UNIT II

THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
 INTRODUCTION

Everything we think, feel, or do has an important basis in biological

processes and events.
Everything psychological has a biological basis.
 NEURONS
Neurons: cells specialized for communicating information, the basic building
blocks of the nervous system. Neurons are specialized for the tasks of
receiving, moving and processing information.
Neurons are the information processing units of the brain responsible for
sending, receiving, and transmitting electrochemical signals throughout the
body
Neurons consist of three basic parts:
Cell body
An Axon
One or more dendrites.
Dendrites: the parts of the neurons that
conduct action potential towards the cell
body.
Axon: the part of the neuron that conducts
the action potential away from the cell
body.
Neurons are one-way channels of
communication. Information usually moves
from the dendrites or the cell body toward
the axon and then outward along this
structure.
Scientists estimate that the human brain
may contain more than 100 billion
neurons.
In neurons, the axon is covered by a sheath
of fatty material known as myelin. The myelin
sheath is interrupted by small gaps. Both and
sheath and the gaps play an important role in
the neuron’s ability to transmit information.
Glial cells- they form the myelin sheath
around axons and perform basic
housekeeping chores, such as cleaning
debris. They also help form the blood-brain
barrier- a barrier that prevents certain
substances in the bloodstream from reaching
the brain. so glial cells are the cells in the
nervous system that surround, support and
protect neurons.
Axon terminals- structures at the end of axons that
contain transmitter substances.
Neurons do not touch each other, but where one
neuron comes close to another neuron, a synapse is
formed between the two.
Synapses- a region where the axon of one neuron
closely approaches other neurons or the cell
membrane of other types of cells such as muscle cells.
A neuron is a nerve cell that processes and transmits
information through electrical and chemical signals in
the nervous system. Neurons consist of a cell body,
dendrites (which receive signals), and an axon (which
sends signals). Synaptic connections allow
communication between neurons, facilitating the relay
of information throughout the body.
Education Spinal cord, Nerve, Cerebellum, Cortex and Motor Neuron Human under the microscope in Lab.
The sensory neuron is responsible for
transmitting sensory information such as
touch, sound, and light to the central
nervous system.
The motor neuron carries signals from
the central nervous system to muscles
and glands to initiate action.
The interneuron is the vital link that
transmits signals between sensory and
motor neurons within the central
nervous system, playing a key role in
reflexes, learning, and other intricate
processes.
Sensory neurons (sometimes referred to as afferent neurons) are nerve cells that
carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system and
brain.
When these nerve impulses reach the brain, they are translated into ‘sensations’,
such as vision, hearing, taste, and touch.
This sensory information can be either physical – through sound, heat, touch, and
light, or it can be chemical – through taste or smell.
An example of this can be when touching an extremely hot surface. Once this
happens, the sensory neurons will send signals to the central nervous system about
the information they have received.
Sensory neurons are nerve cells that transmit information from external and internal
stimuli to the central nervous system for processing, allowing organisms to perceive
sensations like touch, temperature, and pain.
Motor neurons (also referred to as efferent neurons) are the nerve cells responsible
for carrying signals away from the central nervous system towards muscles to cause
movement. They release neurotransmitters to trigger responses leading to muscle
movement.
Motor neurons are located in the brainstem or spinal cord (parts of the central
nervous system) and connect to muscles, glands, and organs throughout the body.
These neurons transmit signals from the spinal cord and brainstem to skeletal
muscles to directly or indirectly control muscle movements.
For instance, after touching a hot surface with your hand, the sensory neurons
receive the message. The motor neurons then cause the hand to move away from the
hot surface.
A relay neuron (also known as an interneuron) allows sensory and motor neurons to
communicate with each other. Relay neurons connect various neurons within the
brain and spinal cord and are easy to recognize due to their short axons.
As well as acting as a connection between neurons, interneurons can also
communicate with each other by forming circuits of differing complexities.
The communication between interneurons assists the brain in completing complex
functions such as learning and decision-making, as well as playing a vital role in
reflexes and neurogenesis – which means the regeneration of new neurons.
 HOW NEURONS WORK
