1

UNIT 3 INTRODUCTION TO SIKHISM

Contents
3.0 Objectives
3. 1. Introduction to Sikhism
3. 2. The socio-religious Background of the Sikh Religion
3. 3. Guru Nanak and his life
3. 4. The Guru Tradition
3. 5. Sikh Scriptures
3. 6. Gurudwara
3. 7. Khalsa Movement
3. 8. Rituals, Ceremonies and Festivals
3. 9. The Other Movements in Sikhism
3.10. Ethical Teachings
3.11. Key Words
3.12. Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES
Though Sikhism is the latest religion in the Indian sub-continent, it has a tremendous impact on
the life and belief system of the people of India. Sikhism is indebted to the Hindu Vaishnavite
bhakti tradition and the Islam Sufi mystic tradition. This paper introduces the student to the
background, the contribution of Guru Nanak, the Guru tradition, Sikh Scriptures, the concept of
Gurudwara, the Khalsa Movement, rituals and festivals, ethical teachings, and the basic
principles of Sikhism, so that the student may broaden his/her understanding of other religious
traditions and approach them with openness and respect.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1539) in the 15th Century AD in the present day
Punjab. The word Sikh means disciple — from the Sanskrit word shishya, or the Pali root sikkha.
In this sense, the Sikhs are the disciples of the ten Sikh Gurus starting form Guru Nanak. The
word Sikh is also interpreted by some as the elect, chosen by God, or God’s own. Sikhism, the
youngest of the world religions, has integrated ideas, practices, and doctrines mainly form Islam
and Hinduism. Like the Golden temple with open doors to all sides, Sikhism is a liberal religion
open to other religions and cultures. Like many other religions, Sikhism also has undergone
transformations and accommodates paradoxes in its existence — like simplicity and splendor,
military prowess and tenderness, and poetry and pragmatism. Most of the Sikhs live in the state
of Punjab, the others in Haryana, Delhi, and in the other parts of India. Many have migrated to
the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and to other countries in Europe.

3.2 THE SOCIO-RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND OF SIKH RELIGION

The Mogul rulers exploited the poor economically and persecuted the Hindus in the name of
religion, imposed a religious tax on them, and conducted forced mass conversions. The
Brahmins, the dominant class in the Hindu society, though submissive to the Muslim rulers were
intolerant towards the lower class. The life of an ordinary Hindu was miserable because he was
politically exploited by the Moghul rulers and religiously exploited by the high caste Brahmins.
Rampant social evils like sathi, child marriage, the dehumanizing caste system, and female
infanticide aggravated the misery of the ordinary people. The socio-cultural milieu was ripe
 2

enough for a transformative movement. That was the time Guru Nanak appeared on the scene
with his liberal ideas on God, religion, and social life. Nanak found that “The kings have become
man-eaters, their officials behave like dogs, they lick blood and eat flesh of people.” He
lamented, “O God! Thou who art the Lord of us all, didst Thou not feel pain when there was so
much slaughter and lamentation?” “O Lalo, modesty and religion have disappeared and
falsehood is reigning.”
The origin of the Sikh religion can be traced back to the Vaishnavite bhakti tradition which
started in Tamil Nadu as a protest movement against the Brahmin hegemony over the Hindu
rituals and the dehumanizing caste system, and the Islam Sufi mysticism. The Sufis welcomed
the non-Muslims to their gatherings and they believed in singing hymns of praise and meditation
under the leadership of a Guru. Lalla – a Kashmiri vishnavite saint, Namdev – a vaishnavite
saint and poet, Ramananda of Banares, and Kabir the Sufi mystic considerably influenced the
religious atmosphere of the time. Kabir (1440-1518) the mystic poet of the Sufi tradition was the
link between the Vaishnavite Bhakti tradition and Sufi mysticism. Kabir who was from a low
caste weaver’s family, inherited and integrated both the Sufi and bhakti traditions. His mother
was a Hindu, and his father a Muslim who must have been a Hindu convert.

