2 METHODS OF DATA PRESNTATION

 Having collected and edited the data, the next important step

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is to organize it.
 That is to present it in a readily comprehensible condensed
form that aids in order to draw inferences from it.
 It is also necessary that the like be separated from the unlike
ones.
 The presentation of data is broadly classified in to the
following two categories:
 Tabular presentation

 Diagrammatic and Graphic presentation.

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 CON’T…
 The process of arranging data in to classes or categories
according to similarities technically is called classification.

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 Classification is a preliminary and it prepares the ground for
proper presentation of data.
 Definitions:
 Raw data: recorded information in its original collected form,
whether it is counts or measurements, is referred to as raw data.
 Frequency: is the number of values in a specific class of the
distribution.
 Frequency distribution: is the organization of raw data in table2
form using classes and frequencies.
THREE BASIC TYPES OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS

Categorical frequency distribution

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•

• Ungrouped frequency distribution

• Grouped frequency distribution

 There are specific procedures for how to constructing

each type.

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Categorical frequency Distribution
 Used for data that can be place in specific categories such
as nominal, or ordinal. e.g. marital status, blood type,….

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 Example: a health worker collected the following data on
blood type for 25 persons.(A, B, O, AB)

A B AB O AB
B B A A A
O AB B A A
O AB AB B B
B O O AB AB

4
 CON’T
Solution:

 Since the data are categorical, discrete classes can be used.

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There are four types of blood type A, B, O, and AB.

 These types will be used as class for the distribution.

 We follow procedure to construct the frequency distribution.

 Step 1: Make a table as shown.

Class Tally Frequency Percent
(1) (2) (3) (4)
A
B
AB 5
O
CON’T
 Step 2: Tally the data and place the result in column (2).

Step 3: Count the tally and place the result in column (3).

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

 Step 4: Find the percentages of values in each class by using;

𝑓
% = 100 Where f = frequency of the class, n= total number
𝑛

of value or observations.

 Step 5: Find the total for column (3) and (4).

 Combing the entire steps one can construct the following

frequency distribution.
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CON’T…
Class Tally Frequency Percent
(1) (2) (3) (4)

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A //// / 6 24

B //// // 7 28

AB //// // 7 28

O //// 5 24

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Ungrouped frequency Distribution
 It is a table of all the potential raw score values that could
possible occur in the data along with the number of times each

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actually occurred.
 It is often constructed for small set or data on discrete variable.
Steps in constructing ungrouped frequency distribution:
 First find the smallest and largest raw score in the collected
data.
 Arrange the data in order of magnitude and count the
frequency.
 To facilitate counting one may include a column of tallies.
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EXAMPLE:
THE FOLLOWING DATA REPRESENT THE MARK OF 20 STUDENTS.
80 76 90 85 80
70 60 62 70 85

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65 60 63 74 75
76 70 70 80 85
Construct a frequency distribution, which is ungrouped.

Solution:

Step 1: Find the range, Range=Max-Min=90-60=30.

Step 2: Make a table as shown

Step 3: Tally the data.

Step 4: Compute the frequency. 9

CON’T
Mark Tally Frequency
60 // 2
62 / 1

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63 / 1
65 / 1
70 //// 4
74 / 1
75 / 1
76 // 2
80 /// 3
85 /// 3
90 / 1

 Each individual value is presented separately, that is why

it is named ungrouped frequency distribution.

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Grouped frequency Distribution
 When the range of the data is large, the data must be grouped
in to classes that are more than one unit in width.

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Definitions:
 Grouped Frequency Distribution: a frequency distribution when
several numbers are grouped in one class.
 Class limits: Separates one class in a grouped frequency
distribution from another.
 The limits could actually appear in the data and have gaps
between the upper limits of one class and lower limit of the next.
 Units of measurement (U): the distance between two possible
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consecutive measures. It is usually taken as 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001,
 CON’T
 Class boundaries: Separates one class in a grouped frequency
distribution from another.

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 The boundaries have one more decimal places than the row data
and therefore do not appear in the data. There is no gap
between the upper boundary of one class and lower boundary of the
next class

 Class width: the difference between the upper and lower class
boundaries of any class.
 It is also the difference between the lower limits of any two
consecutive classes or the difference between any two consecutive
class marks.
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 Class mark (Mid points): it is the average of the lower and upper
class limits or the average of upper and lower class boundary.
 CON’T
 Cumulative frequency: is the number of observations less
than/more than or equal to a specific value.

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 Cumulative frequency above: it is the total frequency of all
values greater than or equal to the lower class boundary of a
given class.

