Unit One: Writing Effective Sentences

Introduction

In writing, the best way to communicate your ideas is to use effective and forceful sentences. To
ensure that your meanings are clearly understood, you should make certain that your sentences
are punctuated correctly. Most importantly, you should know where they begin and where they
end. That is, you must develop SENTENCES SENSE /SKILL/ in writing. Hence, this unit has
included important sentence items that are vital tools to help you develop writing effective
sentences.

1.1 What is a Sentence?

A sentence is a group/ set of words that express a statement, command, question or exclamation.
A sentence consists of one or more clauses, and usually has at least one subject and verb. In
writing, it begins with capital letter and ends with a full stop/period (.), questions mark (?) or
exclamation mark (!). That is why these punctuation marks are known as end marks. The basic
building blocks of English sentence are subjects and verbs. Understanding them is an important
first step towards mastering a number of sentence skills. Every sentence has a subject and a verb.
'Who' or 'what' the sentence speaks about is called a subject, 'what' the sentence says about the
subject is called the verb. Look at the following examples:
1. The boy cried.
2. That fish smells.
3. Many people applied for the job
4. The show is a documentary
A simple way to find a subject is that you should ask yourself "who or what the sentence is
about?” Your answer is the subject. Who is the first sentence about? It is about the boy. What is
the second sentence about? Your answer is the fish. Who is the third sentence about? It is about
the people and what is the fourth sentence about? It is about the show. So, the subjects of the
above sentences are the boy, the fish, the people and the show respectively.

On the other hand, a simple way to find a verb is that you should ask yourself "what does the
sentence say about the subject?” Your answer is the verb. Let us discuss about the verbs of the
above examples. What does the first sentence say about the boy? He cried. What does the second

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sentence say about the fish? It smells. What does the third sentence say about the people? They
applied for the job. What does the fourth sentence say about the show? It is a documentary.
Hence, the verbs of the above examples are ‘cried’, ‘smells’, ‘applied’ and ‘is’ respectively.

Most verbs show action. In the sentences given above, the verbs ‘cried’, ‘smell’ and ‘applied’ are
known as action verbs. Certain other verbs, like ‘is’ in third sentence above, are known as
linking verbs. Linking verbs do not show action rather they give information about the subject.
For example, in ‘the show is a documentary’, the linking verb ‘is’ joins the subject (show) with a
word that identifies and describes it (i.e., documentary). Other common linking verbs include
'am', 'are', 'was', 'were', 'feel', 'appear', 'look', 'become' and 'seem'.

Exercise: In each of the following sentence, draw one line under the subject and two lines
under the verb.

1. My brother built his bookshelf from wood plank.

2. My doormat studied all the night yesterday.
3. During my parent divorce, I felt like a rag doll being torn between two people.
A sentence may have more than one verb, one subject or several subjects and verbs. Look at the
sentences in following exercise.

Exercise: Underline once under the subjects and twice under the verbs.

1. The engine coughed and sputtered.

2. Broken glass and empty cons littered the compound.
3. Hailu, Tsegay and Almaz met after class and went to Langano resort. .
A clause is a part of a sentence which contains a subject and verb, usually joined to the rest of a
sentence by a conjunction. Look at the following example:

I went to bed early because I was extremely tired.

In the above sentence, the two clauses are joined to the rest of the sentence by the conjunction
'because'. Besides, conjunctions not only join two clauses together; they also show how the
meanings of the two clauses are related. Look at the following examples:

1. We brought food and they supplied the drink (addition).

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 2. She was poor but she was honest (contrast).
3. We can go swimming or we could stay here (alternative).
4. People disliked her because she was so rude (reason).
5. I will phone you when I arrive (time).
1.2 Sentence Types
There are two approaches to the classification of sentences. They can be categorized according to
their structures or their functions.

1.2.1 Sentence Structure

A sentence can be simple, compound, complex or compound- complex depending on the number
and types of clauses they contain. In order to be a sentence, there must be at least one main
(independent) clause. Each sentence, no matter how complex, has a main clause. A main clause
(independent) contains the main idea, subject and verb of a sentence. A main clause can always
stand alone as a sentence. A subordinate clause, like the main clause, has a subject and a verb,
but it cannot stand as a sentence. A subordinate clause is a clause which functions/acts as apart
(as a subject, an object, adjective, or adverb) of the main clause. Look at the following examples
(the subordinate clauses are underlined once):

1. Where she is doesn’t matter.

(Subordinate clause) (Main clause)

To identify the main clause, replace “it” in the place of the subordinate clause and thus it
becomes "it doesn’t matter". So, the subordinate clause of the above sentence is "where she is”
and it acts/functions as the subject of the main clause.

2. I told you that I didn’t care.

(Main clause) (Subordinate clause)

The subordinate clause functions as the direct object of the main clause in the above sentence. To
identify the main clause of the sentence, replace the pronoun "it" in the place of the subordinate
clause and it becomes "I told you about it" and thus pronoun "it" has the position of direct object

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in this sentence. Therefore, the subordinate clause acts as the object of the main clause in the
above sentence.

3. You will find friends wherever you go.

(Main clause) (Subordinate clause)

To identify the main clause, replace "anywhere/any place" in the place of the subordinate clause,
you will make a sentence that reads "you will find friends anywhere/any place". "Anywhere" or "
any place” is an adverb of place. Therefore, this shows that the subordinate clause acts as the
adverb of the main clause in the above sentence.

4. It is a question that nobody can answer.

(Main clause) (Subordinate clause)

To identify the main clause, replace "unanswerable” in the place of the subordinate clause; yet
you should place the adjective "unanswerable” before the noun that modifies/describes it, that is,
“question”. As a result, you will make a sentence that reads "It is an unanswerable question".
Therefore, this shows that the subordinate clause acts as the adjective of the main clause in the
above sentence.

Once we have identified the basic nature of both main clause and subordinate clause within a
sentence, it will be both easy and helpful for us to classify sentences types according to the types
and number of clauses they contain.

I) A Simple Sentence: It contains one independent/main clause with no subordinate clause.

Therefore, a simple sentence has one subject and verb. Look at the following examples:

1. She founded an orphanage.

2. I like chocolate.

II) A Compound Sentence: It is made up of two or more independent/main clauses, with

no subordinate clause. The main clauses may be joined by coordinating conjunctions (and, or,
but, for, yet, or so) or with a semicolon (;). Look at the following examples:

1. I came home and the other went.

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 2. We must be early or we won’t get a seat.
3. They are ugly and expensive; yet people buy them.
4. I can’t go now; I’m too busy.

III) A Complex Sentence: It is made up of one main/independent clause with at least one
subordinate clause. Look the following examples:

1. We know that the bridge was unsafe.

2. He gave it to me because he trusted me.
3. While the brain gets its power from performing many parallel operations, a computer
excels by performing operations quickly.

Each of the above complex sentence contains one main clause and one subordinate clause joined
by the subordinating conjunctions ‘that’, ‘because’ and ‘while’ respectively. Because there are
several subordinating conjunctions, it is difficult and time consuming to list all of them in this
extract.

IV) A Compound-Complex Sentence: It is made up of at least two independent/main

clauses and at least one subordinate clause. Look at the following examples:

1. Give me whatever money you can spare and I will see to it that you get a tax receipt.
2. He can go wherever he wants inside the country, but he will be arrested if he tries to leave
abroad.

Each of the above sentences contains two main clauses and two subordinate clauses. The clauses
in the above sentences are joined by both subordinating conjunctions (whatever, that, wherever
and if) and coordinating conjunctions (‘and’ and ‘but’) respectively. Hence, because each of the
above sentence contains both complex and compound sentence structures as two separate main
clauses joined by ‘and’ and ‘but’ respectively, they are compound-complex sentences. You
should notice that long sentences are not necessarily compound-complex sentences.

Exercise: Identify whether the type of each of the following sentence structure is simple,
compound, complex or compound-complex.

1. If I had known that you were coming, I would have met you at the airport.

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 2. They grow coffee.
3. More complex scientific calculators support trigonometric, statistical and other functions.
4. She was depressed, and (she) didn’t know what to do.
5. The days were short, for it was now December.
6. The human brain can perform a huge number of operations since it has roughly 100
billion neurons operating simultaneously, connected by 100 trillion synapses.
7. Tell him what he wants me to do, and you should report his replies as soon as you come
back here.
8. My father likes swimming.
9. It’s a question which nobody can answer.
10. Our cases were so heavy, so we took a taxi.

1.2.2 Sentence Function

On the other hand, note that sentences can be declarative (statement), imperative, interrogative
and exclamatory sentences on the basis of their function/purpose.

I) A Declarative Sentence: It is a sentence that gives information; not a question. Look at

the following examples:

1. I’m hungry

2. I’m cold

3. Almaz didn’t come last night

4. We put glowing magnesium into the jars of oxygen.

III) An Imperative Sentence: It is used as a command, request, suggestion, advice,

instruction, encouragement, offering help, and expression of wish for people’s welfare. Look at
the following examples:

1. Look in the mirror before you drive off (instruction).

2. Come here (command).
3. Be quiet! (Command).

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 4. Try again- you nearly did it (encouragement).
5. Enjoy your holiday (best wishes).
6. Have some more tea (suggestion).
7. Get something to drink, can you? (Request).
III) An Interrogative Sentence: It is used to form questions. Look at the following
examples:

1. What visions do you have?

2. Do you know that somebody has left the country?
IV) An Exclamatory Sentence: It is often constructed with ‘how’ and ‘what’ or with ‘so’
and ‘such’; most often ends up with an exclamation mark (!). Look at the following examples:

1. Strawberries! How nice!

2. How cold it is!
3. What a rude man!
4. He is such a nice boy!
Exercise: Identify whether the type of each of the following sentence function is
declarative, imperative, interrogative or exclamatory.

