rates, altering the
no,v us in:,! the control ,,ulYt' on th,· :1p11:1rat11s (te11 readings is
s u ffici,·11t to 1>1·0,lucc :1 j!Ootl h,·u,1-tl,,,,, ,·u 1·, c ).
1

,. . i\ le.1surc no,,· rut es using the vol11111ctric t:11,k. For s111all n o,v
rutes, u se th,· rncas11ri11g cylir,,lcr. l\tlcasurc t,cad loss bcn,·ce11
the tapir1gs 11sir1g the portable 11ress11rc n1ctcr or 1>rcssurizccl
,,,ntcr 111anon1ct,·r, as a11propriatc.
t. Obtair1 rca,Jings 011 all ftl11r s n1tl(ltl1 test 1>i11cs if yo11 huve the
tinl('.
0 •,.\II rea,lings sl1oul<I lJc t11bul:1tcll i11 tl1c table pro,·illed at the
end of the l1a11do ut
'· Plot a gratJh of h (cx 1>crin1,·11t11I) vcrstas ti for eaclt size of
pipe. lllc11tif)' tl1c la111inar, trl1ns iti(lr1 a11<l turbulc11t zo11cs 011
the graphs.
v. Confirn1 tl1~1t the gra 11h is a s traig l1t line for the zo r1e of
la111inar tlo,,· 11 •1 u. Lise tl1e graph to clctcr1nine the critical
Rcy11olds' 11u1nbcr for tra11sition fro111 l.1n1i11ar to tt1rbt1lc11t
flo,v.
 "· Plot a graph of the experin1ent.1I (direct reading) and
ca lculated values of h (using Eq. ' and the readings of (f)
from the l\'1oody diagran1) ,•ersus Re for a ll pipe dian1eters
in the sa me graph and make a con1parison bet,,·een the
experimental and theoretical cun·es.

Note: be carefu l about the units so that you obtain h in m 1-1,O

Tablt of r•adiap aad r.sulb

Volum, TIM
n~ ~ Vtlociry Rf\'D.Oldl
t.ltUW"N Frictioa Ca.loJl«ted
V T n1t
Q
Dia.
j •,1
•
N~ r
~ad Lou fac.cor fwldLo•
• ,.
0--) (Seal
111•:,1 (11) ra· R. [111 H:OJ I I• H.-01
Vg(O'' Mood,·
~ .(2) Eq.(J) Olc-llo> • Eq,(I)
T D~•
 BEAD LOSSES IN BENDS
OBJECTIVE
'. To investigate the energy losses and the effect of velocity on
the head losses in the follo,ving systems:
• Two elbo,vs of~ • 0 , a short one and a n1iddle one
• A curve of~ • 0 or long elbow
• A " 'idening
• A sudden section narrowing
• Men1brane valve
• A sudden direction change, miter type.
Y. detern1ine the loss coefficient (K) for a range of pipe fittin gs.

INTRODUCTION
Two types of energy losses predominate in fluid flo\v through a
pipe network: major losses and minor losses. Major losses are
associated with frictional energy loss that is caused by the viscous
effects of the medium and the roughness of the pipe ,,,all. l\'linor
losses, on the other hand, are due to pipe fittings, changes in the
flo,v direction, and changes in the flo\V area. Due to the
complexity of the piping system and th e nun1ber of fittings that
are used, the head loss coefficient (K) is empirically derived as a
quick 111ea11s of calculating the min or head losses. The term
"minor losses", used in man y textbooks for head loss across
fittings, can be misleading since these losses can be a large
fraction of the total loss in a pipe S)'Steni. In fact, in a pipe S)'Stem
with many fittings and valves, the n1inor losses can be greater
than the major (friction) losses. Thus, an accurate K value for all
fittings and valves in a pipe system is n ecessary to predict the
act11aJ head loss across the pipe system. K values assist engineers
in totaling all of the n1inor losses by rnultiplying the suni of the K
values by the velocity head to quickly determine the total head
Joss due to alJ fittings. Knowing the K value for each fitting
enables engineers to use the proper fitting ,vhen designing an
 p 0
• 0 0

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t:) , ...
efficient piping system that can n1inin1ize the head loss and
rnaxin1ize the flo,v rate.

METHOD
The heacl loss coefficients arc determined by measuring the
pressure head differences across a number of fittings that are
connected in series over a range of steady nows and applying the
energy equation bet,veen the sections before and after ea ch
fitting.

EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION

The apparatus shown in Figure belo,v is designed to allow the

detailed study of the fluid friction head losses, that occur ,vhen an
incon1pressible fluid flo,vs through pipes, bends, valves, and pipe
flo,v n1etering devices. 1'he equipment for Local Load Losses
consists of a hydraulic circuit ,vith a set of elen1ents that disrupt
the norrnal flo,v of the fluid that circulates by the pipe because of
sudden section and direction variations as ,vell as friction. These
elcn1ents are:
0
'. Two elbo,vs of~ · a short one, and a n1iddle one.
,

T. A ~•-degree curve or long elbo,v.

,. . A ,videning.
t. A sudden section narrowing.
0
• A sudden direction change, n1iter type.