3.3 GURU NANAK AND HIS LIFE

Guru Nanak (1469- 1539) was born into a Hindu family in the village of Talvandi of a Muslim
zamindar, 65 kilometers away from Lahore. His father, Mehta Kalu, was a revenue collector
belonging to the Bedi (conversant with the Vedas) sub-caste of the Kshatriyas. He inherited the
name Nanak from his mother’s father. As a child, at the age of 5, he was sent to a Hindu pandit
and later was educated by a Muslim teacher. After his education, he got married to a girl in
Sultanpur and had two children. For a while he worked as the accountant of Daulat Khan, the
Afghan chief in Sultanpur. Later he came in contact with a Muslim servant, Mardana. Mardana
gave music to the hymns composed by Nanak and together they conducted community singing.
They organized a common canteen where people of different castes and religious traditions could
eat together without any hesitation, at a time when caste discrimination controlled every walk of
life.
It was the habit of Nanak to wander around in solitude and to spend time in meditation in the
forest of Sultanpur. Around the age of twenty he received illumination and set out to awaken “a
depressed, demoralized, superstitious and priest ridden race.” Once while he was having a bath in
the river, he disappeared into the water for three days and when he reappeared he proclaimed,
“There is no Hindu , there is no Mussulman.” The first written account on Nanak is known as
Janamsakhis — birth stories in prose written in the Gurumukhi alphabet, developed and refined
by Nanak himself. Some of the stories related to the life of Nanak are:

• Nanak as a boy refused to wear the sacred thread; asked for a thread that would not break or
burn, or get soiled or lost.
• Nanak used to be in trance while the cattle grazed unattended.
• Once Nanak was sent to purchase food materials with a servant .He gave away the money to
beggars and returned empty handed; his father got angry.
• Went for a bath, disappeared into the water; then he was taken to the court of God where he
was given a cup of nectar and commissioned to teach others; appeared after three days.
 3

• At Mecca, once the Guru was sleeping with his legs towards the Kaaba. An infuriated mullah
kicked Nanak. Nanak asked the mullah to show him a place where God is not present.
• The Mogul emperor Babur invaded Punjab and imprisoned Nanak; made him grind corn at a
hand-mill; Nanak sat in meditation and the hand-mill worked on its own.

Nanak called himself sachiar, a man of truth, but his followers considered him a reincarnation of
one of the numerous immortals and called him a deva. At the time of Nanak’s death, three factors
were well settled in the Sikh community: a) 974 hymns composed by Nanak which formed the
origin of the Adi Granth, b) a well knit community with an ideology, c) a well-established guru
tradition
Influence of Guru Nanak on the Sikh Community

• Self-confidence and courage

• Sense of unity
• Open minded and free from superstitions
• Free from caste discrimination
• More practical in their approach
• Galaxy of warriors, patriots, scholars, poets, and saints
Three interpretations regarding the status of Guru Nanak

• An avatara
• An ordinary person made perfect
• Guru a man, but born perfect

Check Your Progress 1

Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) What was the socio-religious background of the origin of Sikhism?

2) What were the two major influences on the early Sikh Religion?

3) How did Nanak and Mardana start their mission?

 4

4) How did Nanak influence the Early Sikh community?