1. How beautifully you sing!

2. Please do not lean out of the window.
3. Wish you all the best in your future endeavors!
4. How many people are there in this class?
5. Are you married or single?
6. What a nice dress!
7. Give me a hand, will you?
8. You’re so kind!
9. Never speak to me like that again!
10. What a beautiful smile your sister has!
1.3 Sentence Combination

Remember that conjunctions are words that join clauses into sentences. In addition to that,
conjunctions are words that not only join clauses together; they also show how the meanings of

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the two clauses are related one another. Most often, there are two ways of sentence combination
such as subordination and coordination.

1.3.1 Subordination: This allows you to communication the relative importance of ideas
within sentences. You give important ideas more emphasis by making them independent (main)
clauses; you give less important ideas or additional/extra information by making them
subordinate clauses. Subordinate clauses are constructed with subordinating conjunctions or
relative pronouns. Look at the following examples:

1. Although I don’t like him, I agree that he is a good manager.

2. I finished early because I worked fast.
3. Those who want tickets can get them from the office.
4. There is a program tonight which you might like.
5. I saw a girl whose hair come down to her waist.
In the above examples, the subordinate clauses are constructed with the subordinating
conjunctions ‘although’, and ‘because’ and with the relative pronouns ‘who’, ‘which’ and
‘whose’ respectively. The other relative pronouns that can construct subordination clause are
‘whom’, ‘when’, ‘where’, or ‘that’. Equally important, the other subordinating conjunctions that
can construct subordinate clauses are ‘after’, ‘before’, ‘as’, ‘as if’, ‘as though’, ‘even when’,
‘even if’, ‘rather than’, ‘since’, ‘in order to’, ‘in order that’, ‘so that’, ‘until/till’, ‘whether’ etc.
These conjunctions show condition, reason, time, result etc. that the meanings of the clauses are
related.

Besides, participle clauses (verb- ing word group) can be used in similar ways to full adverbial
clauses (subordinate clauses), expressing condition, reason, time relations, result etc. This can
only happen, of course, when the idea of condition, reason, etc, is so clear that no conjunction is
needed to signal it. Look at the following examples:

1. Having failed my medical exams, I took up teaching. (As I had failed my medical exams, I
took up teaching)
2. Putting down my news paper, I walked over to the window. (After I had put down my
newspaper, I walked over to the window)

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1.3.2 Coordination: It balances two or more equal ideas in a sentence giving equal emphasis
to each idea within a sentence. You can coordinate ideas (clauses) in a sentence using
coordinating conjunctions (‘and’, ‘or’, ‘but’, or ‘for’), correlatives (correlative) conjunctions
(‘both... and’, ‘either...or’, ‘neither… nor’, and ‘not only… but also’) and conjunctive adverbs
(besides, however, nevertheless, otherwise, so, therefore, yet, still, and though).
Correlatives/correlative conjunctions work in pairs to balance sentence structures (correlations)
and the conjunctive adverbs can join clauses or sentences and are then often known as
‘conjuncts’. Look at the following examples:
1. I can’t go now; I’m too busy. Besides, my passport is out of date.
2. She is poor but she is honest.
3. She is both pretty and clever.
4. I don’t speak either French or German.
5. Neither Haile nor aster was at home.
6. We go there not only in winter, but also in summer.
7. I’ll offer it to Almaz; however, she may not want it (‘However’ means ‘but’).
8. They hadn’t trained hard, nevertheless, they won.
9. There is fog at the city; the plane, therefore, has been diverted.
Or
There is fog at the city; therefore, the plane has been diverted.
Or
There is fog at the city; plane has therefore been diverted.
10. You aren’t rich; still, you could do something to help him (‘Still’ means ‘nevertheless’).
The clauses in each of the above sentence are coordinated by using the coordinating
conjunctions, correlations and conjunction adverb s. Because coordination gives equal emphasis
to ideas within a sentence, the clauses are independent (main) that can stand alone as separate
sentences. Hence, there is no subordinates/dependent clauses in the above given examples.

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 1.4 Basics of a Sentence

1.4.1 Characteristics of Effective Sentences

An effective sentence is like a skilled athlete moving towards a goal. Effective sentences have a
quality that enables them convey an idea with clarity and style. They give the reader as sense of
what in them is important. They do all this with a minimum of words. Effective sentences have
certain qualities such as clarity, economy and emphasis which help to convince and please the
reader.

A. Clarity: The first requirement of a good sentence is clarity. Most failures in clarity result
from three sources:
I. From Errors such as: faulty/ambiguous pronoun reference, dangling modifier,
misplaced modifiers, inadequate punctuation/run-on, comma splice, fragment/,
faulty parallelism, etc.
II. From Vague Diction: One of the errors which affect the clarity of a sentence is
vague diction .Vagueness is one of the major weaknesses in diction. Words are
vague when, in context, they do not convey to a reader one specific meaning.
Thus, during diction (choice of word), know your audience, don’t use jargons in
ordinary writing, and use common words which give one clear interpretation for
all people.
III. From Over Involved Sentence Structure: The other failure in clarity comes from
over involved sentence structure. The following example deals with lack of clarity
that comes from trying to handle too many ideas in one sentence. Look at the
following extract:

“Last month while I was visiting the federal buildings in Washington on a guided tour,
we went to the national art gallery, where we had been for an hour when the rest of the
group was ready to move on to the treasury building and I told a friend with the group
that I wanted to stay in the art Gallery a while longer and I would rejoin the group about
half an hour later, but I never did, even though I moved more quickly than I wanted from
room to room, not having seen after about four hours all that there was to see.”

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The following version reduces the original eleven clauses to four and condenses the 106 words to
31 words in two sentences:

While visiting the national art gallery with a tour group last month, I stayed for four
hours after the group left. Even then I did not see all I wanted too.

B. Economy: The other requirement to achieve an effective sentence is economy. Economy is

a relation between the number of words used and the amount of meaning they convey.
Consider the following two statements:

Wordy: I should like to make it entirely clear to one and all that neither I nor any of my
associates or fellow-workers had anything at all to do in any way, shape, or form with
this illicit and legally unjustifiable act that has been committed.

Improved: I want to make it clear to everyone that neither I nor any of my associates had
anything to do with this illegal act.

The common methods to achieve economy are:

I. Cutting out unnecessary words within a sentence: Look at the following examples:

Wordy: As we walked in the direction of home, I felt as if I had never been happier.

Improved: As we walked home, I felt I had never been happier.

Wordy: The truth of the matter is, to call a spade a spade, that he is afraid of her.

Improved: The truth is that he is afraid of her.

II. Substituting more economical expressions for wordy ones. Look at the following examples:

A good style involves avoiding unnecessarily long words when simple words can give equally
clear meaning.

Wordy: We find the situation that exists at the moment intolerable.

Improved: We find the present situation intolerable.

Wordy: I think the time has come for us to be leave.

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Improved: It is time to leave.

III. Avoiding redundancy/repetition. Look at the following examples:

Wordy: We planned to go at 3 o’clock p.m in the afternoo n.

Improved: We planned to go at 3 p.m.

Wordy: In their opinion, they think that they are right.

Improved: They think they are right.

Redundant Direct
Advance forward Advance
Continue on Continue
Refer back Refer
Combine together Combine
Circle around Circle
Small in size Small
Disappear from view Disappear
Throughout the whole Throughout
Basic fundamentals Fundamentals
Important essentials Essentials

C. Emphasis: The other requirement to achieve an effective sentence is emphasis. It is a

reflection of purpose. Emphasis can be made by the following ways:
1. Emphatic Word Order: the way word order is used to obtain emphasis in a sentence
depend on two considerations:
A. What words does the writer wish to emphasize?
B. What positions within a sentence provide the most emphasis?

In English sentence, both the beginning and the end are emphatic positions. The most important
information is put in these positions, and less important information is placed in the middle.
Notice the difference between the following statements. Look at the following examples:

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  On July 31, 1973, a plane crash which killed eighty-eight people and which was the first
fatal crash for Delta Airlines in 95 million passenger miles occurred at Boston’s Logan
international Airport.
 Eighty-eight people were killed in a plane crash at Boston’s Logan International Airport.
 Eighty –eight people were killed in a plane crash at Boston’s Logan international Airport
on July 31, 1973 the first fatal crash for Delta Airlines in 95 million passenger miles.

The first sentence puts the date and the place in the most emphatic positions, and the second
version puts the most significant information -the number of people killed and Delta’s
impressive safety record in the beginning and in the end.