Neurons lie adjacent to each other but are not connected. There is a tiny gap between
neurons called a synapse.
The function of a neuron is to transmit nerve impulses along the length of an individual
neuron and across the synapse into the next neuron. The electrical signals transmitted by
neurons are called action potentials.
The electrical signal needs to cross the synaptic gap to continue on its journey to or from
the CNS. This is done using chemicals that diffuse across the gap between the two
neurons. These chemicals are called neurotransmitters.
During synaptic transmission, the action potential (an electrical impulse) triggers the
synaptic vesicles of the pre-synaptic neuron to release neurotransmitters (a chemical
message).
These neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic gap (the gap between the pre and
post-synaptic neurons) and bind to specialized receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron.
This will then trigger an electrical impulse in the adjacent cell.
The central nervous system, which comprises the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral
nervous system, which consists of sensory and motor nerve cells, all contain these
information-processing neurons
 NEUROTRANSMITTER
Chemical messengers that facilitate communication between neurons in the brain and
nervous system.
Neurotransmitters influence various psychological functions- mood, emotion, stress
response and cognition.
The action potential (an electrical impulse) triggers the synaptic vesicles of the pre-
synaptic neuron to release neurotransmitters (a chemical message).
The neuron which releases the neurotransmitters is called the presynaptic neuron.
The neuron which receives the neurotransmitters is called the postsynaptic neuron.
When a nerve impulse (or action potential) triggers the release of neurotransmitters, these
chemicals are then released into the synapse and then taken up by the receptors on the
next neuron. This process is known as neurotransmission.
The neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic neuron may either excite or inhibit the
postsynaptic neuron, telling it to either release neurotransmitters, slow down the release,
or stop signaling completely.
 NEUROTRANSMITTER
A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance that plays a crucial role in
transmitting signals in the nervous system, allowing communication between
neurons and target cells.
Neurotransmitters are involved in physiological and psychological processes
including mood regulation, learning and memory, motor control, and regulation
of bodily functions such as heart rate and digestion.
There are different types of neurotransmitters- each with its own functions and
effects. Examples: serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine, and gamma-aminobutyric
acid (GABA).
Imbalances and disruptions in the levels of neurotransmitters can contribute to
various neurological and psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxeity,
schizophrenia, Parkinson’s diseas.
 NEUROTRANSMITTER
A neurotransmitter can bind to other target cells, neurons or muscle cells,
skeletal muscles, or glands. what part of the brain or body neurotransmitters go
to, that will determine what kind of effect they have.
Chemically gated channel- when neurotransmitters move across the synapse
and bind to a receptor on the target cell, we call that receptor chemically gated
channel or ligand-gated channel.
Excitatory or inhibitory- when they bind to the target cell they can excite that
cell or they can inhibit that cell.
Excitatory- trigger the movement
Made from amino acids and peptides, adenosine.
 NEUROTRANSMITTER
Neurotransmitters have different types of actions:
Excitatory neurotransmitters encourage a target cell to take action. These types of neurotransmitters have
excitatory effects on the neuron, meaning they increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action
potential. Some of the major excitatory neurotransmitters include epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the chances of the target cell taking action. In some cases, these
neurotransmitters have a relaxation-like effect. These types of neurotransmitters have inhibitory effects on
the neuron; they decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. Some major inhibitory
neurotransmitters include serotonin and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
Modulatory neurotransmitters can send messages to many neurons at the same time. They also
communicate with other neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters that act as neuromodulators include
acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, and histamine.
Sometimes neurotransmitters can bind to receptors and cause an electrical signal to be transmitted down
the cell (excitatory). In other cases, the neurotransmitter can block the signal from continuing, preventing
the message from being carried on (inhibitory).
 The brain chemical dopamine, associated with
reward and motivation, is very different from
serotonin, associated with contentment and true
happiness.