3.4 THE GURU TRADITION IN THE SIKH COMMUNITY

Guru Angad. (Guru 1539-52)Twenty days before his death, Nanak installed Lehna a kshatriya
disciple as the next guru. Both his sons were not fit enough to succeed him as guru. While on the
way, the guru’s jug fell into the mud, both the sons refused to get down into the mud and get the
jug, while Lehna got the jug washed, filled it with pure water and gave it to the guru. After a
stirring speech, Nanak placed a coconut representing the universe and five coins representing the
five elements of the universe and named him Guru Angad and bowed to him. Angad, as the
second Guru, consolidated the Sikh community, collected the poems of Nanak and systematized
the Gurmukhi language.
Guru Amar Das. (Guru 1552-74) Constructed a water tank with eighty-four steps representing
the numerous births of a human soul. He divided the Sikh community into 22 Manjis, each
under the leadership of a head called Sangatias and appointed woman preachers. His policy was
pehle pangat (eating) piche Sangat (meeting). Emperor Akbar sat with him for a common meal.
He was generous, open, and tolerant towards other cultures and religions. Akbar figures
prominently in the life of the 3rd, 4th , and 5th gurus. Guru ka Langar was a way of emphasizing
the equality of all mankind irrespective of their birth and status.
Guru Ram Das (Guru 1574-81) Son-in-law of Amar Das, founder of the city of Amritsar,
concentrated on social reforms like sati and widow remarriage. He composed a hymn which is
widely used in the Sikh marriage ceremony. Numbers increased considerably and the guru’s role
became more important in building up the community.
Guru Arjan (Guru 1581-1606) His time saw the unprecedented growth of the community; many
jats joined and fought against the Mughal tyranny. Daswandh (10% tax) was regularly collected
from the members. The revenue was used for the construction of large tanks and holy buildings.
Harmandir at Amritsar was constructed during his time. While guru Arjan was away on
missionary work, his elder brother Prithi Chand compiled a collection of hymns and put it
forward as the authentic scripture of the Sikhs. This attempt by Prithi Chand prompted guru
Arjan to entrust the work of compilation to Bhai Gurdas. The completed compilation was
installed in the Harmandir in August 1604 and is known as the Adi Granth. In these verses you
will find three things —, truth, peace and contemplation. Besides Amritsar he built three other
cities — Taran Taran, Kartarpur, and Hargobindpur. Arjan was martyred. The following Mughal
emperors were associated with the history of Sikhism: Babur 1526-30, Humayun 1530-40 and
1555-56, Sher Shah 1540-55, Akbar 1556-1605, Jehangir 1605-27, Shah Jehan 1628-58,
Aurangazeb 1658-1707.
Guru Hargobind (Guru 1606-44) developed royal authority and maintained an army. He
emphasised the idea of Piri and Miri. Piri from the root pir that was used in Sufism to denote a
religious teacher, and miri from the Muslim term amir (used by Caliph Umar) meaning
 5

commander. The third and fifth gurus engaged in politics, and supported the overburdened
peasants and the poor Hindus. These two concepts continued till the tenth guru. Today the Sikhs
speak about tegh and deg, meaning sword and cooking pot, which represent the protection of the
oppressed ant the feeding of the hungry. Tegh and deg show the social responsibility of the Sikh
community. Fighting is considered as the last resort. Hargobind seems to have given more
importance for miri than piri. Goswami Ram Das, the guru of Sivaji asked Hargobind, ‘I hear
that you are the successor of Guru Nanak. Guru Nanak had renounced the world while you wear
the sword, keep horses and an army, and people call you Sacha Padshah. What kind of a sadhu
are you?” The Guru replied, ‘Saintliness is within. Sovereignty is external.’ Bhai Gurdas
presented some similar popular accusations against the guru in one of his poems. Bidi Chand,
one of the guru’s famous companions, was a reformed bandit. He reformed the dharmasala,
provided a pennant for his troops which became the flag of Sikhism, and a kettle drum for them
which later became a necessary item in each gurudwara.

Guru Har Rai (Guru 1644-61) Son of the eldest son of Guru Hargobind became guru at the age
of fourteen. He was soft hearted but firm in decision. During the last days of Emperor Shah
Jehan, war broke out between two of his sons Dara and Aurangzeb. The Guru supported the
former with an army of 2000, but Dara was defeated and Aurangzeb became the emperor. Guru
Har Rai’s son Ram Rai remained with the Mughal court as a rival to the Sikh gurus.