2. Emphatic Repetition: Key words and ideas can be repeated for emphasis for the fact that
intentional repetition can produce a desired emphasis. Careless and awkward repetition of
words makes sentences weak and flabby, but careful, deliberate repetition of key words,
can be an effective way of gaining emphasis, as in the following sentence:
 I moderately honest man with a moderately faithful wife, moderate drinkers both,
in a moderately healthy home; that is the true middle class unit.
3. Empathic Voice: verbs in the active voice create more emphasis than verbs in the
passive. The active voice puts the subject/the actor/ first, and then the object/the receiver
of the action/. Look at the following examples:

The cat killed the rate. (Active)

The rate was killed by the act. (Passive)

Of the two, the active is almost always more direct, more forceful and emphatic, and also more
economical. Therefore, if your goal is to emphasis the actor and the action itself, the active voice
is the better choice. If you want to emphasize the receiver or result of the action, the passive
voice is usually preferable. Look at the following examples:

Active: The firefighter saved the terrified child.

Passive: The terrified child was saved by the firefighter.

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The first example focuses our attention on the rescue-firefighter; the second focuses on the object
of the rescue of the child.

1.5 Common Errors in Sentence Construction

Objective: After working through this part, you will be able to:

 Identify basic faults that may occur in sentence writing.

 Revise faulty sentences
 Write clear and correct sentences

The purpose of writing is to communicate facts, feelings, attitudes, and ideas clearly and
effectively. But in order to make your sentences more effective expression of ideas, you have to
clear your sentences from the following types of faulty constructions.

1.5.1 Sentence Fragments

Every sentence must have a subject and a verb and must express a complete though. A word
group that lacks a subject or a verb and does not express a complete thought is a fragment. i.e.
when a dependent (subordinate) clause or a phrase is presented as a sentence, it is called a
fragment. Fragments commonly occur:

A. Part of the sentence, usually the subject or verb, is missing. Look at the following
examples:
Incorrect: Robel going to the store. (The –ing form is used as the main verb of the
sentence without the required auxiliary verb.)
Correct: Robel is going to the store.
Incorrect: Gone before they came.
Correct: Robel had gone before they came. (Here both the subject and part of the verb
were missing)
B. A dependent clause is used alone, without being attached to a related independent
clause. Look at the following examples:
Incorrect: Because he was happy.
Correct: Henock laughed out loud because he was happy.

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 Incorrect: Even though the pizza was hot. He ate it quickly.
Incorrect: While they were walking down the street.
Correct: They met their old friends while walking down the street.
Correct: They met their old friend while they were walking down the street
Incorrect: If I were him. I would marry that girl.
Correct: If I were him, I would marry that girl.
C. Fragments commonly occur with prepositional phrases. Look at the following
examples:
Incorrect: It came as a great relief. To everyone.
Correct: It came as a great relief to everyone.
Incorrect: By three o’clock the next day. The supervisor wanted our reports.
Correct: The supervisor wanted our reports by three o’clock the next day.
D. Fragments commonly occur with verbal phrases. Look at the following examples:
Incorrect: I plan on working overtime. To get this job finished.
Correct: I plan on working overtime to get this job finished.
Incorrect: Women need to have an average of two children. To keep the world’s
population constant in the long run.
Correct: Women need to have an average of two children to keep the world’s population
constant in the long run.

1.5.2. Comma Splice

Comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are separated by only a comma, i.e. the use
of a comma between two main clauses without a coordinating conjunction results in the comma
fault or comma slice.

Examples:

1. Incorrect: Yohannes shouted at the man, the man called the police.
Correct: Yohannes shouted at the man. The man called the police.
Correct: Yohannes shouted at the man; the man called the police.
Correct: Yohannes shouted at the man, and the man called the police.
Correct; Yohannes shouted at the mean before the man called the police.

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 Correct: Because Yohannes shouted at the man, the man called the police.
2. In correct: the police came, then they took the man away.
Correct: the police came. Then they took the man away.
Correct: the police came; then they took the man away.
Correct: the police came, and then they took the man away.
Correct: when the police came, they took the man away.

Comma splice can be corrected in one of the following ways:

 Connect the main clauses with a coordinating conjunction and a comma.

 Replace the comma with semicolon to connect two complete thoughts
 Make a separate sentence of each main clause.
 Change one of the main clauses to a subordinate clause.

Exercise: Revise the Following Comma Splice Faults.

1. She disliked school, however, she studied every day.

2. The witness was unwilling to testify, he was afraid of the accused man.
3. Today I am tired, I will take a nap later.
4. I avoided deserts, I was trying to loose weight.
5. Everything seemed quite, then the explosion came.

1.5.3. Run-on/Fused/Sentences

This error occurs when two sentences are mixed in the same sentence when they should have
been separated by an appropriate conjunctions’, semicolon, or a full stop.

Examples:

Fused/error/: Alemu bought the Christmas tree almaz put it up and decorated it.

Correct: Alemu bought the Christmas tree. Almaz put it up and decorated it.

Correct: Alemu bought the charismas tree; Almaz put it up and decorated it.

Correct: Alemu bought the Christmas tree, and Almaz put it up and decorated it.

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Correct: After Alemu bought the Christmas tree, Almaz put it up and decorated it.

Fused/incorrect/: the theater was very crowded we decided not to wait in line.

Correct: the theater was very crowded. We decided not to wait in line.

Correct: the theater was very crowded; we decided not to wait I line.

Correct: the theater was very crowded, so we decided not to wait in line.

Correct: because the theater was very crowded, we decided not to wait in line.

Exercise: Revise the Following Run-On/Fused/Sentences.

1. He is clever student he is not disciplined.

2. They didn’t study hard: the result was that many of them failed.
3. He ahs been looking for a wife he couldn’t’ find one.
4. He showed me the direction to this house I couldn’t find it.
5. She returned from work he directly went to his bed.
6. He always studies but doesn’t pass his exam.
7. Could I get your number please I am poor at remembering numbers?

1.5.4 Dangling Modifier

A dangling modifier is a word, a phrase or a clause that either modifies nothing in a sentence or
that seem to modify a word to which it is not logically related (i.e. when the word being modified
is implied but not explicitly stated, the modifier is left dangling).

Example: Faulty: driving through the mountains, several beers were seen.

Revised: driving through the mountains, we saw several beers. R

Revised: when we drove through the mountains, we saw several beers

Faulty: to write effectively, practice is necessary.

Revised: to write effectively, one must practice.

Revised: if you wish to write effectively, you must practice.

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 Dangling modifiers can be revised in two ways:

1. Change the subject of the main clause or state an appropriate subject for the main clause.
2. Change the dangling phrase into a subordinate clause by adding a subordinating
conjunction/ when, after, since, while, before, because, as, as soon as, even, even if, if,
thought, even thought, although,

Exercise: Revise the Following Sentences to Eliminate the Dangling Phrases.

1. At the age of four, my parents took me to Addis Ababa.

2. Chopping the onion, the knife cut her finger.
3. Riding my bicycle, a dog chased me.
4. By checking the answer sheet, my errors become clear to me.
5. Going to Egypt, ancient pyramids were visited.

1.5.5. Misplaced Modifiers

When a modifier is wrongly placed, the resulting construction would be either awkward or the
message would be distorted. So, place modifiers as close as possible to the words they modify.

Be sure that adverbs such as almost, even, hardly, just, merely, only, nearly, scarcely, etc refer
and logically to the words they modify.

Example: error: their marriage nearly was broken.

Revised: their marriage was nearly broken.

Error: Abebe performed the role with a dark attitude r

Evised: Abebe with a dark attitude performed the role.

Error: the man is a company manager who invited us to dinner.

Revised: the man who invited us to dinner is a company manager.

Error: a dog is good company that is well trained.

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Revised: a dog that is well trained is good company.

Error: they scarcely planted any crops on the farm.

Revised: they planted scarcely any crops on the farm.

Exercise: The Following Sentences Are Unclear; Place the Modifying Phrases
or Clauses nearer the Words They Modify.

1. She borrowed an egg from a neighbor that was rotten.

2. He only left ten minutes ago.
3. He almost read half the book.
4. The department only have meeting once a week.
5. The young girl was walking the dog in a short skirt.
6. Mr. Yassin Arefat was born in Jerusalem who was the first president of Palestine.
7. He woman is a medical doctor in a green coat.
8. The girl is my wife with a long hair.

1.5.6. Faulty Agreement

Agreement is the grammatical relationship between a subject and a verb a pronoun and its
antecedent, and number of a subject and a verb. The fault occurs when this agreement is not well
maintained.

Example: Error: Tadelch and her younger sister is studying computer science.

Correct: Tadelech and her younger sister are studying computer science.

Error: seifu, as well as his friends, are listening to local music.

Correct: seifu, as well as his friends, is listening to local music.

Error: either Genet or Astr are handling it.

Correct: either genet or Aster is handling it.

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Error: either the captain or the soldiers is capable of solving this crime.

Error: either the captain or the soldiers are capable of solving this crime.

Error: neither John nor Alemu have been invited to dinner.

Correct: Neither John nor Alemu has been invited to dinner.

Error: neither john nor his sisters has been invited to dinner.

Correct: neither John nor his sister have been invited to dinner.

Error: there is a number of unanswered questions.

Correct: there are a number of unanswered questions.

Exercise: The Following Sentences have Errors in Agreement. Write the

Correct Version of each Sentence.

1. Ayelech’s roommate, Kebede have won a scholarship.

2. The blue and the white cars are coming now.
3. There is only a chair and a table.
4. My family, like many others, are involved in a number of community activities.
5. Marta, along with the twins, John and Julian, were busy.
6. A well-known politician and writer are attending the workshop.
7. Neither the instructor nor the students have finished their work.
8. Dawit was determined to help his father and brother because he love him.
9. He asked each of us to bring ones own lunch
10. Nobody eats their dinner.