The equipn1ent has t,vo n1anon1eters, Bour<lon type: · - " ·" bar,
and twelve manometric pipes of press urize(! water. The system
pressurization is carried out ,vith a n1anual air pump. l ' he
hydraulic circuit has pressure takings along the ,vhole systen1,
,vhich enables the 1neasuren1ent of the local loa<l losses in the
systen1. This equipment has t,vo n1embrane valves:
• A valve th at enables th e regul ation of th e outlet now.
• A va lve placed in series with th e rest of the accessories of the
hydraulic circuit.

I
--
--
--
-...
-...-
--
-...
--
--
-...... -- ---
-- 1
-- -- - --- - --
-- -- -.. --- -- --
-- -- -- -- --
-- --
2
-- -- --- ---
--- -- -- --
-- -- --
-
-- -- -- 3 -- ••
-- ---
-- --- --- -- -- --
-- -- -- ---- • - --
-- -- -- - --
- ---•• -- -- "' -- • --
-- ---- --- ---
••

--
-- ..-
--
---- --- -.... 0 ~ -
--- --
-• --- --- -..- 6
--- • --- -- ..-- --
- -- -
• -- -- --- -
--
--• •--- •
--
• •
--- -•
•
-•
-•
•
•

- -- • -- •
--
--• I
• •
-- • -- -• -
•
•
•
- •
• • •

Fi~u rr t : 111a 1101nt·1rir pipr~

 -
-- --- ---- ---
-- I --
--- - -- - --
- --- ---
• •
- --
- --- --
• •
•
- •
• -
--
•
- - - I
-• --•
-. -- • - •
•
•
--
- - I
- •
•

---
- -- - - -- •
--
- - - - •
•
-- --••
•
•
•
•
. •
-• .•
• -• .•
-.. .-
-• ..• .-• .-
• ... ..• ..
•

... .•. ... .. .

.•
. ... ..• .
.

Fig urr •: c; cne ral ,ic" ofequipn1cnt

SPECIFICATIONS
\. ~1a nornt.'t crs.
• Bourdon type: •- T, 0 bar.
• Differential man ometers: • - 0 • • n1n1.
T. PVC Rigi<I pipes.
• Interior dian1eter: TO 11101.
• Exterior cliameter: ,. T mn1.
 ,. . Flexible Jlipe.
• Pressure taking: cJiffcrcntial manometer External
dian1cter: ' • mm.
• Pressurizing equipment External dian1eter: ' mm.
• Drain. External dian1etcr: T O 1nm.
t. \\lidcning.
• Dian1cter: T 0 / t • n11n.
• Narro,,·in~.
0

• Dian1eter: t •/ T O n11n.
1
'· \ alvcs.
• Membrane valves Diameter: TO n1rn.
• Anti-return: ' mn1.

THEORY
The head loss in a piping system n1ay be divided into the follo,ving
n,·o categories:

'. Major Losses: they are due to viscous resistance in straight

constant-diameter pipes.
T. Minor Losses: they appear due to localized effects, which
mainly arise from changes in the flow cross-sectional area
(such as in nozzles, diffusers, valves, flow meters, etc.) or
changes in the flo,v direction due to the use of bencls and
elbows.

Major Losses

Consider a horizontal constant-diameter pipe as sho,vn in figure

below and apply the energy equation behvcen points ' and T
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2 h
-+-+z1
pg
=-+
2g
pg
-+
2g
Z2 + f (I)

The last term on the right-hand side of equation (') hr, represents
the head loss due to friction bet,veen the fluicl ancl the internal
surface of the pipe as ,veil as the friction bet,veen the adjacent
fluid layers. 'This will result in a continuous change of energy
fron1 a valuable n1echanical forn1 (pressure energy) to a less
valua ble thcrn1al forn1 (hea t). This change of energy is usually
referred to as friction hea ti loss, '"hich represents the am ount of
energy converted into hea t per unit '"eight of lluid. Now, our aim
is to co mpute this head loss. Experim entally, one ca n obt.ain the
head loss by applying th e energy eq uation between any two points
along a constant-dian1eter pipe.