"Technology is a dopamine stimulator," Lustig told

Business Insider. "Anything that causes dopamine to rise
has, as its end point, addiction."
 DRUGS THAT INFLUENCE
NEUROTRANSMITTER
Agonists vs Antagonists:
Agonists function by increasing the effects of specific neurotransmitters.
Antagonist drugs act to block the effects of neurotransmission.

Direct vs. Indirect effects:

Direct effect work by mimicking the neurotranmitters becuase they are very
similar in chemical structure.
Indirect impact work by acting on the synaptic receptors.
 DRUGS THAT INFLUENCE
NEUROTRANSMITTER
Medications used to treat illnesses such as depression and anxiety- Selective
Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), Tricyclic antidepressants and
benzodiazepines influence neurotransmission.
 NEUROTRANSMITTER

Acetylcholine- the primary neurotransmitter that causes muscle contraction. It is

excitatory and always causes muscle contraction. Also important for cognitive
functions are thinking, learning, and memory. People with Alzheimer’s have
reduced acetylcholine making thinking, learning, and memory much more
difficult.
Dopamine: involved in motivational behavior and focusing on attention.
Anything that is addictive dopamine plays a role (reward-motivation behaviors).
Also important for controlling motor neurons. Parkinson’s disease.
Endorphins: pain killers- reduce pain and stress, make us feel good and
pleasurable, happiness feeling.
 NEUROTRANSMITTER

