Chapter 11

+
William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Architecture
10th Edition
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken,
NJ. All rights reserved.
+ Chapter 2
Performance Issues
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
+
Designing for Performance
 The cost of computer systems continues to drop dramatically, while the performance
and capacity of those systems continue to rise equally dramatically
 Today’s laptops have the computing power of an IBM mainframe from 10 or 15 years ago
 Processors are so inexpensive that we now have microprocessors we throw away
 Desktop applications that require the great power of today’s microprocessor-based

systems include:
 Image processing
 Three-dimensional rendering
 Speech recognition
 Videoconferencing
 Multimedia authoring
 Voice and video annotation of files
 Simulation modeling
 Businesses are relying on increasingly powerful servers to handle transaction and

database processing and to support massive client/server networks that have
replaced the huge mainframe computer centers of yesteryear
 Cloud service providers use massive high-performance banks of servers to

satisfy high-volume, high-transaction-rate applications for a broad spectrum of
clients
+
Microprocessor Speed
Techniques built into contemporary processors include:
• Processor moves data or instructions into a

Pipelining conceptual pipe with all stages of the pipe processing
simultaneously
• Processor looks ahead in the instruction code fetched

Branch prediction from memory and predicts which branches, or groups
of instructions, are likely to be processed next
Superscalar • This is the ability to issue more than one instruction in

every processor clock cycle. (In effect, multiple
execution parallel pipelines are used.)
• Processor analyzes which instructions are dependent

Data flow analysis on each other’s results, or data, to create an
optimized schedule of instructions
Speculative • Using branch prediction and data flow analysis, some

processors speculatively execute instructions ahead
of their actual appearance in the program execution,
execution holding the results in temporary locations, keeping
execution engines as busy as possible

+
Performance
Balance
Increase the number
 Adjust the organization and of bits that are
retrieved at one time
architecture to compensate by making DRAMs
“wider” rather than
for the mismatch among the “deeper” and by
using wide bus data
capabilities of the various paths
components
Reduce the frequency
 Architectural examples of memory access by
incorporating
include: increasingly complex
and efficient cache
structures between
the processor and
main memory
Change the DRAM Increase the

interface to make it interconnect
more efficient by bandwidth between
processors and
including a cache or memory by using
other buffering higher speed buses
scheme on the DRAM and a hierarchy of
chip buses to buffer and
structure data flow

Ethernet modem
(max speed)
Graphics display
Wi-Fi modem
(max speed)
Hard disk
Optical disc
Laser printer
Scanner
Mouse
Keyboard
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011
Data Rate (bps)
Figure 2.1 Typical I/O Device Data Rates

+
Improvements in Chip
Organization and Architecture
 Increase hardware speed of processor
 Fundamentally due to shrinking logic gate size
 More gates, packed more tightly, increasing clock rate
 Propagation time for signals reduced
 Increase size and speed of caches

 Dedicating part of processor chip
 Cache access times drop significantly
 Change processor organization and architecture

 Increase effective speed of instruction execution
 Parallelism

+
Problems with Clock Speed and
Login Density
 Power
 Power density increases with density of logic and clock speed
 Dissipating heat
 RC delay
 Speed at which electrons flow limited by resistance and
capacitance of metal wires connecting them
 Delay increases as the RC product increases
 As components on the chip decrease in size, the wire
interconnects become thinner, increasing resistance
 Also, the wires are closer together, increasing capacitance
 Memory latency
 Memory speeds lag processor speeds
107
106
Transistors (Thousands)
105 Frequency (MHz)
Power (W)
104 Cores
103
102
+
10
0.1
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Figu r e 2 .2 Pr oce ssor Tr e n ds

The use of multiple
processors on the same chip
provides the potential to
increase performance
Multicore without increasing the clock
rate
Strategy is to use two simpler

processors on the chip rather
than one more complex
processor
With two processors larger

caches are justified
As caches became larger it

made performance sense to
create two and then three
levels of cache on a chip

+
Many Integrated Core (MIC)
Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)
MIC GPU
 Leap in performance as well  Core designed to perform
as the challenges in parallel operations on graphics
developing software to exploit data
such a large number of cores
 Traditionally found on a plug-in
 The multicore and MIC graphics card, it is used to
strategy involves a encode and render 2D and 3D
homogeneous collection of graphics as well as process
general purpose processors video
on a single chip
 Used as vector processors for a
variety of applications that
require repetitive computations

