Faculty of Engineering

Computer Engineering Department

CE171 : Discrete Mathematics

Lecture 5
Date: 4/11/2020

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 PREVIOUSLY:
The Logic of Compound Statements
Conditional Statements →
❑Negation
❑ Contrapositive
❑ Converse and Inverse
❑ The Biconditional ↔
❑ Necessary and Sufficient Conditions
Valid and Invalid Arguments
❑ Test arguments for validity
❑ Valid Argument Forms

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 II- THE LOGIC OF
QUANTIFIED
STATEMENTS
1. PREDICATES AND
QUANTIFIED
STATEMENTS

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 PREDICATES
DEFINITION
The predicate is the part of the sentence from which the subject has been
removed.
Example:
Sentence “Aly is a student at PUA”
Predicate “is a student at PUA”
Formally:
Let P ≡ “is a student at PUA”
P is a predicate symbol

P(x) = “ x is a student at PUA ”

Where x is a predicate variable

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 PREDICATES
DEFINITION
A predicate is a sentence that contains a finite number of variables and
becomes a statement when specific values are substituted for the
variables.

Example:

P(x) = “ x is a student at PUA ”

P(Aly) = “Aly is a student at PUA”

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 PREDICATES
Note:
Predicates can be obtained by removing some or all the
nouns from statements.
Example:
Let Q ≡ “is a student at”
Q is a predicate symbol

Q(x , y) = “ x is a student at y ”
Where x and y are predicate variables

Q(Aly , PUA) = “Aly is a student at PUA”

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 PREDICATES
DEFINITION
The domain of a predicate variable is the set of all values that may be
substituted in place of the variable.

Example:
P(x) = “ x is a student at PUA ”
Domain : set of all students

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 Common Sets
Z -- set of integers {… -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}
Z+ -- set of positive integers {1, 2, 3, …}
N -- set of natural numbers {0, 1, 2, …}
R -- set of real numbers {any number on an infinitely
long number line}
Q -- set of rational numbers (integer fractions)
{x / y | x,y є Z, y ≠ 0}

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 TRUTH SET
DEFINITION
If P(x) is a predicate
and x has domain D,
the truth set of P(x)
is the set of all elements of D
that make P(x) true when substituted for x
Formally:
The truth set of P(x) is denoted:
{ x ∊ D | P(x) }
which is read “ the set of all x in D such that P(x) is true”
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 TRUTH SET
Example1:
Let P(x) = “x is a factor of 8”
Domain of x is Z+ = { 1, 2, 3, 4, ... }
Truth set of P(x) = { 1, 2, 4, 8 }

Example2:
Let R(x) = “x < 5 and x  3”
Domain of x is Z+ = { 1, 2, 3, 4, ... }
Truth set of R(x) = { 1, 2, 4 }

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 TRUTH SET
NOTATION
Let P(x) and Q(x) be predicates and suppose the common domain of x is D

The notation P(x)  Q(x)

means that every element in the truth set of P(x)
is in the truth set of Q(x).

The notation P(x)  Q(x)

means that P(x) and Q(x) have identical truth sets.

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 TRUTH SET
Example: Let P(x) = “x is a factor of 8”
Q(x) = “x is a factor of 4”
Suppose the domain of x is Z+
Use the  symbol to indicate the relationships
between P(x) and Q(x)

Solution:
The truth set of P(x) = { 1, 2, 4, 8 }
The truth set of Q(x) = { 1, 2, 4 }
then Q(x)  P(x)

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 TRUTH SET
Example: Let P(x) = “x is a factor of 8” ,
Q(x) = “x is a factor of 4”
R(x) = “x < 5 and x  3”
Suppose the domain of x is Z+
Use the  and  symbols to indicate the true
relationships among P(x), Q(x), and R(x)
Solution:
The truth set of P(x) = { 1, 2, 4, 8 }
The truth set of Q(x) = { 1, 2, 4 }
The truth set of R(x) = { 1, 2, 4 }
then Q(x)  P(x), R(x)  P(x), R(x)  Q(x)

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 QUANTIFIER:
Example predicate:

Let P(x) = “x is evenly divisible by 5”

If x represents the number 35, then P(x) is a true.

P(35) = “35 is evenly divisible by 5”

Quantifier is a way to obtain statements from predicates

Quantifiers can be words that refer to quantities such as

“some” or “all”

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 QUANTIFIER: ∀
The symbol ∀ denotes “for all” and is called the universal quantifier
Example:
All human beings are mortal
∀ human beings x, x is mortal

Formally:
∀ x  H, x is mortal
where H is the set of all human

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 UNIVERSAL STATEMENT
Definition:
Let Q(x) be a predicate
and D be the domain of x
A universal statement is a statement of the form:
“∀ x ∊ D, Q(x)”
It is defined to be true iff Q(x) is true for every x in D
It is defined to be false iff Q(x) is false for at least one x in D
Note: a value for which Q(x) is false is called a counterexample to the universal
statement.
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 UNIVERSAL STATEMENT EXAMPLE 1
Let D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Consider the statement
∀ x  D, x2  x
Show that this statement is true.