Glutamate (excitatory)- without glutamate, one will have fewer cognitive

functions, excess can also cause anxiety as it is very stimulating, also seizures,
can kill neurons.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine: cause all the typical stress response to happen-
increasing heart rate, dilating eye pupils.
GABA: made from glutamine, makes you feel calm, natural anti-anxiety
Serotonin: associated with depression. if you have low serotonin, you have
higher risk of depression.
 NEUROTRANSMITTER
The production and release of neurotransmitters are influenced by:
Genetics: certain genetic factors may contribute to an individual’s susceptibility
to conditions like depression or schizophrenia, which are associated with
neurotransmitter imbalances.
Diets: nutrients such as amino acids, vitamins, and minerals are essential for
neurotransmitter synthesis.
Stress may lead to alterations in neurotransmitter function and contribute to
mental health disorders.
Drugs and medications: Psychiatric medications often target neurotransmitter
systems to regulate their activity.
The levels and functioning of neurotransmitters can change with age.
Exposure to environmental toxins can affect neurotransmitters.
Regular physical exercise has been shown to have a positive impact on
neurotransmitter levels. Endorphins and serotonin are associated with mood
regulation.
 HOW NEURONS WORK
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that facilitate communication between nerve
cells, or neurons. These messengers travel across a tiny gap called a synapse, enabling
signals to pass from one neuron to the next.
Unlike direct contact, neurotransmitters bridge this synaptic gap to relay signals to or
from the central nervous system (CNS). Released from synaptic vesicles,
neurotransmitters play a vital role in modulating and balancing neural signals, thereby
maintaining brain function.
They regulate autonomic responses like breathing and heart rate and psychological
functions such as learning, mood, fear, pleasure, and happiness.
Some neurotransmitters, like serotonin, have an inhibitory effect, making neurons less
likely to fire, thus promoting calmness and sleep.
Others, like adrenaline, have an excitatory effect, increasing the likelihood of neuron firing
and elevating alertness or arousal.
 NEUROTRANSMITTER
Inactivation of Neurotransmitters
So what happens to a neurotransmitter after its job is complete? Once the neurotransmitter has had the
designed effect, its activity can be stopped by three mechanisms:
Degradation: An enzyme changes the structure of the neurotransmitter so it can't be recognized by the
receptor
Diffusion: The neurotransmitter drifts away from the receptor
Reuptake: The whole neurotransmitter molecule is taken back up by the axon of the neuron that released it
 HOW NEURONS WORK
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to a dendrite (and sometimes
the cell body) of a receiving neuron. Like a boat that ferries passengers across a river, these chemical
messengers move toward the shorelines of other neurons. The chemical mode of message transmission
that occurs between neurons is strikingly different from the means by which communication occurs
inside neurons: Although messages travel in electrical form within a neuron, they move between neurons
through a chemical transmission system.
Neurotransmitters are a particularly important link between the nervous system and behavior. Not only
are they important for maintaining vital brain and body functions, but a deficiency or an excess of a
neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior disorders. More than a hundred chemicals have been
found to act as neurotransmitters, and neuroscientists believe that more may ultimately be identified.
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Acetylcholine (or ACh, its chemical symbol), which is found throughout the nervous system. ACh
is involved in our every move, because—among other things—it transmits messages relating to
our skeletal muscles. ACh is also involved in memory capabilities, and diminished production of
ACh may be related to Alzheimer’s disease.
Glutamate plays a role in memory. Memories appear to be produced by specific biochemical
changes at particular synapses, and glutamate, along with other neurotransmitters, plays an
important role in this process.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is found in both the brain and the spinal cord, appears
to be the nervous system’s primary inhibitory neurotransmitter. It moderates a variety of
behaviors, ranging from eating to aggression. Several common substances, such as the
tranquilizer Valium and alcohol, are effective because they permit GABA to operate more
efficiently.
Dopamine (DA), which is involved in movement, attention, and learning. The discovery that certain
drugs can have a significant effect on dopamine release has led to the development of effective
treatments for a wide variety of physical and mental ailments. For instance, Parkinson’s disease,
from which actor Michael J. Fox suffers among others, is caused by a deficiency of dopamine in the
brain. Techniques for increasing the production of dopamine in Parkinson’s patients are proving
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Overproduction of dopamine produces negative consequences. For example, researchers have
hypothesized that schizophrenia and some other severe mental disturbances are affected or perhaps even
caused by the presence of unusually high levels of dopamine. Drugs that block the reception of dopamine
reduce the symptoms displayed by some people diagnosed with schizophrenia.
Serotonin is associated with the regulation of sleep, eating, mood, and pain. A growing body of research
points toward a broader role for serotonin, suggesting its involvement in such diverse behaviors as
alcoholism, depression, suicide, impulsivity, aggression, and coping with stress.
Endorphins, another class of neurotransmitters, are a family of chemicals produced by the brain that are
similar in structure to painkilling drugs such as morphine. The production of endorphins reflects the brain’s
effort to deal with pain as well as to elevate mood. Endorphins also may produce the euphoric feelings
that runners sometimes experience after long runs. The exertion and perhaps the pain involved in the long
run may stimulate the production of endorphins, ultimately resulting in what has been called “runner’s
high”.
For example, the act of taking placebos (pills or other substances that contain no actual drugs but that
patients believe will make them better) may induce the release of endorphins, leading to the reduction of
pain.
THE ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends
messages throughout the body via the bloodstream.
Its job is to secrete hormones, chemicals that circulate through the blood
and regulate the functioning or growth of the body. Hormones: substances
secreted by endocrine glands that regulate a wide range of bodily
processes. It also influences—and is influenced by—the functioning of the
nervous system. Hormones flow into the bloodstream, which carries them to
thier target organs.
Hormones affect behavior and emotions by stimulating muscles, organs, or
other glands of the body.
Although the endocrine system is not part of the brain, it is closely linked to
the hypothalamus.
 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
A key component of the endocrine system is the tiny
pituitary gland, which is found near—and regulated
by—the hypothalamus in the brain. The pituitary
gland has sometimes been called the “master gland”
because it controls the functioning of the rest of the
endocrine system. Hormones secreted by the pituitary
gland control growth. Extremely short people and
unusually tall ones usually have pituitary gland
abnormalities.
Oxytocin- a hormone that can have different functions
based on circumstances. Oxytocin is the root of many
of life’s satisfaction and pleasures. For new mothers,
oxytocin produces the urge to nurse newborn
offspring. Also helps in the development of trust, and
effective social interaction. Helps speed up labor and
delivery in childbirth.
 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The Pineal Gland: is also located in the