1.5.7. Faulty parallelism

The other error which affects the clarity of our sentences is faulty parallelism. In English,
parallelism means from similarity of words expressing equal or parallel ideas.

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To avoid faulty parallelism and to maintain clarity, coordinated words, phrases or clauses must
match in grammatical form. i.e. noun should be matched with noun, verb with verb, phrases with
phrases, and clauses with clauses.

Example: Faulty: he likes to read and playing football.

Parallel: He like to reading and play football.

Faulty; This product is sturdy, light and costs very little.

Correct: This product is sturdy, light and inexpensive.

Faulty: The man gave not only money, but also advised me.

Correct: The man gave me nto only money, but also advise.

Faulty; We have store in Addis, Diredawa, and in Bahir Dar.

Correct: We have store in Addis, in Driedawa, and in Bahir Dar.

Faulty: Mr. Omer told us to check the value of the property and that our insurance should be
increased.

Correct: Mr. Omerl told us that we should check the value of the property and that we should
increase our insurance.

Correct: Mr. Omer told us to check the value of the property and to increase our insurance.

Exercise: Revise the Following Faulty Sentences

1. He warned me to revise my essay and that I should pay close attention to parallel
structures.
2. I like baking and to eat them.
3. He is either visiting the buildings or work in his office.
4. My job includes checking the inventory and ..................
5. The students attended classes, did their homework, they were going back home.
6. In the coming five years she has planned to marry, construct her own house and she has
decided to complete her education.

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Unit Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs

Introduction

A paragraph (from the Greek paragraphos, "to write beside" or "written beside") is a self-
contained unit of a discourse in writing dealing with a particular point or idea. Paragraphs
consist of one or more sentences. Paragraphs are the building blocks of papers. Many students
define paragraphs in terms of length: a paragraph is a group of at least five sentences; a
paragraph is half a page long, etc. In reality, though, the unity and coherence of ideas among
sentences is what constitutes a paragraph. A paragraph is defined as "a group of sentences or a
single sentence that forms a unit". Length and appearance do not determine whether a section in
a paper is a paragraph. For instance, in some styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, a
paragraph can be just one sentence long. Ultimately, a paragraph is a sentence or group of
sentences that support one main idea. In this unit, we will refer to the main idea as the
"controlling idea," because it controls what happens in the rest of the paragraph.

Writing a paragraph may be the most difficult task for some but it surely is not impossible. With
proper guidance and knowledgeable tips, anyone can write a paragraph that has a perfect
introduction, captivating details in the middle and a remarkable closing sentence that would
leave a lasting impression on the reader. Your custom term papers and college term papers will
contain properly organized paragraphs that will surely impress your teacher.

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 2.1 Structure of a Paragraph

A paragraph is a unit of text that develops one idea or topic in specific detail. A paragraph has a
beginning, middle and an end. The beginning, or the topic sentence, forecasts what the paragraph
is going to be about. The middle develops the idea in detail by giving specific support for it, and
the conclusion emphasizes the insight you have arrived at. In many languages, the fundamental
unit of composition is the paragraph. A paragraph consists of several sentences that are grouped
together. These groups of sentences together discuss one main subject. In many formal academic
languages, paragraphs have three principal parts: the topic sentence, body sentences, and the
concluding sentence. The topic sentence contains the main idea as the "controlling idea,"
because it controls what happens in the rest of a paragraph . The topic sentence can be placed at
the beginning , middle, end , and both at the beginning and end of a paragraph.

Activity One

Construct your own supporting sentences for the following topic sentences of
different paragraphs.
1. There are many ways to be successful in life.

Ss1_____________________________________________________________

Ss2_____________________________________________________________

Ss3_____________________________________________________________

2. There are different ways of preparing for examination.

Ss1_____________________________________________________________

Ss2_____________________________________________________________

Ss3_____________________________________________________________

3. Smoking should be banned in pubs and restaurants.

Ss1_____________________________________________________________

Ss2_____________________________________________________________

Ss3_____________________________________________________________

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Activity Two

Read the following paragraphs and answer the questions following them.
Paragraph 1

There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First,
Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical
services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students
are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university.
Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many
parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

A) The topic sentence

______________________________________________________________________________

B) Major supporting Sentences

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

C) The conclusion

______________________________________________________________________________

Paragraph 2
The first reason why I want to learn English is that it has become an international
language. It is now used by most international companies, including the company where I
work, for business communication. Another reason why I want to learn English is so that
I can travel to English-speaking countries. The United States, England, Australia and
many other countries all use English as their primary language. In fact , there are mainly
three reasons why I want to learn English. Finally, I want to learn English because I plan
to move to the U.S. in the future. I will become a manager for my company soon. For all
these reasons, I am very excited about learning English.
A) The topic sentence

______________________________________________________________________________

B) Major supporting Sentences

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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 C) The conclusion

______________________________________________________________________________

Paragraph 3

Physically, caffeine speeds up the heart, promotes the release of stomach acid, and
increases urine production. It also dilates some blood vessels while narrowing others. In
large amounts, caffeine may cause convulsions, but this is not too likely. It takes about
ten grams of caffeine, about 100 cups of coffee, to run a serious risk of death.
Psychologically, caffeine suppresses fatigue or drowsiness and increases feelings of
alertness. Caffeine then can have various effects on a person.

A) The topic sentence

______________________________________________________________________________

B) Major supporting Sentences

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

C) The conclusion

________________________________________________________________________

Paragraph 4

After food is ingested, digestion in different parts of an alimentary tract is achieved by

mechanical and chemical means. Mechanical digestion carried out, for example, through
muscular grinding by teeth and stomach, achieves a progressive physical subdivision of
ingested materials into fine particles suspended in water. Chemical digestion then reduces
these particles to molecular dimensions. In the process, usable ions and molecules
become separated out, and more complex molecules are broken up into smaller, usable
ones.

A) The topic sentence

______________________________________________________________________________

B) Major supporting Sentences

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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 C) The conclusion
____________________________________________________________________________

Activity Three
Write a topic sentence for the following paragraph.

. To
start things off, my plane was six hours late. When I finally got to my hotel, I was
very disappointed. It was small and dirty. On the third day, my wallet was stolen,
and I lost all my credit cards. It rained every day except one, and on that day I got
terrible sunburn. All in all, it wasn’t a vacation to remember.

2.2 Qualities/Characteristics of an Effective Paragraph

2.2.1 Unity
The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with one focus or
major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander with different ideas. In short,
in the language of writing, the paragraph is said to be unified if it contains no irrelevant
details/ideas that support the topic sentence.

Activity Four
The following paragraph contains one sentence that is not related to the
topic sentence of the paragraph. Write the sentence on the space provided.
The capital city of a country is usually a very important city. The government
offices are located in the capital city and political leaders usually live there
nearby. There are many different types of governments in the world. The capital
may also be the centre of culture. There are often museums, libraries, and
universities in the capital. Finally, the capital city can serve as a centre of trade,
industry and commerce, so it is often the financial centre of the country.

2.2.2 Coherence

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Coherence shows:(I) the logical relations of thoughts or ideas in a paragraph, (II) organization of
events, objects and situations in a paragraph. In other words, there should be cohesion while
organizing the events, objects and situations in a paragraph using appropriate chronological,
spatial and emphatic orders. (III) Unbroken continuity of thoughts or ideas in a paragraph. In
other words, all supporting details in a paragraph must cohere 'stick together'. This quality is
achieved when a paragraph develops a single central idea that is contained in the topic.

Coherence: Transitions between Ideas

The most convincing ideas in the world, expressed in the most beautiful sentences, will move no
one unless those ideas are properly connected. Unless readers can move easily from one thought
to another, they will surely find something else to read or turn on the television. Providing
transitions between ideas is largely a matter of attitude. You must never assume that your readers
know what you know. In fact, it's a good idea to assume not only that your readers need all the
information that you have and need to know how you arrived at the point you're at, but also that
they are not quite as quick as you are. You might be able to leap from one side of the stream to
the other; believe that your readers need some stepping stones and be sure to place them in
readily accessible and visible spots. There are four basic mechanical considerations in providing
transitions between ideas: using transitional expressions, repeating key words and phrases,
using pronoun reference, and using parallel form.

Using Transitional Tags

Transitional tags run the gamut from the most simple — the little conjunctions: and, but, nor,
for, yet, or, (and sometimes) so — to more complex signals that ideas are somehow connected —
the conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions such as however, moreover, nevertheless, on
the other hand. The use of the little conjunctions — especially 'and' and 'but' — comes naturally
for most writers. However, the question whether one can begin a sentence with a small
conjunction often arises. Isn't the conjunction at the beginning of the sentence a sign that the
sentence should have been connected to the prior sentence? Well, sometimes, yes. But often the
initial conjunction calls attention to the sentence in an effective way, and that's just what you

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want. Over-used, beginning a sentence with a conjunction can be distracting, but the device can
add a refreshing dash to a sentence and speed the narrative flow of your text. Restrictions against
beginning a sentence with and or but are based on shaky grammatical foundations; some of the
most influential writers in the language have been happily ignoring such restrictions for
centuries.