Guru Har Krishan (Guru 1661-64) became the guru at the age of five and was taken to Delhi to
meet emperor Aurangzeb. There he contracted small pox and died.

Guru Tejh Bahadur (Guru 1664-75) was the great uncle of Har Krishan. Tej Bahadur was a
brave fighter. Once appointed the guru, he rose to the occasion and provided brave leadership to
the community. When there was dissent in the community and a plot to kill the guru, he
pardoned the assassin. Meanwhile Aurangzeb started vigorous Islamisation by destroying Hindu
temples and closing down Hindu schools. Compulsory religious tax or jizya on non- Muslims
and forcible conversions gave rise to civil war. Guru Tej Bahadur was imprisonEd. When he
refused to get converted, he was martyrEd. His martyrdom was a brave act of sacrifice for
religious freedom and liberty.

Guru Gobind Singh (Guru 1675-1708). He had the good qualities of his illustrious
predecessors. He was highly educated, skilled in arms and horsemanship, chivalrous and
generous in character. The most important guru after Nanak, he fought against the Islamization
of Aurangzeb, and supported Bahadur Shah the next ruler. The starting of the Khalsa and
installation of the Adi Granth as the Guru Granth Sahib were the two most important decisions
by Gobind Singh. The Sikhs believe that the spirit of the Guru will be present where there are
five (panch pyare) assembled together. He was a restorer of dharma and one who identified the
sangat- guru as and True Guru. Sikhism which followed a panth tradition seems to have taken
over militant political ideology with the war cry of Banda Singh ‘Raj Karega Khalsa’ in 1710

3.5 THE SIKH SCRIPTURES

The Adi Granth or Guru Granth Sahib is the most important scripture in the Sikh religion. It
contains the poems of the first five Gurus: Nanak (974), Angad (62), Amar Das (907), Ram das
(679), Arjun (2218), Gobind Singh who incorporated 115 hymns composed by this father Tegh
Bahadur. Poems by the Hindu bhaktas or Muslim saints like Kabir, Namdev, Trilochan Sein,
 6

Ravidas, and Jaidev are also incorporated in the Adi Granth. The first surviving compilation was
made by the grandson of Guru Amar Das at the instruction of the Guru. Guru Arjan made
another enlarged compilation of the poems in 1604, and Guru Gobind Singh by adding the
poems of his father Guru Tegh Bahadur made another compilation in 1704 which is the present
Adi Granth. Adi Granth in the present form has about 6,000 hymns in 1430 pages and thirty one
sections. The language used in the Adi Granth is Gurmukhi. The singing is called kirtan, and the
congregation may or may not participate. There are three singers, one at the drum, another with a
portable harmonium and a third one who sings and explains the hymns which are sung in simple
ragas. The Adi Granth is soteriological in character and the basic concern is the essential unity
between God and the human soul. Right living is the key to a proper relationship with God.
Truth, contentment, and meditation are the three important ideas dealt with in the Adi Granth.
The Guru Granth Sahib plays a very important role in the daily life and worship of the Sikh
community. People reverently bow down as soon as they enter the Gurudwara. In the 1920s,
because of the conflict between the traditionalists and the reformists, there arose a controversy
whether or not to accept karah prasad from the low caste Sikh converts. The Adi Granth was
consulted and it read: “Upon the worthless he bestows his grace, brother, if they will serve the
True Guru. Exalted is the service of the True Guru, brother, to hold in remembrance the divine
name. God himself offers grace and mystic union. We are worthless sinners brother, yet the True
Guru has drawn us to the blissful union”. (AG 638:3) These words of Guru Amar Das settled the
issue.
The Dasm Granth. These are the poems of Guru Gobind Singh and his contemporaries compiled
by Bhai Mani Sigh in 1734.
Rahatnamas contain the code of conduct for the members and the traditions of the Khalsa
community.