+  Gene Amdahl
 Deals with the potential speedup of a

program using multiple processors
compared to a single processor
Amdahl’s  Illustrates the problems facing industry
Law
in the development of multi-core
machines
 Software must be adapted to a highly
parallel execution environment to
exploit the power of parallel
processing
 Can be generalized to evaluate and

design technical improvement in a
computer system

T
(1 – f)T fT
(1 – f)T fT
N
1
1 f 1 T
N
Figu r e 2 .3 I llu st r a t ion of Am da h l’s La w

f = 0 .9 5
Spe du p
f = 0 .9 0
+ f = 0 .7 5
f = 0 .5
N u m be r of Pr oce ssor s
Figur e 2 .4 Am da h l’s La w for M ult ipr oce ssor s

+
Little’s Law
 Fundamental and simple relation with broad applications
 Can be applied to almost any system that is statistically in

steady state, and in which there is no leakage
 Queuing system
 If server is idle an item is served immediately, otherwise an
arriving item joins a queue
 There can be a single queue for a single server or for multiple
servers, or multiple queues with one being for each of multiple
servers
 Average number of items in a queuing system equals the

average rate at which items arrive multiplied by the time
that an item spends in the system
 Relationship requires very few assumptions
 Because of its simplicity and generality it is extremely useful

q
cr uar
ys tz
ta
l
an
co di alog
nv git to
er al
sio
n
From Computer Desktop Encyclopedia

1998, The Computer Language Co.
Figure 2.5 System Clock

Ic p m k t
I nstruction set
X X
architecture
Compiler technology X X X
Processor
X X
implementation
Cache and memory
X X
hierarchy
Table 2.1 Performance Factors and System Attributes

The three
The use of benchmarks to
compare systems involves common
calculating the mean value of a formulas used
set of data points related to for calculating
execution time
a mean are:
• Arithmetic
• Geometric
• Harmonic
MD
AM
(a) GM
HM
MD
AM
(b) GM
HM
MD
AM
(c) GM
HM
MD
AM
(d) GM
HM
MD
AM
(e) GM
HM
MD
AM
(f) GM
HM
MD
AM
(g) GM
HM
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
(a) Constant (11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11) MD = median
(b) Clustered around a central value (3, 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 1 1) AM = arithmetic mean
(c) Uniform distribution (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1) GM = geometric mean
(d) Large-number bias (1, 4, 4, 7, 7, 9, 9, 10, 10, 1 1, 11) HM = harmonic mean
(e) Small-number bias(1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 5, 5, 8, 8, 1 1)
(f) Upper outlier (11, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1)
(g) Lower outlier (1, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11)
Figure 2.6 Comparison of Means on Various Data Sets

(each set has a maximum data point value of 1 1)
 An Arithmetic Mean (AM) is an
appropriate measure if the sum of all the
measurements is a meaningful and
interesting value Arithmetic
 The AM is a good candidate for
comparing the execution time
performance of several systems
For example, suppose we were interested in using a system
for large-scale simulation studies and wanted to evaluate several
alternative products. On each system we could run the simulation
multiple times with different input values for each run, and then
Mean
take the average execution time across all runs. The use of
multiple runs with different inputs should ensure that the results are
not heavily biased by some unusual feature of a given input set. The
AM of all the runs is a good measure of the system’s performance
on simulations, and a good number to use for system comparison.
+
 The AM used for a time-based variable, such as
program execution time, has the important property
that it is directly proportional to the total time
 If the total time doubles, the mean value doubles
Computer Computer Computer Computer Computer Computer
A time B time C time A rate B rate C rate
(secs) (secs) (secs) (M FLOPS) (M FLOPS) (M FLOPS)
Program 1
(108 FP 2.0 1.0 0.75 50 100 133.33
ops)
Program 2
Table 2.2
(108 FP 0.75 2.0 4.0 133.33 50 25
ops) A Comparison
Total
execution 2.75 3.0 4.75
of Arithmetic
time and
Arithmetic Harmonic
mean of 1.38 1.5 2.38
times Means for
I nverse of Rates
total
execution 0.36 0.33 0.21
time
(1/sec)
Arithmetic
mean of 91.67 75.00 79.17
rates
Harmonic
mean of 72.72 66.67 42.11
rates