Here is a chart of the transitional devices (also called conjunctive adverbs or adverbial
conjunctions) accompanied with a simplified definition of function (note that some devices
appear with more than one definition):

again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important,

addition finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the
first place, last, moreover, next, second, still, too

comparison also, in the same way, likewise, similarly

concession granted, naturally, of course

although, and yet, at the same time, but at the same

time, despite that, even so, even though, for all that,
contrast however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless,
notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand,
otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet

emphasis certainly, indeed, in fact, of course

after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for

example or instance, in conclusion, indeed, in fact, in other words,
illustration in short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that
is, to illustrate, thus, truly

all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief,

summary in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in
simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is,
therefore, to put it differently, to summarize

time sequence after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long
as, at last, at length, at that time, before, besides,

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 earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, further,
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, in the past,
last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now,
presently, second, shortly, simultaneously, since, so
far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too,
until, until now, when

A word of caution: Do not interlard your text with transitional expressions merely because you
know these devices connect ideas. They must appear, naturally, where they belong, or they'll
stick like a fishbone in your reader's craw. (For that same reason, there is no point in trying to
memorize this vast list). On the other hand, if you can read your entire essay and discover none
of these transitional devices, then you must wonder what, if anything, is holding your ideas
together. Practice by inserting a tentative however, nevertheless, consequently. Reread the essay
later to see if these words provide the glue you needed at those points.

Repetition of Key Words and Phrases

The ability to connect ideas by means of repetition of key words and phrases sometimes meets a
natural resistance based on the fear of being repetitive. We've been trained to loathe redundancy.
Now we must learn that catching a word or phrase that's important to a reader's comprehension
of a piece and replaying that word or phrase creates a musical motif in that reader's head. Unless
it is overworked and obtrusive, repetition lends itself to a sense of coherence (or at least to the
illusion of coherence). Look at the following advice given/written by somebody:

You can fool some of the people all of the time, and all of the people some of the time, but
you cannot fool all of the people all of the time.

In fact, you can't forget this advice, because it has become part of the music of the English
language. Remember to use this device to link paragraphs as well as sentences.

Pronoun Reference

Pronouns quite naturally connect ideas because pronouns almost always refer the reader to
something earlier in the text. I cannot say "This is true because . . ." without causing the reader to

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consider what "this" could mean. Thus, the pronoun causes the reader to sum up, quickly and
subconsciously, what was said before (what this is) before going on to the because part of my
reasoning. We should hardly need to add, however, that it must always be perfectly clear what a
pronoun refers to. If my reader cannot instantly know what this is, then my sentence is
ambiguous and misleading. Also, do not rely on unclear pronoun references to avoid
responsibility: "They say that . . ."

Parallelism

Music in prose is often the result of parallelism, the deliberate repetition of larger structures of
phrases, even clauses and whole sentences. Look at the following paragraph:

The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people's bodies by making
mummies of them. Mummies several thousand years old have been discovered nearly
intact. The skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and toenails, and facial features of the mummies
were evident. It is possible to diagnose the disease they suffered in life, such as smallpox,
arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies. The process was remarkably effective. Sometimes
apparent were the fatal afflictions of the dead people: a middle-aged king died from a
blow on the head, and polio killed a child king. Mummification consisted of removing the
internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the
body in layers of bandages.

Though weak, this paragraph is not a total failure. It starts with a topic sentence, and the
sentences that follow are clearly related to the topic sentence. In the language of writing, the
paragraph is unified (i.e., it contains no irrelevant details). However, the paragraph is not
coherent. The sentences are disconnected from each other, making it difficult for the reader to
follow the writer's train of thought.

Below is the same paragraph revised for coherence. Italics indicates pronouns and
repeated/restated key words, bold indicates transitional tag-words, and underlining indicates
parallel structures.

The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people's bodies by making
mummies of them. In short, mummification consisted of removing the internal organs,

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 applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the body in layers of
bandages. And the process was remarkably effective. Indeed, mummies several thousand
years old have been discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and
toenails, and facial features are still evident. Their diseases in life, such as smallpox,
arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies, are still diagnosable. Even their fatal afflictions are
still apparent: a middle-aged king died from a blow on the head; a child king died from
polio.

The paragraph is now much more coherent. The organization of the information and the links
between sentences help readers move easily from one sentence to the next. Notice how this
writer uses a variety of coherence devices, sometimes in combination, to achieve overall
paragraph coherence. Now, let us do the following activities that are typical exercises to practice
coherence so that you will be able to achieve this important quality while writing your own
paragraphs.

Activity Five
I: Read the following short text and complete it by filling the blanks with any
of the transition markers given in the box below.

as a result later for instance

then also however

Medical science has thus succeeded in identifying the hundreds of viruses that can cause the
common cold. It has ________1 discovered the most effective means of prevention. One person
transmits the cold viruses to another most often by hand. _______, 2 an infected person covers
his mouth to cough and _______3 he picks up the telephone. Half an hour _________, 4 his
daughter picks up the same telephone and immediately she rubs her eyes. _______, 5 within a
few days, she, too, has a cold. And thus it spreads. To avoid colds, ________, 6people should
wash their hands often and keep their hands away from their faces.

Answers:1. _____________2. __________3. _________________

4. _____________5._____________6. ______________

II: Read the following short text and complete it by filling the blanks with any of
the transition markers given in the box below.

Before Then Later Next

First When Finally After

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In order to study effectively, you should do the following things. 1 you ought to settle
extra-academic affairs that will distract your attention. 2 ______ , you should have references
and a dictionary with you. You ought to also have your note book. 3 you start
settling down, you need to choose an appropriate place. 4 ___ you read, take down short notes
that will help you remember what you have studied. 5 put your short notes for further
study.
Answers: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Activity Six
I: Below is a piece written by a newly employed secretary about her feelings when she
started her work. However, the ideas are not in the right order. Rearrange them using
the rank 1st to 4th to make a good paragraph.

A. From then on, I realized that there was nothing wrong with me or the job that experience
could not cure, and I decided to stay.

B. I think, my employer must have sensed this, for he called me into his office and told
me about both the duties of my position.

C. Consequently, I soon became so discouraged with myself and so dissatisfied with the job
that I was on the point of quitting.

D. I was accepted and started work. Until that time my experience has been derived chiefly
from books, and unfortunately those books were not prepared me for the difficult period
of adjustment that every inexperienced secretary must face in a new position.

Answers: 1st.________________2nd.______________3rd._______________4th._____________

II-The sentences below are not in their correct order of occurrences. So,
rearrange them in their correct order.
A. Abebe Bikela was born in a small village in this country in 1932 and grew up to become one
of the world’s greatest runners.
B. He became very fit and good at running long distance because he practiced running at high
attitudes in the mountains.
C. In 1960 he ran in the 41 k.ms marathon race in the Olympic Games in Rome.

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D. In 1964, he again ran the marathon in the Olympic Games. This time was in Tokyo and
became the first man to win the event twice.
E. He won the race easily and set a new Olympic record.
F. Sadly, he was paralyzed in a car accident and died in 1973 at the age of 41.

Correct Order: , , , , , .

2.2.3 Completeness

This quality is achieved by incorporating adequate information, facts, evidences or in general

supporting details/developments in a paragraph. In other words, the major idea that is contained
in the topic sentence should be backed up with adequate specific reasons/evidences/details. In
short, a paragraph need to have an introductory sentence, a well-developed body/development
(details), and a concluding sentence.

2.2.4 Sentence Skills (variety and length)

This quality is achieved by using a variety of methods to ensure that your sentence flow
smoothly and are clear and interesting through using parallelism, employing consistent point of
views, making use of specific words (not using vague, ambiguous words, and avoiding
wordiness) , choosing active words, concise (clear and precise words) and variety of sentence
structures. Generally speaking, while writing paragraph/essay, you should be able to use
sentences that are free from the errors discussed in the previous chapter.

2.3 Major Types of Paragraph

2.3.1 Expository Paragraph

This type of writing is used to explain a single main idea, object or phenomenon.

2.3.2 Narrative Paragraph

This type of paragraph is a story telling paragraph. If we are relating a single story through
narration, we make a statement by relating in detail something that has happened to us. In story
we tell or present details in order in which they happened.

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 2.3.3 Descriptive Paragraph

It gives readers a picture in using imagery and sensory (details that appeal to reader's sense such
as sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch). More than any other type of writing, a descriptive
writing needs sharp and colorful details.

2.3.4 Argumentative Paragraph

It presents reasons for or against a controversial point (i.e., a point that at least some of your
readers will not be inclined to accept it).

2.3.5 Classification Paragraph

This presents division and classification of a subject matter of a writer.

Activity Three

Match an appropriate definition under Column 'B' with each term under column ‘A’.

Column ‘A’ Column ‘B’

---1.Narrative A. It’s created in order to clarify or explain a problem or a phenomenon

---2.Expository B. is a story about an event and tells the different parts of the event in the
order in which they happened.

---3.Descriptive C. Writers should categorize the subject of the paragraph in a specific

context

---4.Classification D. aims at convincing others into taking a particular action or adopting

certain point of view

---5.Argumentative E. make readers see, feel, and hear what we have seen, felt, and heard and

present a detailed picture of one person, place, thing or event

Activity Four: Identify the type of the following paragraphs.