3.6. GURUDWARA
Gurudwara means the gateway to the Guru. Guru Nanak built the first Sikh temple at Kartarpur
which is known as dharmasala (place of faith). There are more than 200 historical gurudwaras
associated with the Gurus, which are controlled by the Sikh Gurudwara Prabandhak committee
(SGPC). The Golden Temple in Amritsar (a-mrit-sar —undying waters or water of immortality)
is the most important place for the Sikhs. The temple was built during the tolerant Muslim ruler
Akbar’s reign in 1761, and used a unique style of construction borrowing from both Hindu and
Muslim architecture. The Persian Muslim Ahamed Shah destroyed the temple and killed
devotees. The present structure was reconstructed by Maharaja Ranjith Singh. Tarn Taran is the
second most important gurudwara built by Guru Arjun who was cured of leprosy in the waters
there. Lepers go to Tarn Taran for healing even today.
Guru Hargobind founded the Akal Takt, the throne of the immortal, opposite to the Golden
Temple, and introduced a military set up in the Sikh community. Emperor Jehangir imprisoned
Hargobind Singh but later released him. After the death of Guru Gobind Singh, the Siromani
Gurudwara Pargandhak Committee (SGPC) is the highest decision making body based on the
Sikh Gurudwara Act passed in the year 1925. Guru Gobind Singh, before his death, installed the
Adi Granth as the living Guru of the Sikhs.
The following items are kept in the treasury of the Golden Temple:
 7

- Eight gold doors

- The curved sword of Maharaja Ranjith Singh
- Five gold spades
- Horse-tail-like fan
- Wedding veil
- Smaller golden swords
- Sixteen silver candle sticks
- Hemispherical shell of gold
- An inverted bowl
The Akal Takht and the Darbar Sahib stand vis-à-vis.The Darbar Sahib is dear to all Sikhs,
whereas the Akal Takht is dear to the devotee of the war like diety Akal, who are called Akalis.

Check your progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answers.
1. What were the important contributions of Guru Arjan?

2. Guru Gobind Singh is known for two major contributions, what are they?

3. How do you explain the two compilations and the composition of the Adi Granth?

4. What is the importance of a Gurudwara and the Golden Temple?

3.7 THE KHALSA MOVEMENT

Aurangzeb imposed a special tax on the hill tribes and kings of the hill regions of U. P and
Punjab. They revolted and fought against the emperor. But the tribes got divided amongst
themselves on the basis of caste and race. The Sikh army, under the leadership of Guru Gobind
Singh, decided to form an army that was free from caste considerations. Like Nietzsche, Gobind
Singh believed in ‘will to war, and will to power’. “Blessed is he,” says Gobind Singh, “in this
world who cherishes war in his heart at the same time does not forget God”. Gobind Singh in a
letter to Aurangzeb wrote, “When affairs have gone beyond all means, it is virtuous to take a
sword in hand. I have been forced to come to arms and to enter a battlefield.” (Sher Sigh 1966, p.
49)
 8

Khalsa in Persian means pure, a new fraternity was started by Guru Gobind Singh, on the Hindu
New year day on 13 April, 1699. During the Hindu New year celebrations Guru Gobind Singh
with an unsheathed sword in hand asked for a head for the cause of dharma. When everyone
backed out, five of the backward caste came forward; he baptized them and in turn got baptized
by them. They were called the panch pyare. He was of the opinion that Indians had an inferiority
complex, so he advised his followers to “live courageously but not dangerously”. The five Ks are
compulsory for all the members of Khalsa: i) Kesha or long uncut hair, ii) Kangha or comb to
clean up the hair and the beard, iii) Kara or steel bangle, ; a symbol of the Guru’s grace and
omnipresence of God, iv) Kacha or drawers; a symbol of chastity, v) Kirpan or the symbol of
resistance.