Table 2.3 A Comparison of Arithmetic and Geometric M eans for Normalized
Results
(a) Results normalized to Computer A
Computer A time Computer B time Computer C time

Program 1 2.0 (1.0) 1.0 (0.5) 0.75 (0.38)
Program 2 0.75 (1.0) 2.0 (2.67) 4.0 (5.33)
Total execution time 2.75 3.0 4.75
Arithmetic mean of 1.00 1.58 2.85
normalized times
Geometric mean of 1.00 1.15 1.41
normalized times
(b) Results normalized to Computer B

Program 1 2.0 (2.0) 1.0 (1.0) 0.75 (0.75)
Program 2 0.75 (0.38) 2.0 (1.0) 4.0 (2.0)
normalized times
normalized times
Table 2.4 Another Comparison of Arithmetic and Geometric M eans for
Normalized Results
(a) Results normalized to Computer A

Program 1 2.0 (1.0) 1.0 (0.5) 0.20 (0.1)
Program 2 0.4 (1.0) 2.0 (5.0) 4.0 (10)
normalized times
normalized times
(b) Results normalized to Computer B

Program 1 2.0 (2.0) 1.0 (1.0) 0.20 (0.2)
Program 2 0.4 (0.2) 2.0 (1.0) 4.0 (2)
normalized times
normalized times
+
Benchmark Principles
 Desirable characteristics of a benchmark

program:
1. It is written in a high-level language, making it

portable across different machines
2. It is representative of a particular kind of
programming domain or paradigm, such as
systems programming, numerical
programming, or commercial programming
3. It can be measured easily
4. It has wide distribution

+
System Performance Evaluation
Corporation (SPEC)
 Benchmark suite
 A collection of programs, defined in a high-level language
 Together attempt to provide a representative test of a computer in
a particular application or system programming area
 SPEC
 An industry consortium
 Defines and maintains the best known collection of benchmark
suites aimed at evaluating computer systems
 Performance measurements are widely used for comparison and
research purposes

+  Best known SPEC benchmark suite
 Industry standard suite for processor

intensive applications
SPEC  Appropriate for measuring
performance for applications that
spend most of their time doing
computation rather than I/O
CPU2006  Consists of 17 floating point programs
written in C, C++, and Fortran and 12
integer programs written in C and C++
 Suite contains over 3 million lines of

code
 Fifth generation of processor intensive

suites from SPEC

Benchmark Reference I nstr Language Application Brief Description
time count Area
(hours) (billion)
Programming PERL programming
400.perlbench 2.71 2,378 C Language language interpreter, applied
to a set of three programs.
Compression General-purpose data
401.bzip2 2.68 2,472 C compression with most work
done in memory, rather than
doing I/O.
C Compiler Based on gcc Version 3.2,
Table 2.5
403.gcc 2.24 1,064 C
generates code for Opteron.
Combinatoria Vehicle scheduling
429.mcf 2.53 327 C l algorithm.
Optimization
Artificial Plays the game of Go, a
445.gobmk 2.91 1,603 C Intelligence simply described but deeply
complex game.
456.hmmer 2.59 3,363 C