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A Stressful Time in Life

Money causes teenagers to feel stress. It makes them feel bad about themselves and envy
other people. My friend, for instance, lives with her family and has to share a room with
her sister, who is very cute and intelligent. This girl wishes she could have her own room
and have a lot of stuff, but she can’t have these things because her family doesn’t have
much money. Her family’s income is pretty low because her father is old and doesn’t go
to work. Her sister is the only one who works. Because her family can’t buy her the
things she wants, she feels a lot of stress and gets angry sometimes. Once, she wanted a
beautiful dress to wear to a sweetheart dance. She asked her sister for some money to buy
the dress. She was disappointed because her sister didn’t have money to give her. She sat
in silence for a little while and then started yelling out loud. She said her friends got
anything they wanted but she didn’t. Then she felt sorry for herself and asked why she
was born into a poor family. Not having money has caused this girl to think negatively
about herself and her family. It has caused a lot of stress in her life.

Type of the paragraph: ______________________

Types of Newspapers in India

Newspapers in India are classified into two categories according to the amount and
completeness of information in them. Newspapers in the first category have more
information and truth. Those in the second category do not have much information and
sometimes they hide the truth. Newspapers in the first category have news collected from
different parts of the country and also from different countries. They also have a lot of
sports and business news and classified ads. The information they give is clear and
complete and it is supported by showing pictures. The best know example of this
category is the Indian Express. Important news goes on the first page with big headlines,
photographs from different angles, and complete information. For example, in 1989-90,
the Indian prime minister, Rajive Ghandi, was killed by a terrorist using a bomb. This
newspaper investigated the situation and gave information that helped the CBI to get
more support. They also showed diagrams of the area where the prime minister was
killed and the positions of the bodies after the attack. This helped the reader understand
what happened. Unlike newspaper in the first category, newspapers in the second
category do not give as much information. They do not have international news, sports,
or business news and they do not have classified ads. Also, the news they give is not
complete. For example, the newspaper Hindi gave news on the death of the prime
minister, but the news was not complete. The newspaper didn’t investigate the terrorist
group or try to find out why this happened. Also, it did not show any pictures from the
attack or give any news the next day. It just gave the news when it happened, but it didn’t
follow up. Therefore, newspapers in the first group are more popular than those in the
second group.

Type of the paragraph: ______________________

The Best Place to Visit

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 California is the most wonderful place to visit because of its variety of weather and its
beautiful nature. (subject development) Visitors to California can find any whether they
like. They can find cool temperatures in the summer; also they can find warm weather in
the winter. They can find places that are difficult for humans to live in the summer
because they are so hot. Or they can find places closed in the winter because of the snow.
On the other hand, visitors can find the nature they like. They can find high mountains
and low valleys. Visitors can find a huge forest, a dead desert, and a beautiful coast.
(summary sentence) So California is the most wonderful place to visit because of its
weather and nature.

Type of the paragraph: ______________________

The battles of Marathon and Tours are examples of how war has often determined the
development of Western civilization. The basis of Western civilization was probably
decided in Greece at the Battle of Marathon in 490 B.C. In this battle, 10,000 Greek
soldiers led by Miltiades defeated 100,000 invading Persians under Darius I. Because the
Greeks won, Greek ideas about philosophy, science, literature, and politics (such as
democracy) matured and became the foundation of Western society. Whereas Marathon
laid the basis of Western civilization, its structure remained the same as a result of the
Battle of Tours in A.D. 732. Before this battle, Muslim armies had taken control of
countries from India to the Atlantic Ocean, but they were stopped by a European army
under Charles Martel at this battle in southwest France. If the Muslims had won at Tours,
Islam might have become the major religion of Western society.

Type of the paragraph: ______________________

Homework is an important part of the learning process in middle school. One reason is
that homework gives students additional practice of skills covered in class. Middle school
classes are too short to teach a new concept and practice it sufficiently for students to
master. Students need both guided practice in class and independent practice at home.
Another reason for homework is that it provides time to complete longer assignments.
For example, the ideal composition process allows time for students to think and to
reflect on their ideas, as well as time to revise and to proofread their writing. Also,
reports and special projects often require research that cannot always be done at school.
In addition, since all students do not work at the same speed, giving students time at
home to finish work keeps them from falling behind. Finally, the most important reason
for homework is that it ensures review. New material and old material are practiced in
daily assignments. Students who do their homework daily are prepared for tests and make
better grades. In conclusion, not only is homework essential to mastering new skills and
maintaining previously learned skills, but it also guarantees constant review and provides
time for longer assignments, as well as additional time for students who need it. Students
do your daily homework, make better grades, and learn more!

Type of the paragraph: ______________________

2.4 Techniques/Methods of Paragraph Development

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The most common methods of paragraph development (sometimes they are also called mode of
discourse) are the following:

2.4.1 Definition

In written definition, we make clear, complete and formal way of our personal understanding of
terms. Such a definition typically starts with one meaning of a term and the meaning is then
illustrated with a series of details.

2.4.2 Exemplification or illustration

This is using examples and illustration. It includes citing data(facts, statistics, evidence, details,
and others) and examining testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases).

2.4.3 Classification

This involves presenting divisions and classification of a subject matter of a writer.

2.4.4 Cause and Effect

This technique evaluates causes and reasons. Besides, it includes examining effects and
consequences.

2.4.5 Compare and Contrast

When we compare two things, we show how they are similar. When we contrast two things, we
show how they are different. The purpose of this technique is to understand each of the two
things.

2.4.6 Process Analysis

Describing the steps how something is made or how a certain machine or electronic material
operates.

2.4.7 Narration

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Using anecdotes or a story, that is, relating a single story or several related ones. If we are
relating a single story through narration, we make a statement by relating in detail something that
has happened to us. In story we tell or present details in order in which they happened. In story
we tell, we present the details in the order in which they happened. Besides, we should offer a
chronology of an event (time segment)

2.4.8 Description

Giving readers a picture in words. To make the words picture as vivid and real making words as
possible as, you must observe and record specific details, that is, using imagery and sensory
details that appeal to reader's sense such as sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. More than any
other methods of paragraph development, description needs sharp and colorful details.

Activity Five: Read the following extracts and then tell the mode of discourse
that they are developed.
It happened when I was driving home from work one day. I had stopped at a traffic light
behind a long line of traffic, and when the light turned green, I couldn’t move at first. As
I finally reached the intersection, I noticed a car coming from the other direction which
was driving at quite a fast speed and which had no turning signal on to indicate a wish to
turn right. As I began to cross the intersection, the light turned yellow. A pedestrian was
crossing, so I started to slow down, but the other car did not slow down and turned right,
slightly touching my car. There was no damage to my car. When police arrived, they
said it was not my fault. I was very frustrated with the whole situation.
Mode of discourse: _______________________________________________

Standing in the subway station, I began to appreciate the place--almost to enjoy it. First
of all, I looked at the lighting: a row of meager light bulbs, unscreened, yellow, and
coated with filth, stretched toward the black mouth of the tunnel, as though it were a bolt
hole in an abandoned coal mine. Then I lingered, with zest, on the walls and ceilings:
lavatory tiles which had been white about fifty years ago, and were now encrusted with
soot, coated with the remains of a dirty liquid which might be either atmospheric
humidity mingled with smog or the result of a perfunctory attempt to clean them with
cold water; and, above them, gloomy vaulting from which dingy paint was peeling off
like scabs from an old wound, sick black paint leaving a leprous white undersurface.
Beneath my feet, the floor a nauseating dark brown with black stains upon it which might
be stale oil or dry chewing gum or some worse defilement: it looked like the hallway of a
condemned slum building. Then my eye traveled to the tracks, where two lines of
glittering steel--the only positively clean objects in the whole place--ran out of darkness
into darkness above an unspeakable mass of congealed oil, puddles of dubious liquid, and

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 a mishmash of old cigarette packets, mutilated and filthy newspapers, and the debris that
filtered down from the street above through a barred grating in the roof.
Mode of discourse: ____________________________

In college courses, the objective test and the essay are two contrasting methods of
evaluation commonly used to measure a student’s grasp of subject matter. The objective
test usually consists of a large number of unrelated questions that require the student to
demonstrate mastery of details. It often leads to rote memorization of isolated facts
during the pre-test period of study. Since the questions are presented as true-false or
multiple-choice form, the student may be encouraged to guess answers for which he has
no accurate knowledge. The essay exam, on the other hand, usually consists of a few
broadly stated questions that require the student to organize his responses in essay form.
Such questions force the student to give proof of his ability to handle general concepts.
This type of exam also relies on the factual information, but the student is required to
demonstrate analytical and sophisticated skills. Mere guessing at answers is reduced to
a minimum.

Mode of discourse:_____________________________

You should do your own homework. Copying someone else is illegal, and you can get a
failing grade or even be kicked out of school. If you cheat on your job, you can be fired
or arrested and put into jail; the government will certainly find you if you cheat on your
taxes! Copying someone else's homework also means that you never learn how to do that
work for yourself, so when you need the information later (let's say the teacher actually
gives you a test on it where you can't copy!) then you don't know how to do it and you
get another bad grade. Also, if you don't do your homework, you never learn how to
discipline yourself to do unpleasant things, and when you grow up you will always have
trouble making yourself do things like your job, paying your bills, and saving money. In
short, doing your own homework is the best way to go!.