3.8 RITUALS, CEREMONIES AND FESTIVALS

Guru Nanak was against any kind of ritual or ceremony. Once at Haridwar when some devout
Hindus were throwing water towards the east as an oblation to the ancestors, Nanak started
throwing water to the west saying that he was watering his farmland. Arjun Singh said, “I neither
perform haj, nor go on pilgrimage, neither worship one particular way nor the other, for, I bow
down within my heart to the one formless God and not another.” Respect for all human beings
and love and concern for all creatures was the basic approach. The Sikh Gurus were against
performing miracles because they believed that by performing miracle they are denying the grace
of God. The highest form of prayer is meditative silence or ajapa jap.
Nanak was strongly against any kind of pilgrimage:
“One gains but a seed’s weight of merit
Through pilgrimages, austerities and benevolence;
One might rather mind God’s bidding and cleanse himself
By the love he bears within his heart.”
“If bathing in the Ganges affords salvation, how fortunate are fishes and frogs.
Going on pilgrimage, you may indeed gain some reverence for water, but
All places of pilgrimage are valueless, even though the pilgrim drowns himself at Kashi
(Benares)”.
But now there are pilgrim groups in the Sikh community. Satnamis—low caste, chamars —
leather workers, Kabir Panthis — Kabir followers, Sahajadaris — Nanak followers, and
Nirankaris—the formless, are some of the pilgrim groups.

3.9 THE OTHER MOVEMENTS IN SIKHISM

Nirmalas: A group of scholars, pundits. Five disciples were sent to Benares to study Sanskrit
and Hindu Philosophy and the influence of western thinking. Overdependence on Hindu
philosophy and stress on scholarship made them unpopular and later gave rise to the Akali
Movement and the Singh Sabha movement, Ham Hindu Nahim.
 9

Gyanis: Theologians of the religion, expositors of Adi Granth who focus on the doctrinal
expositions and Janam Sakhi (life story) and traditional exposition. These scholars move from
place to place and concentrate mostly translations and commentaries.
Namdhari: As a reaction to the luxury and pomp, Baba Ram Singh advocated a simple life and
meditation.

Check your Progress III

Note: Use the space provided for your answers.

1. What is Khalsa and what is its relevance in the Sikh religion?

2. What are the five K’s?

3. What are the other movements in Sikhism?

3.10 ETHICAL TEACHINGS

Sikhism, basically is an ethical religion based on three fundamental concepts i.e., i) work,
worship and charity (kirt karo, nam japo and vand cako) should be the guiding principles in life;
ii) Self-reliance is the greatest obstacle to God realization which is manifested in lust, anger,
greed, materialism, and pride. Guru Nanak remarked, “Sweetness and humility are the essence of
all virtues” (AG 470); iii) It is as a householder that a Sikh should seek God realization. ‘The
householder who gives all he can afford to charity is a pure as the water of the Ganges, (AG
952). God realization through renunciation is easy but it is more challenging and difficult while
being actively involved in the world. Guru Nanak said, “Do not covet your neighbour’s
possessions. Without the Name we cannot attain inner peace nor still our inner hunger. The Guru
has shown me the real life of the city, the real life of its shops, it is the inner life. We must be
traders in truth, moderate in our eating and sleeping. This is true yogism.” AG 939).
As a reaction to the then existing social evils, Sikhism was against the caste system, and
demeaning the status of women. The Harmandir at Amritsar had four doors open to all the four
castes. Sikhism accepted people of all denominations irrespective of their caste or social satus.
Hereafter no one is distinguishable by caste (AG 349). Guru Arjan spoke about the Adi Granth,
“This divine teaching is for everyone, Brahmin, Kshatriya, vaishya and Sudra. Whoever utters
the Name which lives in all hearts, under the Guru’s instruction, is delivered from Age (Kal
Yug)’ (AG 747).
 10