11 I
I
", I,
j
I
l
0 1' 111·
i' t
'D I
II '·0-
I
I
.,

' ' •

L
Fii:ure ' : Fluid now along a straijthl pipe

• •
This is done in e(Juation (' ), and by noticing that the pipe IS
horizontal and the diameter is constant, we have:

h
(P. -
= l 2 =P} h _ J.
/a.p i::w ' "1 ' "l
(2)

Analytically, the heacJ loss du e to friction is obtained from the

followin g eq uation:

L v2
hrthco=4f -d -2g (3)
 t

,,,,,,,,," (t) Is " ,lln, t'nslonl,•ss fn nnin~ frlf tlon f11c to1·, (L) is the
l,•n\llh of th,• 1,11,c, (v) Is th,• nvt• t·nac ,1olocity, untl J: is the
"c"'' '"''ntlon l(l'll\ lty. 1

- - -- - c::.:.:.:.:.-_-:,-_-. . ._
., - --- -- - .
Veloc ll y
R • I Jl2 t::::::::::::j.,,..- pr o fl I , IT • '7(, }

.\' )i
l •

1
Vi sc o u s a 11h l nyar

, ,, .,.
_ .,. ----
•
..... ::r
or ,, ,, ,,. ---- ..... ...
' '. ' ''
,,---------·
.._...,,-1I I
I c>• 'I
\
I
I
l
____.,.
I

f .... .......... :/
,I
' ....,........,
, . . ........, __ __,,,
0 ::,<'

R o 1.1g h \Yl\11 S moo th woll

~
f

F"iitnn· V; Fluid tlon Ml lhc \\' MIi

For h11nin ar flow (Re < ,. '• •), the fric tion fnctor is II fun ction of
Reynolds nun1 bcr ns f = ''\ / Re. For tu rbulent flo,v (Re > ,. • · • or
t • • • ), It is found by using din1ension11l 11n11lysis that the fr iction
factor f de1>ends upon th e Rey nolds nurn bcr (Re) nnd the relative
roughness (e/d). Where (e) is II rn e11s11re of the height of roughness
elc1nents in n pipe ,,,all. The vnluc of (f) in turbulent flo,v c11n be
obtained front the l\1ody Chnrt.

Mi11or Losses
As ,vas mentioned, the n1 inor losses arc ca used by many piping
components. For the purpose of discussion, ,vc ,viii tuke the
 I
I
sudden expansion as an exarnple of 111inor losses. The head loss in I
a sudden expansion ca11 be obtained by applying continuity,
I
I
mon1entum, and energy eqt1ations between sections ' and T in I
figure below. The obtained equation for the head loss is: I
I
I
Theoretically (4) I
I
I
Where v1 is the velocity at the s111alle r cross section (before the I
expansion), v, is the velocity at tl1e larger cross section (after the I
expansion) a11d hre is the head losses due to sudden expansion are I
shown in figure below.
I
I
I
I
I
I

•
--· I

Zon ci o f St1p;,r;,1ion

Figure A: Fluid now throug h a sutJtJrn t"lpan~ion

In the experiment, the press ure hea ds before and after the sudden
enlargement, h' and b T, arc n1 eas t1red using piezomete r tubes.
The head loss can be determin ed experimentally by applying the
energy equation a s follows:

vi vl
h1 1
2g
+ Z1 = h2 + -2g + Z2 + hfe ( 5)

Since 2 1 =- 2 2• (in horizon ta l flow) then

hce =(h1-h2)+ [v~ -gvi] Experimentally (6)

2
 '

PROCEDURE
'. Assemble the equipment on the Hydraulic Bench.
Y. Connect the input tube from the equipment to the pulse mouth
of the bench with the quick switch, and connect a nexible
conductor to its outlet so that it can drain in the volumetric
tank.
,._ Once the system is pressurized, turn on the pump and open
gradually and slightly the valve of the Bench or Group VC,
while you open gradually the control valve of the equipment,
vcc.
t. This procedure must be carried out in a very soft way in order
to avoid that the measurements are off the scale.
•
0
• Once the valve of the Bench or Group is completely open,

regulate the flow with the control valve of the equipment, VCC.
'\, Write down the readings indicated in the manometric pipes (H ,
and H,), (H,. and 1-1,), (H• and H,), (Hv and HA), (H~ and H,. ),
and (H , , and H ,,).
V. Write down the Bourdon manometer reading.
A. Determine the water flow , writing down all these values.
~. Close the flow control valve of the Bench or of the Group.
' •. Repeat the previous steps, varying the flo,v by opening the
control valve of the equipment.
' ' . Tabulate your results, Ah ,., (n1m), Ahr.1 (mm), i\b •. , (mn1), Ah v.
A(mm),Ah~.1. (mn1), Ah 1 ,_,, (rnm), p ,, p,(bar) and time (s).

CALCULATION
'. Calculate the volumetric flo,v rate Qact (n1,. /s).
Vo/(111 3)
0 = - -- -
- aC'I ti111 e( sec )

,. . Calculate the coefficient of head losses for:

 Vl
C urve elbow .d/11-1 =K -
2g

Short elbow

Middle elbo,"

Mitre elbow

,. . Calculate the theoretical head losses for widening

t. Calculate the theoretical head losses for narrowing

2 2
\ J 2 - ,, 1
L1h 3_4 = 2g