 Cumulative frequency blow: it is the total frequency of all values

less than or equal to the upper class boundary of a given class.

 Cumulative Frequency Distribution (CFD): it is the tabular

arrangement of class interval together with their corresponding
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cumulative frequencies.
 STEPS FOR CONSTRUCTING GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
1. Find the largest and smallest values

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2. Compute the Range(R) = Maximum - Minimum
3. Select the number of classes desired, usually between 5 and 20
or use Sturges rule K=1+3.32log n where k is number of classes
desired and n is total number of observation.
4. Find the class width by dividing the range by the number of
𝑅
classes and rounding up, not off. W =
𝐾

5. Pick a suitable starting point less than or equal to the minimum

value.
14

The starting point is called the lower limit of the first class.
CON’T
 To find the upper limit of the first class, subtract U from the lower
limit of the second class.

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 Then continue to add the class width to this upper limit to find the
rest of the upper limits.

 Find the boundaries by subtracting U/2 units from the lower limits
and adding U/2 units from the upper limits.

 The boundaries are also half-way between the upper limit of one
class and the lower limit of the next class.

 Tally the data.

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 Find the frequencies.
CON’
 Find the cumulative frequencies.

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 Depending on what you're trying to accomplish,

it may not be necessary to find the cumulative

frequencies.

 If necessary, find the relative frequencies

and/or relative cumulative frequencies 16

CON’T
Example:
Construct a frequency distribution for the following data.
11 29 6 33 14 31 22 27 19 20

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18 17 22 38 23 21 26 34 39 27

Solutions:

Step 1: Find the highest and the lowest value H=39, L=6

Step 2: Find the range; R=H-L=39-6=33

Step 3: Select the number of class’s desired using Sturges formula;

k =1+3.32log (20) =5.32=6(rounding up) 17

Step 4: Find the class width; w=R/k=33/6=5.5=6 (rounding up)

 CON’T
Step 5: Select the starting point, let it be the minimum observation.

6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 are the lower class limits.

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

Step 6: Find the upper class limit; e.g. the first upper class=12-
U=12-1=11

11, 17, 23, 29, 35, 41 are the upper class limits.

So combining step 5 and step 6, one can construct the following

classes. Class limits
6 – 11
12 – 17
18 – 23
24 – 29 18
30 – 35
36 – 41
CON’T
 Step 7: Find the class boundaries;

E.g. for class 1 Lower class boundary=6-U/2=5.5

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

Upper class boundary =11+U/2=11.5

 Then continue adding w on both boundaries to obtain the

rest boundaries.

 By doing so one can obtain the following classes.

Class boundary
5.5 – 11.5
11.5 – 17.5
17.5 – 23.5
23.5 – 29.5 19

29.5 – 35.5
35.5 – 41.5
CON’T

Step 8: tally the data.

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Step 9: Write the numeric values for the tallies in the frequency
column.

Step 10: Find cumulative frequency.

Step 11: Find relative frequency or/and relative cumulative

frequency.
 The complete frequency distribution follows:

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Class Class Class Tally Fre Cf Cf rf. rcf
limit boundary Mark q. (less (more (less
than than than
type) type) type
6 – 11 5.5 – 11.5 8.5 // 2 2 20 0.10 0.10

12 – 17 11.5 – 17.5 14.5 // 2 4 18 0.10 0.20

18 – 23 17.5 – 23.5 20.5 //// // 7 11 16 0.35 0.55

24 – 29 23.5 – 29.5 26.5 //// 4 15 9 0.20 0.75

30 – 35 29.5 – 35.5 32.5 /// 3 18 5 0.15 0.90

36 – 41 35.5 – 41.5 38.5 // 2 20 2 0.10 1.00

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DIAGRAMMATIC AND GRAPHIC PRESENTATION OF DATA.

 These are techniques for presenting data in

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visual displays using geometric and pictures.
 Importance:

 They have greater attraction.

 They facilitate comparison.
 They are easily understandable.

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CON’T…
 Diagrams are appropriate for presenting discrete data.

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 The three most commonly used diagrammatic presentation
for discrete as well as qualitative data are:

 Pie charts

 Bar charts

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CON’T

 Pie chart
 A pie chart is a circle that is divided in to sections or wedges

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according to the percentage of frequencies in each category of
the distribution.
 The angle of the sector is obtained using:
𝑓
 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = × 100
𝑛

𝑓
 𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = × 360
𝑛

 Example: Draw a pie chart to represent the following data on

accidents categorized according to the area injured. 24
CON’T
fingers eyes arm leg

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17
Solutions: 5 2 1

Step 1: Find the percentage.

