COMPUTER SCIENCE ENGINEERING BRANCH

22CHES12
MODULE 1: Sensors and Energy System

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Sensors
Sensors are basically devices which “read” a physical stimulus, and
then convert that reading into an electrical signal output.
Physical Stimulus: heat, light, sound, weight, attraction

 Sensor - observe and acquire information

 Transducer- Converts one form of energy into another form
 An actuator- Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Measurement process for the instrumentation model
1) Sensor input - the physical value or measurand (X) is observed by
the sensor device
2) Sensor output - The sensor generates a signal variable (S) output
which is normally electrical
3) Signal conditioning - The signal is transmitted and conditioned if
needed (amplified, converted, filtered, etc.)
4) Display of measurement – the measurement is then displayed by the
output device.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Electrochemical sensors,
Sensors which convert the effect of electrochemical reaction
between analyte and electrode surface into a useful signal are
known as electrochemical sensors.

In Electrochemical sensors the electrode is used as transducer element.

They are divided into several types:
 Potentiometric (measure voltage)
 Amperometric (measure current)
 Conductometric (measure conductivity)

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Working Principle:
Electrochemical sensor consists of a transducer
element covered by a recognition element.
The recognition element interacts with target
analyte and signal is generated.
Electrochemical transducers transform the
chemical changes into electrical signals
The electric signals are related to the
concentration of analyte.
Electrochemical sensing always requires a
closed circuit. Current must flow to make a
measurement.
Since we need a closed loop there should be at
least two electrodes. These sensors are often
called an electrochemical cell.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Applications

1. Electrochemical sensors used for the detection of blood glucose

2. Electrochemical sensors are used for pH measurements

3. Used to detect pesticides

4. Used in the detection of hydrocarbon pollutants

5. Optical sensors are used to measure the concentration of coloured analyte.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Conductometric Sensors:
Conductometric sensors are two electrode devices, measures the
electrical conductivity in sample solution between two electrodes.

Principle:
The basic principle of conductometric detection involves a reaction that
can change the concentration of ionic species. This reaction leads to
changes in electrical conductivity or current flow. In this method, two
inert metal electrodes are used. The ions or electrons produces during
an electrochemical reaction may change the conductivity or resistivity of
the solution.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
Working:

The conductivity is result of dissociation an electrolyte, into ions. The migration of

the ions is induced by an electrical field. When a potential difference is applied to

the electrode, there is an electrical field within the electrolyte, so the positively

charged ions move towards cathode and negatively charged ions are move towards

anode. (Figure). Thus, the current in the electrolyte is caused by the ion

movement towards the electrodes where the ions are neutralized and isolated as

neutral atoms (or molecules). This chemical change is recognized by working

electrode and transducers converts this chemical change into electrical signal.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

Applications:
 The conductometric measuring method can be used in enzyme catalysis
to determine analyte concentration and enzyme activity and selectivity.
 Screen-printed conductometric sensor with inter digital gold electrodes
on glass substrate coated with molecularly imprinted polyurethane
layers was fabricated to detect polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
in water.
 A conductometric sensor consisting of a silicon substance with a pair of
gold inter digitized and serpentine electrodes is used to determine urea.
 The conductometric biosensor based on inhibition analysis, was
intended for the determination of organophosphorous pesticides.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Optical sensors
Optical sensors are electronic components designed to detect and convert incident light rays
into electrical signals.

Example: Colourimetric Sensors

Principle: When a sample solution is interacted with a light of suitable

wavelength, certain quantity of light is absorbed by the analyte solution and it is
observed by a sensor and transducer converts intensity of absorbed light into
electrical signal. The change in intensity at certain wavelength within visible
(400–800mm) range can be determined using special instrumentation.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

A photon (ultraviolet, visible, or near-infrared light) is converted in the photocathode into a
low-energetic electron, emitted into the vacuum. This electron is accelerated towards and
focused onto the first dynode, releasing secondary electrons. This multiplication is repeated
in subsequent dynodes, resulting in a measurable electric charge at the anode.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Application:

Absorption-based optical sensors (Colourimetry)

 Absorption-based optical sensors can be colorimetric or spectroscopic in nature.