Guru Nanak as a spiritual preceptor followed the principle of non-violence even in slavery and
violence by the Babur’s army. He even considered the Mughal invasion as the chastisement by
God for the evils of the people. “Are you pitiless, Creator of all? You have sent Yama (god of
death) disguised as the Mughal. Did you feel no pity for what happened, for the screams of those
who cried in agony? The social realities in the later times forced the subsequent Gurus to take to
arms to protect the poor and helpless people from the exploiters. The tenth guru, Gobind Singh,
accepted the idea of just war: “When all efforts to restore peace prove useless and no words avail,
Lawful is the flash of steel, it is right to draw the sword.” But he reminded his followers that a
Sikh should never be the first one to draw the sword.

Vegetarianism is commonly practiced in the Sikh langars but there are different opinions
regarding the strict adherence to vegetarianism. Respect for women was part of Sikh social life,
widow remarriage was encouragEd. Care of the needy and service to the poor is practised in the
Sikh community. Sangat is a democratic gathering and langar allows people to eat together
irrespective of their caste and social status and ensures social equality.

Check your progress IV

Note: Use the space provided for your answers.

1. What are the three basic concepts in Sikhism?

2. Explain the understanding of non-violence, and fight against evil in Sikhism?

3. Explain the approach of Sikhism towards the social evils like the caste system, sati etc.?

3. 11. KEY WORDS

Adi Granth The Guru Grant Sahib, sacred scripture of the Sikhs compiled by guru
Arjan in 1604
Akhandapath ‘Unbroken reading’, an uninterrupted reading of the entire contents of the
Adi Granth performed by a relay of readers
Amrit Nectar, the water used for baptism in the initiation ceremony of the Khalsa
charan pahul Baptism with water in which the guru’s toe has been dippEd.
Dasam Granth The Book of the Tenth (Guru), a collection of writings attributed to Guru
Gobind Singh
 11

granthi A reader of the Guru Granth Sahib, the functionary in charge of a

gurdwara
gurduwra Gurdwara, Sikh temple
Gurmukhi From the mouth of the guru, the script in which the Punjabi language is
written
Gurupurab A Sikh festival celebrated on the birth or death day of a Guru
Harimandir The Temple of God, the central Sikh shrine in Amritsar, commonly known
as the Golden Temple
Hukam-nama A decree, a list of instructions
Janam-sakhi Hagiographic narrative, especially of the life of Guru Nanak
karah parsad Sacramental food prepared in a large iron dish.
Khalsa The Sikh order or brotherhood, instituted by Guru Gobind Singh.
Kirtan The singing of hymns, particularly from the Adi Granth.
langar The kitchen attached to every gurdwara from which food is served to all,
regardless of caste or creEd.
pahul The Khalsa initiation ceremony.
panj kakke The five Ks, the five external symbols which must be worn by all
members of the Khalsa.
Rahit-nama A recorded version of the Khalsa code of discipline.
sangat Assembly, religious congregation.
Sraddha Rites for the dead performed after cremation to nourish the deceased for
the passage to the world of ancestors.

3.12 FURTHER READING AND REFERENCES

Archer, John Clark. The Sikhs. London: Princeton University Press, 1946.
Cole, W. Owen. The Sikhs. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1978.
Duggal, K.S. Sikh Gurus Their Lives & Teachings. New Delhi: UBS Publishers, 1993.
McLeod, W.H. Early Sikh Tradition. London: Oxford University Press, 1980.
McLeod, W.H. Guru Nanak and the Sikh Religion. London: Oxford University Press, 1968.
 12

Oberoi, Harjot. The Construction of Religious Boundaries. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Singh, Fauja. Sikhism. Patiala: Punjabi University, 1969.
Singh, Gopal. The Religion of the Sikhs. Bombay: Asian Publishing House, 1971.
Singh, Harbans. Guru Nanak and Origins of the Sikh Faith. Bombay: Asia Publishing House,
1969.
Singh, Sher. Philosophy of Sikhism, Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1969.