brain, near the back, directly above the
brain stem. Plays an important part in
biological rhythms. Secretes a hormone
called melatonin, which helps track day
length and seasons, In humans, it helps
regulate the sleep-wake cycle.
 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The Thyroid Gland: is located

inside the neck and secretes
hormones that regulate growth and
metabolism. A hormone called
thyroxin regulates metabolism-
how fast the body burns its
available energy. The thyroid also
plays a crucial role in body and
brain development.
 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Pancreas- controls the level of blood
sugar in the body by secreting insulin
and glucagon. If the pancreas secretes
too little insulin, it results in diabetes, If
it secretes too much insulin, it results
in hypoglycemia, or low blood sugar,
which causes a person to feel hungry
all the time.
 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The Gonads: are sex glands- ovaries in
the female and testes in the male. They
recreate hormones that regulate sexual
behavior and reproduction, However,
they do not control all sexual behavior- the
brain is the master of the sexual system-
human sexual behavior is not controlled
totally by instincts and the actions of the
glands as in some part of the animal
world.
 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Adrenal Glands (on top of the kidney): Everyone has two adrenal
glands, one on top of each kidney. Each adrenal gland is divided
into two sections- the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex.
The adrenal Medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine
when people are under stress and aids in sympathetic arousal.
The adrenal cortex produces over 30 different hormones called
corticoids (also called steroids) that regulate salt intake, help
initiate and control stress reactions and provide a source of sex
hormones in addition to gonads.
Adrenal hormones-cortisol-released when the body experiences
stress. It releases glucose into the bloodstream during stress,
providing energy for the brain, and releases fatty acids the
provide muscles with energy.
 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Neural messages are measured in thousandths of seconds- hormonal communications may take minutes to reach
their destination.
Neural messages move through neurons in specific lines whereas hormones travel throughout the body.
Hormones flowing through the bloodstream activate only those cells that are receptive and tuned to the appropriate
hormonal message.
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The peripheral nervous system is a network of nerves that runs throughout the head, neck, and body. It
carries messages to and from the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord). Together, the
peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system form the nervous system.
The brain and body send information back and forth all the time. The peripheral system allows the brain
and spinal cord to receive and send information to other areas of the body, which allows us to react to
stimuli in our environment.
The somatic nervous system (SNS) controls actions that we do by choice
(voluntarily), like walking, eating, or playing an instrument.
The somatic nervous system consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons, which
respectively transmit motor and sensory signals to and from the central nervous
system (CNS).
The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements, transmits and receives
sensory information (e.g., sight, taste, touch), and is involved in reflex actions without
the involvement of the CNS so that the reflex can occur very quickly.
Sensory neurons within the SNS, also known as afferent neurons, carry sensory
information from the body to the central nervous system (CNS).
Sensory neurons of the SNS send information to the central nervous system from
external stimuli from the senses, such as information about the texture of an object.
Motor neurons within the SNS, also known as efferent neurons, carry motor
information from the CNS to muscle fibers throughout the body.
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is part of the peripheral nervous system and controls
vital functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and digestion. The autonomic nervous system
(ANS) is a nervous system component responsible for regulating involuntary bodily
functions, such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, and pupillary response.
It consists of two main divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, which
often work in opposition to maintaining the body’s internal balance or homeostasis.
It is also involved in the acute stress response, where it works with the endocrine system to
prepare the body to fight or fight.
The autonomic system controls a variety of internal processes, including: Blood pressure,
Body temperature, Breathing (respiratory) rate, Circulatory system, Digestion, Electrolyte