 Colorimetric sensors are an important part of optical sensors that depends on the
colour of the analyte with in the visible range (400-800nm)
Its basic components include a light source, a wavelength selector, a photodetector
and a read-out device. A block diagram of a typical instrumentation system employed
colurimetry is shown in Fig.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 A monochromatic light is made to pass through analyte solution where certain quantity
of light is absorbed and it is a function of concentration of analyte. The change in the
intensity of light is detected by photodetector (sensing). The light source generates an
intense and stable radiation signal needed to probe an optical property of the molecular
recognition element in the sensor. The amount of absorbance is governed by Beer-
lamberts law.
Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Electrochemical Sensor for the measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO);

Brief introduction to
different sensors for DO

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Electrochemical DO sensors, also known as amperometric or Clark-type sensors,
measures dissolved oxygen concentration in water based on electrical current produced.

Galvanic Sensor is a Electrochemical sensor, which is used to measure DO

Components:
Cathode : Working electrode-Ag
Anode : Zn, Pb or any other active metal
Electrolyte: KOH, NaOH or any other
inert electrolyte
Membrane: Teflon

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

Working Principle
The difference in potential between the anode and the cathode should be
at least 0.5V.

DO sensor is immersed in water sample.

Oxygen molecule diffuses across the oxygen-permeable membrane

(Teflon) and the rate of diffusion is proportional to the pressure of
oxygen in the water.

Molecular Oxygen reduces to OH- at cathode.

This reaction produces an electrical current that is directly related to the

oxygen concentration.

This current is carried by the ions in the electrolyte and runs from the
cathode to the anode.
Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Reactions:

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Electrochemical sensors for the detection of Pharmaceuticals
(diclofenac)

Electrochemical detection occurs at the interface between an analyte

(diclofenac) of interest and the working electrode to which a potential is
applied with respect to the reference electrode, while the corresponding
current is measured.

Different sensors are developed for the detection of Diclofenac such as

1) Potentiometric sensor (low sensitivity)

2) Electrochemical sensor with unmodified carbon electrode
3) Electrochemical sensor with modified carbon electrode
4) Bio-sensor

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Components of disposable screen printed Carbon paste electrode
for diclofenac detection (Three electrode sensor)

Working electrode: Carbon Paste with MWCNT or Graphene

Counter Electrode: Carbon Paste with MWCNT or Graphene
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl

Process: Screen Printing Technique on PVC substrate. Insulating ink was

printed on the remaining PVC surface.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Working:
 The electrochemical oxidation of DCF on carbon-based sensor at pH
7.0 is reversible reaction.
 Oxidation of Declofenac occurs at carbon electrode to release e-, to
form radical intermediates and followed by hydrolysis of radical
intermediate species.
 The products formed are 2,6- dichloro aniline and 2-2(-
hydroxyphenyl) acetic acid.
 Reactions on the electrode cause the current to flow.
 The intensity of this current is a function of the number of oxidized /
reduced molecules.
Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Products: 2,2 Hydroxy-Phenyl-Acetic Acid and 2,6 Dichloro Aniline

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Electrochemical sensors for the detection of Hydrocarbon :
1- Hydroxypyrene (Screen Printed Sensor)

Working electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO (Composite)

Counter Electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
Operating Voltage: +0.7 to −0.5 V

PAMAM: Dendrimer polyamidoamine

Cr-MOF: Chromium-centered metal–organic framework
GO: Graphene Oxide

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Working:
When this electrode is used to detect the sample containing 1-Hydroxypyrene
(water sample) the following changes takes place:

At the electrode surface electro-oxidation takes place to yield several

hydroxylated species and then hydroquinone by losing 2e− and 2H+.

Reactions on the electrode cause the current to flow.