Search Gene
Sequence
Protein sequence analysis
using profile hidden Markov
models.
SPEC
458.sjeng 3.36 2,383 C
Artificial
Intelligence
A highly ranked chess
program that also plays
several chess variants.
CPU2006
462.libquantum 5.76 3,555 C
Physics /
Quantum
Computing
Simulates a quantum
computer, running Shor's
polynomial-time
factorization algorithm.
Integer
464.h264ref 6.15 3,731 C
Video
Compression
H.264/AVC (Advanced
Video Coding) Video
compression.
Benchmarks
Discrete Uses the OMNet++ discrete
Event event simulator to model a
471.omnetpp 1.74 687 C++
Simulation large Ethernet campus
network.
Path-finding Pathfinding library for 2D
473.astar 1.95 1,200 C++
Algorithms maps.
XML A modified version of
483.xalancbmk 1.92 1,184 C++ Processing Xalan-C++, which
transforms XML documents
to other document types.
(Table can be found on page 69 in the textbook.)

Reference I nstr count
Benchmark time (hours) (billion) Language Application Area Brief Description
Computes 3D transonic
410.bwaves 3.78 1,176 Fortran Fluid Dynamics transient laminar viscous
flow.
Quantum Quantum chemical
416.gamess 5.44 5,189 Fortran
Chemistry computations.
Physics / Quantum Simulates behavior of
433.milc 2.55 937 C
Chromodynamics quarks and gluons
Computational fluid
434.zeusmp 2.53 1,566 Fortran Physics / CFD dynamics simulation of
435.gromacs 1.98 1,958 C, Fortran

Biochemistry /
Molecular
astrophysical phenomena.
Simulate Newtonian
equations of motion for
Table 2.6
hundreds to millions of
Dynamics
particles.
436.cactusAD Physics / General Solves the Einstein
3.32 1,376 C, Fortran
M Relativity evolution equations.
437.leslie3d
444.namd
2.61
2.23
1,273
2,483
Fortran
C++
Fluid Dynamics
Biology /
Molecular
Model fuel injection flows.
Simulates large
biomolecular systems.
SPEC
CPU2006
Dynamics
Program library targeted at
Finite Element
447.dealII 3.18 2,323 C++ adaptive finite elements and
Analysis
error estimation.
450.soplex 2.32 703 C++

Linear
Programming,
Optimization
Test cases include railroad
planning and military airlift
models.
Floating-Point
453.povray
454.calculix
1.48
2.29
940
3,04`
C++
C, Fortran
Image Ray-tracing
Structural
Mechanics
3D Image rendering.
Finite element code for
linear and nonlinear 3D
Benchmarks
structural applications.
459.GemsFDT Computational Solves the Maxwell
2.95 1,320 Fortran
D Electromagnetics equations in 3D.
Quantum chemistry
Quantum
465.tonto 2.73 2,392 Fortran package, adapted for
Chemistry
crystallographic tasks.
Simulates incompressible
470.lbm 3.82 1,500 C Fluid Dynamics
fluids in 3D.
481.wrf 3.10 1,684 C, Fortran Weather Weather forecasting model
Speech recognition
482.sphinx3 5.41 2,472 C Speech recognition
software. (Table can be found on page 70
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. in the textbook.)
+
Terms Used in SPEC Documentation
 Benchmark  Peak metric
 A program written in a high-level  This enables users to attempt to
language that can be compiled optimize system performance by
and executed on any computer optimizing the compiler output
that implements the compiler
 Speed metric
 System under test  This is simply a measurement of the
 This is the system to be evaluated
time it takes to execute a compiled
benchmark
 Used for comparing the ability of
 Reference machine a computer to complete single
 This is a system used by SPEC to tasks
establish a baseline performance
for all benchmarks  Rate metric
 Each benchmark is run and  This is a measurement of how many
measured on this machine to tasks a computer can accomplish in
establish a reference time for a certain amount of time
that benchmark  This is called a throughput,
capacity, or rate measure
 Base metric  Allows the system under test to
 These are required for all execute simultaneous tasks to
reported results and have strict take advantage of multiple
guidelines for compilation processors

Start
Get next
program
Run program
three times
Select
median value
Ratio(prog) =
Tref(prog)/TSUT(prog)
Yes More No Compute geometric

programs? mean of all ratios
End
Figure 2.7 SPEC Evaluation Flowchart

Table 2.7 Some SPEC CI NT2006 Results
(a) Sun Blade 1000
Execution Execution Execution Reference