Solution:
Check that “x2  x” is true for each individual x in D.
12  1, 22  2, 32  3, 42  4, 52  5
Hence “∀ x  D, x2  x” is true.

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 UNIVERSAL STATEMENT EXAMPLE 2
Let D = R (real numbers)
Consider the statement
∀ x  R, x2  x
Find a counterexample to show that this statement is
false.
Solution:
Take counterexample: x = ½
Then x is in R (a real number) and
(½)2 = ¼
¼ not  ½
Hence “∀ x  R, x2  x” is false

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 QUANTIFIER: ∃
The symbol ∃ denotes “there exists” and is called the existential quantifier

Example:
There is a student in PUA
∃ a person s such that s is a student in PUA

Formally:
∃ s  S such that s is a student in PUA
where S is the set of all Students

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 EXISTENTIAL STATEMENT
Definition:
Let Q(x) be a predicate
and D be the domain of x
An existential statement is a statement of the form:
“∃ x ∊ D such that Q(x)”

It is defined to be true iff Q(x) is true for at least one x in D.

It is defined to be false iff Q(x) is false for all x in D.

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 EXAMPLE
a. Consider the statement ∃ m  Z, such that m2 = m.
Show that this statement is true.
b. Let E = { 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and consider the statement
∃ m  E, such that m2 = m. Show that this statement is false.
Solution:
a. Observe that 12 = 1. Thus “m2 = m” is true for at least one
integer m. Hence “∃ m  Z, such that m2 = m” is true.
b. Note that m2 = m is not true for any integer m from 5 to 10:
52 = 25  5, 62 = 36  6, 72 = 49  7, 82 = 64  8,
92=81  9, 102=100  10.
Thus “∃ m  E, such that m2 = m” is false

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 EXAMPLE:
Translating from Informal to Formal Language.
Rewrite each of the following statements formally. Use
quantifiers and variables.
1. All triangles have three sides.
2. Some programs are structured.

Solution:
1. ∀ triangles t, t has three sides
∀ t ∈ T, t has three sides
where T is the set of all triangles
2. ∃ a program p such that p is structured
∃ p ∈ P, such that p is structured
where P is the set of all programs

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 II- THE LOGIC OF
QUANTIFIED
STATEMENTS
2. NEGATIONS OF
QUANTIFIED
STATEMENTS

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 THEOREM: NEGATIONS OF
UNIVERSAL STATEMENTS
The negation of a statement of the form
∀ x in D, Q(x)
is logically equivalent to a statement of the form
∃ x in D such that ~Q(x)
Symbolically:
~ (∀ x in D, Q(x)) ≡ ∃ x in D such that ~Q(x)
Thus:
The negation of a universal statement (“all are”) is logically equivalent to an
existential statement (“some are not”).

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 THEOREM: NEGATIONS OF
EXISTENTIAL STATEMENTS
The negation of a statement of the form
∃ x in D such that Q(x)
is logically equivalent to a statement of the form
∀ x in D, ~Q(x)
Symbolically:
~ (∃ x in D such that Q(x)) ≡ ∀ x in D, ~Q(x)
Thus:
The negation of an existential statement (“some are”) is logically equivalent to an
universal statement (“all are not”).

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 EXAMPLE:
Write the formal negations for each of the following statements:
a. ∀ primes p, p is odd.
b. ∃ a triangle T such that the sum of the angles of T equals 200o.
Solution:
a. By applying the rule for the negation of a ∀ statement, the
answer is:
∃ a prime p such that p is not odd.
b. By applying the rule for the negation of a ∃ statement, the
answer is:
∀ triangles T, the sum of the angles of T does not equal 200o.

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 NEGATIONS OF UNIVERSAL
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
By definition of the negation of a for all statement,
~ (∀ x, P(x)) ≡ ∃ x such that ~P(x)

~(∀ x, P(x)→Q(x)) ≡ ∃ x such that ~(P(x)→Q(x))

But the negation of an if-then statement is logically equivalent to AND statement.
Formally: ~(P(x)→Q(x)) ≡ P(x) Λ ~Q(x)
By substitution:
~(∀ x, P(x)→Q(x)) ≡ ∃ x such that P(x) Λ~Q(x)

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UNIVERSAL CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
Example1:
∀ people p, if p is blond then p has blue eyes.
Negation:
∃ a person p, such that p is blond and p does not
have blue eyes.
Example2:
If a computer program has more than 100,000
lines then it contains a bug.
Negation: There is at least one computer program
that has more than 100,000 lines and does not
contain a bug.
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 NEXT LECTURE:

❑ Elementary Number Theory and

Methods of Proof
❑ Even and Odd numbers
❑ Prime Numbers
❑ Methods of Proof

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