The quantity of this current is a function of the number of oxidized / reduced
molecules.
Current produced is directly proportional to the concentration 1-Hydroxypyrene

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx

The major contributors to traditional air pollution are NOx, SOx, and
H2S while NH3 and Volatile organic compounds are of increasing
concern recently. Traditional air quality monitors based on mass spec,
infra-red spectroscopy and gas chromatography are expensive and not
suitable for large scale deployment. Electrochemical gas sensors
provide a cheap alternative option for widespread air quality
monitoring.
Electrochemical gas sensor interacts with a gas to measure its
concentration and each gas has a unique voltage; the electric field at

Prof.which it Nis
Padmavathy ionized. Sensorwww.cambridge.edu.in
identifies gases by measuring theseInstitute
Cambridge voltages.
of Technology
 Sensor for NOx: Chemiresistive sensors based on
graphene and its derivatives have been
used to measure NOx

Chemiresistive sensors measure the

change in resistance upon exposure to
analyte gases and can detect toxic gases at
very low concentrations.

In general, the response obtained in a

chemiresistive sensor is

(𝑹𝟎 −𝑹𝒈 )
𝑹% = * 100
𝑹𝟎
R% is the reported sensor response
Ro is the resistance in dry clean air ( Back ground Correction)
Rg is the new resistance observed under analyte gas
Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Reactions:

The concentration of electrons decreases due to the reaction between the

electrons in the sensing materials and NOx gas, as shown and resistance
offered by e- decreases and current increases.
“Higher the concentration of NOx, lesser would be the resistance”

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Detection of SO2: The sulfur dioxide sensor works on the electrochemical
principle.

It works based on the diffusion of SO2

gas into the sensor.
Initially SO2 oxidizes to produce oxygen
free radical and converted to molecular
oxygen.
Electrons are consumed from sensor for
R% is the reported sensor response, the reduction of O2 and number of
Ro is the resistance in dry clean air electrons decreases on the electrode
surface.
(background condition), Resistance of the electrode is a function
Rg is the new resistance observed of Concentration of SO2.
(𝑹𝟎 −𝑹𝒈 )
under analyte
Prof. Padmavathy N gas. www.cambridge.edu.in 𝑹% = *Cambridge
100 Institute of Technology
𝑹𝟎
 Disposable sensors

Disposable sensors are low-cost and easy-to-use sensing devices designed

for short-term or rapid single-point measurements.

Advantages of disposable sensors:

1. They transduce physical, chemical, or biological changes in their
environment to an analytical signal.
2. Disposable sensors are biodegradable and sustainable
3. They have a short duration of analysis and fast response times.
4. It provide digitized chemical and biological information.
5. Prevents the contamination of samples.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Detection of Ascorbic acid using disposable electrochemical sensor

L-Ascorbic acid (AA) or adsorbate, commonly known as vitamin C, is an

important water-soluble vitamin derived from green vegetables, fruits, and
other dietary supplements.
AA improves the immune system
It enables collagen synthesis, which is needed to maintain healthy bones,
teeth, skins, cartilages,
enhances antibody levels and acts as an antioxidant; reduces necrosis

At the same time

Abnormal AA levels in bodily fluids have been reported to cause cancer,
cardiovascular diseases, and Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.
Extended use of AA could cause urinary oxalate calculus, increase infertility in
a woman, and affect embryo development.
Excessive AA use has been reported to cause diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting,
headache, insomnia, gastric irritation, renal problems, loss of food taste, and
vomiting.
Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Disposable screen-printed carbon electrodes sensor (CNT with gold
nanoparticles) for biomolecule detection- Ascorbic acid