Mode of discourse: _____________________________________________

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Unit Three: Essay Writing

Introduction

Despite diversity of views, people find it possible to share ideas and advice about essay writing.
The literary essay of the past has developed into the magazine article of today, but most of
today's essays are written by students studying different fields of studies at BA, MA and PhD
levels. As a form of writing, student essays could be thought of as practice for writing academic
articles - the name given to essays when they are developed and published in academic journals.
Student essay writing develops many of the skills needed for other forms of academic writing,
and most of the words used to think about and assess essays are used to do the same with other
forms. If you want to write a good report or a dissertation, for example, you will need to know
and understand the words discussed here.

3.1 What is an Essay?

An essay is a relatively short piece of writing dealing with any one subject. But what the subject
is and the way it is done can vary greatly. Essays and exams are the main means used to assess or
measure the academic progress of a student. An exam often requires a student to write a small
number of short essays in a fixed period of time under supervision and without being able to use
books or notes. The word essay means an attempt. Like a single throw in a javelin competition,
it should deal with one issue in a unified way. Essays, therefore, focus on their title, rather than
discussing everything to do with the subject. Some people say that the unity should come from
taking the form of an argument that takes the reader from the title at the beginning to a
conclusion at the end.

3.2 Structure of an Essay

It is helpful to think of an essay as having four parts:

1) The introduction will explain the academic problem as you see it, and say how you intend to
handle it. It tells the reader what to expect, and what to look for.
2) The body or content of the essay will contain the points you want to make, with supporting
arguments and evidence. It must show the reader that you know your subject. You do this by

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explaining the subject to the reader. It should also present the evidence for the essay's argument.
3) The conclusion
4) The bibliography is the list of books and other sources you use for the essay. The
bibliography should relate to references in the essay.

Nevertheless, as a practice for students taking the course 'Basic Writing Skills', a "Five
paragraph Essay" , which is sometimes known as ''One-Three-One Essay" or "A Standard
College Essay", is used in this unit. A good example of the standard short essay, you will write
in college (university) English, is a composition of over five hundred words that consists of a
one-paragraph introduction, a three-paragraph body, and one-paragraph conclusion.

5-Paragraph Essay

Introductory paragraph

The introductory paragraph should also include the thesis statement, a kind of mini-outline for
the essay. This is where the writer grabs the reader's attention. It tells the reader what the paper is
about. The last sentence of this paragraph must also include a transitional "hook" which moves
the reader to the first paragraph of the body of the essay.

Body - First paragraph

The first paragraph of the body should include the strongest argument, most significant example,
cleverest illustration, or an obvious beginning point. The first sentence should contain the
"reverse hook" which ties in with the transitional hook at the end of the introductory paragraph.
The subject for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence. This subject should
relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph
should include a transitional hook to tie into the second paragraph of the body.

Body - Second paragraph

The second paragraph of the body should include the second strongest argument, second most
significant example, second cleverest illustration, or an obvious follow up the first paragraph in
the body. The first sentence of this paragraph should contain the reverse hook, which ties in with
the transitional hook at the end of the first paragraph of the body. The topic for this paragraph

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should be in the first or second sentence. This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the
introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional hook to
tie into the third paragraph of the body.

Body - Third paragraph

The third paragraph of the body should include the weakest argument, weakest example, weakest
illustration, or an obvious follow up to the second paragraph in the body. The first sentence of
this paragraph should contain the reverse hook, which ties in with the transitional hook at the end
of the second paragraph. The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence.
This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in
this paragraph should include a transitional concluding hook that signals the reader that this is
the final major point being made in this essay. This hook also leads into the concluding
paragraph.

Concluding paragraph

The fifth paragraph is the summary paragraph. It is important to restate the thesis and three
supporting ideas in an original and powerful way as this is the last chance the writer has to
convince the reader of the validity of the information presented. This paragraph should include
the following:

1. an allusion to the pattern used in the introductory paragraph,

2. a restatement of the thesis statement, using some of the original language or language
that "echoes" the original language. (The restatement, however, must not be a
duplicate thesis statement.)

3. a summary of the three main points from the body of the essay.

4. a final statement that gives the reader signals that the discussion has come to an end.
(This final statement may be a "call to action" in a argumentative/persuasive essay.)

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Activity One

Read the following Essay and answer the questions that follow.

Climate and Pollution Related?

Every year there are changes in climate in different parts of the world. Some of these
changes are due to natural causes. However, some climatic changes are caused by air
pollution and these changes may increase.

If the pollution affects the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the results are likely
to be serious. Carbon dioxide constitutes only a small part of the atmosphere. But it has
an important function in maintaining the balance between radiation from the sun entering
the atmosphere and radiation leaving the Earth. Some of the radiation is absorbed by the
Earth and some is radiated back into the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere prevents some of the radiation from leaving the atmosphere. Thus the heat
remains in the atmosphere and carbon dioxide helps to prevent the temperature of the
Earth from falling.

If the proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increased as a result of air

pollution, the temperature of the atmosphere may rise. This might eventually cause the
ice in the north and the south poles to melt. If this happened, the sea level would rise and
parts of the Earth would be flooded. The likelihood of this happening is remote, but the
possibility exists.

There is also a fairly strong possibility that the dust level in the atmosphere will rise as a
result of industrial pollution. This dust pollution will reflect sunlight back into space. If
this happens, less sunlight will reach the Earth and the temperature will fall.

Another danger comes from the destruction of the Earth's vegetation, such as the forests
of Brazil, which are being cleared to make way for farmland and cities. Trees use carbon
dioxide and their destruction may upset the balance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

1. Write the thesis statement of the above essay.

______________________________________________________________________________

2. Topic sentence of paragraph 2 (body/supporting paragraph 1)

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Topic sentence of paragraph 3 (body/supporting paragraph 2)

______________________________________________________________________________

4. Topic sentence of paragraph 4 (body/supporting paragraph 3)

______________________________________________________________________________

5. Write the concluding sentence in paragraph 5

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______________________________________________________________________________

Activity Two
Read the essay below and answer the questions that follow.
Harmful Effects of Watching Television
In a recent cartoon, one character said to another “When you think of the awesome power of
television to educate, aren’t you glad to it?” It’s true that television has the power to educate and
to entertain, but unfortunately, these benefits are outweighed by the harm it does to dedicated
viewers. Television is harmful because it creates passivity, discourages communication, and
presents a false picture of reality.

Television makes viewers passive. Children who have an electronic baby sitter spend most of
their waking hours in a semiconscious state. Older viewers watch tennis matches and basketball
games with none of the excitement of being in the stands. Even if children are watching Sesame
Street or The Electric Company, they are being educated passively. The child actors are going on
nature walks, building crafts projects, playing with animals, and participating in games, but the
little viewers are simply watching. Older viewers watch a studio audience discuss issues with
Phil Donahue, but no one will turn to the home viewers to ask their opinion.

Worst of all, TV presents a false picture of reality that leaves views frustrated because they don’t
have the beauty of wealth of characters on television. Viewers absorb the idea that everyone else
in the United States owns a lavish apartment, suburban house, sleek car, and expensive
wardrobe. Every detective, police officer, oil baron, and lawyer, male or female, is suitable for a
pinup poster. The material possessions on TV shows and commercials contribute to the false
image of reality. News anchors and reporters, with their perfect hair and makeup, must fit
television’s standard of beauty. From their modest homes or cramped apartments, many viewers
tune in daily to the upper-middle-class world that TV glorifies.

Television discourages communication. Families watching television do very little talking except
for brief exchanges during commercials. If Uncle Bernie or the-next-door neighbors drop in for a
visit, the most comfortable activity for everyone may be not conversation but watching Wide
World of Sports. The family may not be watching the same set; instead, in some households, all
the family may not even be watching the same set; instead, in some households, all the family
members head for their own rooms to watch their own sets. At dinner, plates are plopped on the
coffee table in front of the set, and the meal is wolfed down during the CBS Nightly News.
During commercials, the only communication a family has all night may consist of questions like
“Do we have any popcorn?” where’s the TV Guide”?

All in all, television, like cigarettes or saccharine, is harmful to our health. We are becoming
isolated, passive, and frustrated. And, most frightening, the average viewer spends more time
watching television that ever.

1. What is the thesis statement of the above essay in the first paragraph?
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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2. Write the topic sentences of each supporting paragraph.

1stSupportingParagraph
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2nd Supporting Paragraph
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3rd Supporting Paragraph
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Write the sentence that concludes the essay in paragraph five.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

3.3 Types of Essays

3.3.1 Expository Essay

When you are asked to design the expository essay, consider you have been asked to act as a
teacher. In your expository essay you present someone else’s point of view without expressing
your personal opinion. The success of your essay depends on your careful planning and
organization. You must be able to: emphasize important points, separate the thesis and its
supporting arguments, be objective when sharing the ideas with the readers. As a rule expository
essays are written in the second person (you). You can end your expository essay in many ways.
We will list below the most common types of conclusion:

Restatement of the argument (gives a reader larger perception of the subject significance)

Statement of your contribution (makes the essay not so abstract)

Sharing with the reader the next step in the research/argument

3.3.2 Narrative Essay

As a mode of expository writing, the narrative approach, more than any other, offers writers a
chance to think and write about themselves. We all have experiences lodged in our memories,

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which are worthy of sharing with readers. Yet sometimes they are so fused with other memories
that a lot of the time spent in writing narrative is in the prewriting stage.