Benchmark Ratio
time time time time
400.perlbench 3077 3076 3080 9770 3.18
401.bzip2 3260 3263 3260 9650 2.96
403.gcc 2711 2701 2702 8050 2.98
429.mcf 2356 2331 2301 9120 3.91
445.gobmk 3319 3310 3308 10490 3.17
456.hmmer 2586 2587 2601 9330 3.61
458.sjeng 3452 3449 3449 12100 3.51
462.libquantum 10318 10319 10273 20720 2.01
464.h264ref 5246 5290 5259 22130 4.21
471.omnetpp 2565 2572 2582 6250 2.43
473.astar 2522 2554 2565 7020 2.75
483.xalancbmk 2014 2018 2018 6900 3.42
(b) Sun Blade X6250
Execution Execution Execution Reference

Benchmark Ratio Rate
time time time time
400.perlbench 497 497 497 9770 19.66 78.63
401.bzip2 613 614 613 9650 15.74 62.97
403.gcc 529 529 529 8050 15.22 60.87
429.mcf 472 472 473 9120 19.32 77.29
445.gobmk 637 637 637 10490 16.47 65.87
456.hmmer 446 446 446 9330 20.92 83.68
458.sjeng 631 632 630 12100 19.18 76.70
462.libquantum 614 614 614 20720 33.75 134.98
464.h264ref 830 830 830 22130 26.66 106.65
471.omnetpp 619 620 619 6250 10.10 40.39
473.astar 580 580 580 7020 12.10 48.41
483.xalancbmk 422 422 422 6900 16.35 65.40

+ Summary Performance
Issues
Chapter 2
 Designing for performance  Basic measures of computer

 Microprocessor speed performance
 Performance balance  Clock speed
 Improvements in chip  Instruction execution rate
organization and
 Calculating the mean
architecture
 Arithmetic mean
 Multicore
 Harmonic mean
 MICs
 Geometric mean
 GPGPUs
 Amdahl’s Law  Benchmark principles
 Little’s Law
 SPEC benchmarks

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 Processors are so inexpensive that we now have microprocessors we throw away

 Desktop applications that require the great power of today’s microprocessor-based

 Businesses are relying on increasingly powerful servers to handle transaction and

 Cloud service providers use massive high-performance banks of servers to

• Processor moves data or instructions into a

• Processor looks ahead in the instruction code fetched

Superscalar • This is the ability to issue more than one instruction in

• Processor analyzes which instructions are dependent

Speculative • Using branch prediction and data flow analysis, some

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

Change the DRAM Increase the

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

Figure 2.1 Typical I/O Device Data Rates

 Increase size and speed of caches

 Change processor organization and architecture

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

Figu r e 2 .2 Pr oce ssor Tr e n ds

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

Strategy is to use two simpler

With two processors larger

As caches became larger it

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Deals with the potential speedup of a

 Can be generalized to evaluate and

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

Figu r e 2 .3 I llu st r a t ion of Am da h l’s La w

Figur e 2 .4 Am da h l’s La w for M ult ipr oce ssor s

 Can be applied to almost any system that is statistically in

 Average number of items in a queuing system equals the

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

From Computer Desktop Encyclopedia

Figure 2.5 System Clock

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

Table 2.1 Performance Factors and System Attributes

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

Figure 2.6 Comparison of Means on Various Data Sets

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

(a) Results normalized to Computer A

Computer A time Computer B time Computer C time

(b) Results normalized to Computer B

Computer A time Computer B time Computer C time

(a) Results normalized to Computer A

Computer A time Computer B time Computer C time

(b) Results normalized to Computer B

Computer A time Computer B time Computer C time

 Desirable characteristics of a benchmark

1. It is written in a high-level language, making it

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Industry standard suite for processor

 Suite contains over 3 million lines of

 Fifth generation of processor intensive

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

456.hmmer 2.59 3,363 C

(Table can be found on page 69 in the textbook.)

435.gromacs 1.98 1,958 C, Fortran

450.soplex 2.32 703 C++