Step 2: Find the number of degrees for each class.

Step 3: Using a protractor and compass, graph each section

and write its name corresponding percentage.

25
CON’T

Class Frequency Percent Degree

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fingers 17 68 244.8
eyes 5 20 72
arm 2 8 28.8
leg 1 4 14.4
Total 25 100 360

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CON’T
Pie Chart

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leg
4% eyes
20%

fingers arm
68% 8%

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BAR GRAPH
 Bars can be drawn either vertically or horizontally.

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 There are different types of bar charts.

 The most common being are:

 Simple bar chart

 Component or sub divided bar chart.

 Multiple bar charts.

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 SIMPLE BAR CHART
 Are used to display data on one categorical variable.

 They are thick lines (narrow rectangles) having the same range.

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 The magnitude of a quantity is represented by the height /length
of the bar.

Example: The following data represent sale by product, 1957- 1959

of a given company for three products A, B, C.
Sales($) Sales($) Sales($)
Product
In 1957 In 1958 In 1959
A 12 14 18
B 24 21 18
29
C 24 35 54
CON’T
 Solutions:

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30
COMPONENT BAR CHART
 Desire to show how a total (or aggregate) is divided in to its

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component parts

 The bars represent total value of a variable with each total

broken in to its component parts

 Different colors or designs are used for identifications

Example:
Draw a component bar chart to represent the sales by
product from 1957 to 1959.
Solutions:
31
CONT…
SALES BY PRODUCT 1957-1959

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100

80
Sales in $

Product C
60
Product B
40
Product A
20

0
1957 1958 1959
Year of production

Multiple Bar charts

These are used to display data on more than one variable.

They are used for comparing different variables at the same 32
time.
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33
CON’T
 GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
 The histogram, frequency polygon and cumulative frequency graph or
ogive are most commonly applied graphical representations for

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continuous data.

 Procedures for constructing statistical graphs:

 Draw and label the X and Y axes.

 Choose a suitable scale for the frequencies or cumulative frequencies

and label it on the Y axes.

 Represent the class boundaries for the histogram or ogive or the mid
points for the frequency polygon on the X axes.
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 Plot the points and draw the bars or lines to connect the points.
HISTOGRAM
 A graph which displays the data by using vertical bars of

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various height to represent frequencies.

 Class boundaries are placed along the horizontal axes.

Example: Construct a histogram to represent the previous
data (example *)

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CONT…
Class limit

15-19
Class boundaries

14.5-19.5
Mid point

17
Frequency

20-24 19.5-24.5 22 8

25-29 24.5-29.5 27 6

30-34 29.5-34.5 32 12

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35-39 34.5-39.5 37 7

40-44 39.5-44.5 42 6

45-49 44.5-49.5 47 4

50-54 49.5-54.5 52 3

55-59 54.5-59.5 57 1

60-64 59.5-64.5 62 1

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FREQUENCY POLYGON:
 A line graph.

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 The frequency is placed along the vertical axis and classes mid
points are placed along the horizontal axis.

 It is customer to the next higher and lower class interval with

corresponding frequency of zero, this is to make it a complete
polygon
Example: Draw a frequency polygon for the above data
(example *).
Solutions:
37
Class limit Mid point Frequency

CON’T
15-19 17 2

20-24 22 8

25-29 27 6

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30-34 32 12

35-39 37 7

40-44 42 6

45-49 47 4

50-54 52 3

55-59 57 1

60-64 62 1

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 CON’T…
 Ogive (cumulative frequency polygon)

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- A graph showing the cumulative frequency (less than or more
than type) plotted against upper or lower class boundaries
respectively.

 That is class boundaries are plotted along the horizontal axis

and the corresponding cumulative frequencies are plotted along
the vertical axis.

 The points are joined by a free hand curve.

Example: Draw an ogive curve(less than type) for the above
39
data.(Example *)
Class limit Frequency LCF More than

23-26
CONT… 3 ≤ 26.5 ≤ 26 = 3 ≥ 22.5 ≥ 23 = 20

27-30 4 ≤ 30.5 ≤ 30 = 7 ≥ 26.5 ≥ 27 = 17

31-34 3 ≤ 34.5 ≤ 34 = 10 ≥ 30.5 ≥ 31 = 13

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35-38 5 ≤ 38.5 ≤ 38 = 15 ≥ 34.5 ≥ 35 = 10

39-42 5 ≤ 42.5 ≤ 42 = 20 ≥ 38.5 ≥ 39 = 5

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Thank you!!!

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Have you
Question
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