balance, Emotional responses, Glands of the mouth, nose, and eyes, Immune system, Heart
rate, Liver function, Metabolism, Pancreas function, Pupillary response, Production of body
fluids, including sweat and saliva, Sexual response, Skin, including sweating and the
muscles that cause hair on the body to stand up, Urination and defecation
Sympathetic Division: This division regulates the flight-or-fight responses. The sympathetic system also
performs such tasks as relaxing the bladder, speeding up heart rate, and dilating eye pupils.
The sympathetic nervous system is involved in responses that help us deal with emergencies. It slows
bodily processes that are less important in emergencies, such as digestion.
For instance, if the temperature of a room is hot, the sympathetic system will encourage the body to sweat in
response to this change.
The sympathetic system activates during threatening or stressful conditions, providing an automatic
response.
For example, walking home alone down a dark street can be scary for many people. Whilst walking, your
pupils may dilate, your heart rate may increase, and you may sweat.
This response to a stressful situation is caused by the release of large quantities of the neurotransmitter
epinephrine from the adrenal gland. Once this stimulating neurotransmitter is released, this triggers the
body’s automatic responses.
The purpose of stimulating these bodily responses is to prepare the individual to either escape or fight in
dangerous situations. Although the sympathetic nervous system was evolutionarily used in life-threatening
situations, modern-day life and mental health can also trigger this response. Work-related stress, financial
concerns, and relationship problems are examples of when the sympathetic nervous system can produce this
stress response.
Similarly, those with anxiety disorders and phobias experience high quantities of epinephrine, resulting in
them experiencing the same autonomic responses as in life-threatening situations.
The parasympathetic nervous system relaxes the individual once the emergency has passed (e.g., slows the
heart rate down and reduces blood pressure) and conserves the body’s natural activity by decreasing
activity/maintaining it.
The parasympathetic nervous system is associated with returning the body to resting state functions such as
regulating heart rate, relaxing muscles, and controlling the bladder. This makes the parasympathetic nervous
system important in supporting homeostasis.
The parasympathetic nervous system can also act once a threatening situation is over. For instance, when
walking home alone at night, the body relaxes once returning home, and the threatening situation is over.
The pupils will constrict, the heart rate will return to a resting rhythm, and sweating will be reduced or
stopped. The parasympathetic system is therefore important for ensuring we return to normal after a stressful
situation.
Without this system, the body will be constantly alert, draining all energy, and this can lead to chronic stress.
The parasympathetic division is responsible for most of the ordinary, day-to-day bodily functioning, such as
regular heartbeat, normal breathing, and digestion.
The sympathetic division acts to prepare
certain organs of the body for stressful
situations, and the parasympathetic division
acts to calm the body after the emergency
has passed.
 THE CENTRAL CORE: ‘OLD BRAIN’
The ‘old brain’ which controls basic functions such as
eating and sleeping and is common to all vertebrates.
The hindbrain contains the medulla, pons, and
cerebellum.
The medulla controls critical body functions such as
breathing and heartbeat.
The pons is a bridge in the hindbrain- that acts as a
transmitter of motor information, coordinating muscles
and integrating movement between the right and left
halves of the body, also involved in regulating sleep.
Cerebellum- the part of the brain that controls bodily
balance. It monitors feedback from the muscles to
coordinate their placement, movement, and tension.
Drinking too much affects the cerebellum therefore
affecting the movement. The cerebellum is also
involved in intellectual functions like analysis,
coordination of sensory information to problem solving.
 THE CENTRAL CORE: ‘OLD BRAIN’
Reticular formation extends from the medulla through
the pons, passing through the middle section of the
brain or midbrain and into the front-most part of the
brain called the forebrain. Reticular formation produces
general arousal of our body.
For example- if we are startled by a loud noise, the
reticular formation can prompt a heightened state of
awareness to determine whether a response is
necessary.
The reticular formation also helps regulate our sleep-
wake cycle by filtering out background stimuli to allow
us to sleep undisturbed.
Thalamus acts primarily as a relay station for
information about the senses. Messages from the eyes,
ears, and skin travel to the thalamus to be
communicated upward to higher parts of the brain. It
also integrates information to send to the cerebellum
and medulla.
 THE CENTRAL CORE: ‘OLD BRAIN’