It is comprising three disposable electrodes: one working electrode, one

auxiliary or counter electrode, and one reference electrode. Each one includes
a contact or terminal, a section and an active area. All electrodes have been
manufactured by silkscreen printing with conductive material ink on a plastic
polyester (PET) sheet.
The active surfaces of the counter electrode and working electrode have
been printed with a conductive ink of C (MWCNT) and modified with gold
nanoparticles.
Active surface of the reference electrode has been printed with an
Ag/AgCl
Prof. Padmavathy Nink. www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Working
The electrochemical sensor can catalyze the two-electron electro
catalytic oxidation and hydrogen dissociation of AA to L-
dehydroascorbic acid in the presence of oxygen in solution.
The carboxyl MWCNTs act as electron transfer mediators promoting the
electron transfer between AA molecules and the matrix interface
Increases the electro catalytic oxidation of AA during electrochemical
detection and transduce their presence into measurable signals
The electric current or voltage produced is proportional to the
concentration of the ascorbic acid.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Detection of pesticide such as Glyphosate by electrochemical
oxidation method

One of the most commonly used pesticides is glyphosate. Glyphosate

has the ability to attach to the soil colloids and degraded by the soil
microorganisms. As glyphosate led to the appearance of resistant
species, the pesticide was used more intensively. As a consequence of
the heavy use of glyphosate, residues of this compound are
increasingly observed in food and water. Recent studies reported a
direct link between glyphosate and chronic effects such as tetrogenic,
tumorigenic.
Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
Electrochemical Sensor for Glyphosate Detection

The sensor is a silicon- based chip comprising of three-electrode system.

It is fabricated by electro deposition technique.

Working Electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 200nm

thickness gold nanoparticles
Counter electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 20nm
thickness gold nanoparticles
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl/Cl-

Electrolytes are added to increase the conductivity of the solution and

minimizes the resistance between the working and counter electrode.
Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Working:
The electrochemical detection is based on the oxidation of Glyphosate
on gold working electrode.
A potential of 0.78V is applied on working electrode, there is a
interaction between analyte and electrode surface.
Glyphosate oxidizes on the working electrode brings a change in
current in the electrolyte medium.
The change in the current is a measure of concentration of Glyphosate.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 ENERGY SYSTEM

A battery is a device consists of two or more galvanic cells arranged in

series or parallel or both that can convert chemical energy into
electrical energy.
Classification of batteries
i).Primary (single-discharge) Batteries:

These are the batteries in which net cell reaction is not completely reversible, therefore

these are not rechargeable. The primary battery contains a finite quantity of the reactant

materials participating in the reaction; once this quantity is consumed (on completion of

discharge), it cannot be used again.

Example: Leclanche cell (Zn-MnO2), Magnesium cell (Mg-MnO2), Zn-air cell (Zn-O2),
Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
Lithium primary cell etc.
 ii).Secondary Batteries (Storage or Rechargeable Batteries):

These are the batteries in which net cell reaction is completely reversible and
therefore these are rechargeable. On the completion of discharge, a storage
battery can be recharged by forcing an electric current through it in the
opposite direction; this will regenerate the original reactants from the reaction
(or discharge) products.

iii).Reserve Batteries: In this battery, one of the key components is separated

from the remainder of the cell until activation. The electrolyte is the component
that is usually isolated, activation of the reserve battery is accomplished by
adding the electrolyte just prior to use.
Example: Zinc/Silver Oxide, Mg-AgCl, lithium-thionyl chloride batteries, etc,

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

Construction and working of Li-Ion battery
Anode: Lithiated carbon or graphite and a binder
coated on a copper foil.
Cathode: Lithiated transition metal oxide like
LiCoO2 mixed with a conductor and binder and
coated in an Aluminium foil.
Electrolyte: Lithium salt in ethylene carbonate
propylene carbonate
Separator: micro porous polythene film
Binder: poly vinylidene fluoride
Battery Representation:
LixC6 | LiX, Polypropylene | Li(1  x)CoO2
Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology



Working
Anode 
LixC6  6C + xLi+ + xe

Cathode Li(1  x)CoO2 + xLi+ + xe  LiCoO2
Overall 
LixC6 + Li(1  x)CoO2   LiCoO2+ 6C