When you write a narrative essay, you are telling a story. Narrative essays are told from a
defined point of view, often the author's, so there is feeling as well as specific and often sensory
details provided to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence of the story. The verbs
are vivid and precise. The narrative essay makes a point and that point is often defined in the
opening sentence, but can also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph.

Since a narrative relies on personal experiences, it often is in the form of a story. When the writer
uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include all the conventions of storytelling: plot,
character, setting, climax, and ending. It is usually filled with details that are carefully selected to
explain, support, or embellish the story. All of the details relate to the main point the writer is
attempting to make.

To summarize, the narrative essay

 is told from a particular point of view

 makes and supports a point
 is filled with precise detail
 uses vivid verbs and modifiers
 uses conflict and sequence as does any story
 may use dialogue

The purpose of a narrative report is to describe something. Many students write narrative reports
thinking that these are college essays or papers. While the information in these reports is basic to
other forms of writing, narrative reports lack the "higher order thinking" that essays require.
Thus narrative reports do not, as a rule, yield high grades for many college courses. A basic
example of a narrative report is a "book report" that outlines a book; it includes the characters,
their actions, possibly the plot, and, perhaps, some scenes. That is, it is a description of "what
happens in the book." But this leaves out an awful lot.

What is left out is what the book or article is about -- the underlying concepts, assumptions,
arguments, or point of view that the book or article expresses. A narrative report leaves aside a

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discussion that puts the events of the text into the context of what the text is about. Is the text
about love? Life in the fast lane? Society? Wealth and power? Poverty? In other words, narrative
reports often overlook the authors purpose or point of view expressed through the book or article.

Once an incident is chosen, the writer should keep three principles in mind.

1. Remember to involve readers in the story. It is much more interesting to actually

recreate an incident for readers than to simply tell about it.

2. Find a generalization, which the story supports. This is the only way the writer's
personal experience will take on meaning for readers. This generalization does not
have to encompass humanity as a whole; it can concern the writer, men, women, or
children of various ages and backgrounds.

3. Remember that although the main component of a narrative is the story, details must
be carefully selected to support, explain, and enhance the story.

Conventions of Narrative Essays

In writing your narrative essay, keep the following conventions in mind.

 Narratives are generally written in the first person, that is, using I. However, third
person (he, she, or it) can also be used.

 Narratives rely on concrete, sensory details to convey their point. These details should
create a unified, forceful effect, a dominant impression. More information on the use
of specific details is available on another page.

 Narratives, as stories, should include these story conventions: a plot, including setting
and characters; a climax; and an ending.

3.3.3 Descriptive Essay

Descriptive essay is a wide-spread paper type that is intended to describe an object, a topic, a
place, a building, a person or an event. When you start writing you should think about your
descriptive essay topic and a place, event or a process you are going to describe. A good thesis

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statement is an important part of any essay and descriptive paper is not an exception. The thesis
statement should be in a form of a question the answer to which you give in the body part of an
essay. The following writing tips will help you learn more about how to write a descriptive
essay.

1. Your work should be brief and comprise the introduction that presents the general idea of the
topic, the main body that describes places, events or people so vividly that the reader can easily
form a clear picture of the whole story, and the conclusion, which summarizes the entire paper.

2. Be creative when choosing your descriptive essay topics. Your topic can deal with a particular
event or refer to a general topic of an activity.

3. Use detailed observations and descriptions rather than facts and statistics. Think about the
reason you write this work. Use specific details and evolve into more specific details of a place
or personal experience.

4. Use a variety of adverbs and adjectives in your paper. Try to create a vivid picture for the
reader to catch his attention. This may be fulfilled with the help of imaginative language,
comparisons of places, objects, people and events that appeal to the senses. Focus on the five
senses in your work: sight, sound, smell, touch, taste.

5. The reader should have the opportunity to imagine what the story is about in as much detail as
possible. Focus on descriptive details of a situation, activity or a personality. Descriptive essay
follows the following paper structure: introduction, body part and conclusion. Sometimes it is
obligatory to add table of contents, paper outline or summary. In the introduction section, you
should include some interesting facts on the topic. If you succeed in the purpose of creating an
interesting introductory paragraph, the reader will continue reading your paper. Be sure to
include a thesis statement somewhere in the introduction so that the professor will see what you
are going to discuss in your descriptive essay.

The next important part is the body section. In this part you should show how well you
understand the topic and how well you use descriptive adjectives and adverbs. The concluding
part summarizes the material given in the body of your descriptive paper. Besides, an analysis of

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the information is necessary to include in this section with restating thesis statement and main
points from the work. Moreover, you should not forget about proper citation of the sources
within the paper (in-text citations) and in the list of sources at the end of your descriptive essay.

3.3.4 Argumentative Essay

What is a persuasive/argument essay?

Persuasive writing, also known as the argument essay, utilizes logic and reason to show that one
idea is more legitimate than another idea. It attempts to persuade a reader to adopt a certain point
of view or to take a particular action. The argument must always use sound reasoning and solid
evidence by stating facts, giving logical reasons, using examples, and quoting experts.

When planning a persuasive essay, follow these steps

1. Choose your position. Which side of the issue or problem are you going to write
about, and what solution will you offer? Know the purpose of your essay.
2. Analyze your audience. Decide if your audience agrees with you, is neutral, or
disagrees with your position.
3. Research your topic. A persuasive essay must provide specific and convincing
evidence. Often it is necessary to go beyond your own knowledge and experience.
You might need to go to the library or interview people who are experts on your topic.
4. Structure your essay. Figure out what evidence you will include and in what order you
will present the evidence. Remember to consider your purpose, your audience, and
you topic.

The following criteria are essential to produce an effective argument

 Be well informed about your topic. To add to your knowledge of a topic, read
thoroughly about it, using legitimate sources. Take notes.
 Test your thesis. Your thesis, i.e., argument, must have two sides. It must be
debatable. If you can write down a thesis statement directly opposing your own, you
will ensure that your own argument is debatable.
 Disprove the opposing argument. Understand the opposite viewpoint of your position
and then counter it by providing contrasting evidence or by finding mistakes and
inconsistencies in the logic of the opposing argument.
 Support your position with evidence. Remember that your evidence must appeal to
reason.

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The following are different ways to support your argument:

Facts - A powerful means of convincing, facts can come from your reading, observation, or
personal experience. Note: Do not confuse facts with truths. A "truth" is an idea believed by
many people, but it cannot be proven.

Statistics - These can provide excellent support. Be sure your statistics come from responsible
sources. Always cite your sources.

Quotes - Direct quotes from leading experts that support your position are invaluable.

Examples - Examples enhance your meaning and make your ideas concrete. They are the proof.

Activity Three
Read the following Essay and Identify the type of the essay.

You Just Don't Understand

Experts and non-experts alike tend to see anything women do as evidence of

powerlessness. [The language of the media is replete with examples of how difficult it is
for women to be regarded as beings with authority and power. The attitude follows
women in power everywhere, but]... nowhere is the conflict between femininity and
authority more crucial than with women in politics.

The characteristics of a good man and a good candidate are the same, but a woman has to
choose between coming across as a strong leader or a good woman. If a man appears
forceful, logical, direct, masterful, or powerful, he enhances his value as a man. If a
woman appears forceful, logical, direct, masterful, or powerful she risks undercutting her
value as a woman. As Robin Lakoff shows in Language and Woman's Place, language
comes at a woman from two angles: The words they speak, and the words spoken about
them. If I wrote: "After delivering the acceptance speech, the candidate fainted, "you
would know I was talking about a woman. Men do not faint; they pass out. And these
terms have vastly different connotations that both reflect and affect our image of men and
women. Fainting conjures up a frail figure crumpling into a man's rescuing arms, maybe
just for dramatic effect. Passing out suggests a straightforward fall to the floor.

An article in Newsweek during the 1984 vice presidential campaign quoted a Reagan
aide who called Ferraro [Geraldine Ferraro- a 1984 vice presidential candidate] "a nasty
woman" who would "claw Ronald Reagan's eyes out." Never mind the nastiness of the
remark and of the newsmagazine's using it to open its article. Applied to a man, nasty
would be so tame as to seem harmless. Furthermore, men don't claw; they punch and
sock, with correspondingly more forceful results. The verb claw both reflects and
reinforces the stereotypical metaphor of women as cats. Each time someone uses an
expression associated with this metaphor, it reinforces it, suggesting a general "cattiness"
in women's character.

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In his book The Language of Politics, Michael Geis gives several examples of words
used to describe that undercut her. One headline called her "spunky" and "feisty." As
Geis observes, spunky and feisty are used only for creatures that are small and lacking in
real power; they could be said of a Pekingese but not a Great Dane, perhaps of Mickey
Rooney but not of an average-size man.

It's not that journalists, other writers, or everyday speakers are deliberately, or even
unintentionally, "sexist" in their use of language. The important point is that gender
distinctions are built into language. The words available to us to describe women and
men are not the same words. And, most damaging of all, through language, our images
and attitudes are buttressed and shaped. Simply by understanding and using the words of
our language, we all absorb and pass on different, asymmetrical assumptions about men
and women.

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