Hypothalamus is located just below the thalamus and

maintains homeostasis (a steady internal environment
for the body) and produces and regulates vital
behavior, such as eating, drinking, and sexual
behavior. It helps provide a constant body
temperature and monitors the amount of nutrients
stored in the cells. The hypothalamus produces and
regulates behavior that is critical to the basic survival
of the species such as eating, self-protection, and sex.
Responsible for regulating basic biological needs such
as hunger, thirst, and temperature control.
 THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
The limbic system- consists of a series of doughnut-shaped structures that include the amygdala and
hippocampus.
The limbic system is located within the cerebrum of the brain, immediately below the temporal lobes, and
buried under the cerebral cortex (the cortex is the outermost part of the brain).
Controls a variety of basic functions relating to emotions and self-preservation such as eating, aggression
and reproduction.
The limbic system and hippocampus play an important role in learning and memory, experience of
pleasure and self-preservation.
It is also referred to as the ‘animal brain’ because its structures and functions are so similar to those of
mammals.
 THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
Due to the hippocampus’s involvement in memory, damage to this area can lead to severe memory
impairments.
Damage can also be detrimental to spatial memory, for instance, remembering directions to locations that
should be familiar to the individual.
Damage to the hippocampus can disrupt cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and spatial
navigation and contribute to dementia symptoms like memory loss, disorientation, and confusion
(Gulyaeva, 2019)
Damage to the amygdala may result in more aggression, irritability, loss of control of emotions, and
deficits in recognizing emotions, especially recognizing fear.
Damage to both sides of the amygdala can result in fewer feelings of shame about breaking social rules
as well as trouble recognizing fearful and shamed facial expressions correction. This suggests that the
amygdala may help detect unclear social situations (Piretti et al., 2020).
 THE CEREBRAL CORTEX- ‘NEW BRAIN’
The cerebral cortex is defined as the outermost layer of the
brain, composed of folded gray matter, playing a crucial role in
various complex cognitive processes. It is responsible for
functions like thought, perception, language, memory, attention,
consciousness, and advanced motor functions.
The cerebral Cortex consists of four major sections called lobes-
frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal bones and occipital lobes.
The cerebral cortex is primarily constructed of grey matter
(neural tissue made up of neurons), with between 14 and 16
billion neurons found here.
Although the cerebral cortex is only a few millimeters thick, it
consists of approximately half the weight of the total brain mass.
The cerebral cortex has a wrinkled appearance, consisting of
bulges, also known as gyri, and deep furrows, known as sulci.
The many folds and wrinkles of the cerebral cortex allow for a
wider surface area for an increased number of neurons to live
there, permitting large amounts of information to be processed.
 THE CEREBRAL CORTEX- ‘NEW BRAIN’
The frontal lobes are the largest part of the
cerebral cortex, located at the front of the brain
behind the forehead. The frontal lobes are highly
developed in humans and critical for many
higher-order cognitive functions. The frontal
lobes are highly interconnected with other
cortical and subcortical regions, including the
limbic system. They are critically involved in
higher cognitive functions, executive control,
emotional regulation, and social cognition.
Damage can cause personality changes,
impaired judgment, memory loss, and reduced
motor control and language expression,
depending on the specific region affected.
 THE CEREBRAL CORTEX- ‘NEW BRAIN’
The occipital lobes are located at the very back of the
brain. This region processes visual information received
from the eyes. Vision – The primary visual cortex in the
occipital lobe interprets visual signals from the retinas of
the eyes. This area handles basic visual functions like
perceiving color, motion, and shape. Recognition –
Additional visual association areas help identify objects,
faces, words, and scenes that you see. Imagery – The
occipital lobes contribute to visual imagery and picturing
images in your mind. Communication – This region
connects with other parts of the brain to integrate visual
perceptions with memories, sounds, and more. Damage to
the occipital lobes can cause issues like blindness,
difficulty recognizing objects or words, and problems with
visual processing. Overall, this area is essential for
interpreting visual stimuli.
 THE CEREBRAL CORTEX- ‘NEW BRAIN’
The parietal lobes are located near the top of the brain behind
the frontal lobes. This area integrates sensory information from
different parts of the body.
Touch – The primary somatosensory cortex receives
information about touch, temperature, pain, and the body’s
position.
Integration – It combines input from the senses to represent
the body and its location in space.
Motion – The parietal lobes guide actions and movements in
response to sensory stimuli.
Attention – It plays a role in selective attention and focusing on
relevant stimuli.
Spatial orientation – This region helps construct a sensory map
of the environment and understand spatial relationships.
Injury to the parietal lobes can cause issues with coordinating
movement, directing attention, and processing sensory
information from the body and surroundings. Overall, it
integrates sensory signals to guide behavior.
 THE CEREBRAL CORTEX- ‘NEW BRAIN’