Simply, the Li-ion is transfers between anode and cathode through

lithium Electrolyte. Since, neither the anode nor the cathode
materials essentially change, the operation is safer than that of a
Lithium metal battery.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Advantages Disadvantages
High Energy Density They require protection from being
over charged and discharged too far.( integrated
circuit technology is required to monitor)
High Voltage compared to LCO battery or cell needs to be stored it should
other batteries be partially charged - around 40% to 50% and
kept in a cool storage area. (-15˚C)
Low self-discharge (long shelf life) A major lithium ion battery disadvantage
is their cost.(40% more than Ni-MH batteries)
Low maintenance

Uses
Cellular phones, Portable CD player, Note PC,
DVC/DSC/DVD/Portable LCD TV etc. MD player, Semiconductor-
driven audio etc and Portable electric vehicles.
Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Sodium Ion Battery
Anode: Sodium metal intercalated on graphite is used as anode
Cathode: Chalcogenides, fluorides, polyanion compounds and
chromium cathodes have been used as cathode material.
Electrolytes: Commonly used electrolytes are PEC, PPC
The electrode reactions in a Na-ion battery utilizing hard-carbon (C6)
anode and a layered transition metal oxide, NaMO2, cathode are
depicted in eq 1.
The discharged electrodes are on the right-hand side of eq1

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Sodium Ion Battery

It stores energy in the chemical bonds of anode.

When battery is recharging sodium ions moves from

cathode to the anode.

Meanwhile charge balancing electrons pass from the

cathode through the external circuit containing the
charger and into the anode.

During discharge process electrons move from and anode to external circuit, it can be used
for various applications.

Meanwhile, Na+ ions move from anode to the cathode. Voltage obtained from every
sodium
Prof. ionNcell
Padmavathy is 3.6V. www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Advantages
Sodium resources are more abundant,
The cost of sodium-ion batteries is about 30% lower than that of
lithium batteries,
Sodium-ion batteries are safer and are not easy to produce lithium
dendrites.

Disadvantages of sodium ion batteries:

Lower energy density of sodium ion batteries;

short cycle life;
the industrial chain is still incomplete.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs)

A semiconductor device which convert sunlight into direct

current is called solar cell or PV cell.

A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell design

that uses quantum dots as the absorbing photovoltaic
material.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Construction of QDSSC- Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cell

Working Electrode: Fluorinated Tin

Oxide substrate is taken and coated
with mesoporous wide band gap
semiconducting TiO2. TiO2 is coated
with quantum dots such as CdS by
CBD method. TiO2 act as electron
conductors (or acceptors) and
transport layers. CdS facilitates the
charge separation

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Counter Electrode: A platinum and carbon based materials are coated on
a brass substrate. Counter electrode is acting as cathode and it transfers
electrons from external circuit to electrolyte and catalyze the reduction
reaction of the oxidised electrolyte at the electrolyte/ counter electrode
interface.
Electrolyte: Polysulfide is used as electrolyte((S2-/Sx 2-) It is a redox
electrolyte or hole conductor. Redox electrolyte significantly influence
both stability and efficiency of QDSSC. It is a medium which transfer
charges between counter electrode and photo anode for the regeneration
of oxidized quantum dots.
Sensitizer: CdS is a sensitizer, it is a Quantum dot nanocrystal made of
semiconductor
Prof. Padmavathy N materials. www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Working of QDSSC

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology

 Working of QDSSC
1. Upon light irradiation the photosensitizer is photo excited.
2. The excited electron of QD are injected into the conduction band of
TiO2.
3. The electrons penetrate through nano crystalline TiO2 film to the back
contact of the conducting substrate and flow through an external circuit
to the counter electrode.
4. At the counter electrode the oxidized(S2-/Sx2- component of the redox
couple in the electrolyte is reduced.
5. The oxidized form of the sensitizer(QD) are finally regenerated by the
reduced component of the redox couple in the electrolyte.
Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology
 Properties of QDs

1. Quantum dots has narrow bandgap.

2. It exhibits tunable bandgap.

3. Strong light absorption and

4. High multiple electron generation.

Application

1. QDSSC is mainly used to harness solar energy.

Prof. Padmavathy N www.cambridge.edu.in Cambridge Institute of Technology