The sensory area of the cortex- includes three

regions- one that corresponds to body
sensations like touch and pressure, one to sight,
and the third relating to sound.
The motor area of the cortex: is responsible for
the body’s voluntary movement.
The association areas of the cortex: one of the
major regions of the cerebral cortex- the site of
the higher mental processes such as thought,
language, memory and speech. This area
controls executive functions whose abilities are
related to planning, goal setting, judgment and
impulse control.
 THE CEREBRAL CORTEX- ‘NEW BRAIN’
Broca’s Area: situated in the left frontal lobe-
devoted to the production of speech, this area
allows a person to speak smoothly and fluently.
Damage to this area causes a person to be
unable to get words out in a smooth, connected
way. Speech is halting and words are often
mispronounced also known as Broca’s Aphasia-
inability to use or understand either written or
spoken language.
Wernicke’s Area: in the left temporal lobe,
involved in understanding the meaning of
words. Wernicke’s aphasia- when a person can
speak fluently and pronounce words correctly
but the words are wrong and also has trouble
understanding what people around her are
saying.
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain
and spinal cord.
The spinal cord, which is about the thickness of a pencil, contains a bundle of neurons that
leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back. The spinal cord is the primary
means for transmitting messages between the brain and the rest of the body.
The spinal cord is not just a communication channel. It also controls some simple
behaviors on its own, without any help from the brain. An example is the way the knee
jerks forward when it is tapped with a rubber hammer. This behavior is a type of reflex, an
automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus. A reflex is also at work when
you touch a hot stove and immediately withdraw your hand.
Although the brain eventually analyzes and reacts to the situation (“Ouch—hot stove—pull
away!”), the initial withdrawal is directed only by neurons in the spinal cord.
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Several kinds of neurons are involved in reflexes.
Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the
central nervous system and the brain. For example, touching a hot stove sends a message
to the brain (hot!) via sensory neurons.
Motor (efferent) neurons communicate information in the opposite direction, from the
brain and nervous system to muscles and glands. When the brain sends a message to the
muscles of the hand (hot—move away!), the message travels via motor neurons.
The importance of the spinal cord and reflexes is illustrated by the outcome of accidents in
which the cord is injured or severed. In some cases, injury results in quadriplegia, a
condition in which people lose voluntary muscle movement below the neck. In a less
severe but still debilitating condition, paraplegia, people are unable to voluntarily move
any muscles in the lower half of the body.
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The peripheral nervous system branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the
extremities of the body. Made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, the peripheral nervous
system encompasses all the parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord.
The part of the nervous system that includes the autonomic and somatic subdivisions; is made up of
neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches
the extremities of the body.
Somatic division specializes in the control of voluntary movements—such as the motion of the eyes
to read this sentence or those of the hand to turn this page—and the communication of information
to and from the sense organs.
Autonomic division controls the parts of the body that keep us alive—the heart, blood vessels,
glands, lungs, and other organs that function involuntarily without our awareness. The autonomic
division of the peripheral nervous system pumps blood through your body, pushing your lungs in and
out, and overseeing the digestion of your last meal.
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The autonomic division plays a particularly crucial role during emergencies.

The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic nervous system and the
parasympathetic nervous system.
Sympathetic Nervous System: The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to
prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organism’s resources to respond
to a threat- to run away or to confront the threat. This is often called the “fight or flight” response.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts
to calm the body after an emergency has ended. The parasympathetic division also directs the body
to store energy for use in emergencies.