EJ1339734

Journal of Educational Research and Innovation
Volume 8
Number 1 Rising to Global Challenges in Article 5
Education and Research
2020
The Association Between Student Wellness and Student

Engagement in School
R. Brett Nelson
California State University, San Bernardino, [email protected]
Octaviana Hemmy Asamsama

Cincinnati Veterans Hospital, [email protected]
Shane R. Jimerson
University of California, Santa Barbara, [email protected]
Shui-fong Lam
University of Hong Kong, [email protected]
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Recommended Citation
Nelson, R. Brett; Hemmy Asamsama, Octaviana; Jimerson, Shane R.; and Lam, Shui-fong (2020) "The
Association Between Student Wellness and Student Engagement in School," Journal of Educational
Research and Innovation: Vol. 8 : No. 1 , Article 5.
Available at: https://digscholarship.unco.edu/jeri/vol8/iss1/5
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Nelson et al.: Student Wellness and School Engagement
Journal of Educational Research and Innovation
2020, Vol. 8, No. 1
The Association Between Student Wellness

and Student Engagement in School
Robert Nelson
California State University, San Bernardino
Octaviana Hemmy Asamsama

Cincinnati Veterans Hospital
Shane R. Jimerson
University of California, Santa Barbara
Shui-fong Lam
University of Hong Kong
School engagement is an important p. 34), from the Child and Adolescent

concept relative to achievement, school Wellness Scale (CAWS) that relate to
completion and student well-being positive perceptions of school engagement,
(Appleton, Christenson, & Furlong 2008). and to contribute to the reliability and
Student engagement in schools is validity of the current version of the
multidimensional and reflected in a number wellness scale and engagement scale
of domains, including affective (student’s designed to measure the constructs.
liking for learning and school), behavioral Supporting student engagement in
(students’ persistence and effort in school may be a natural way to support
learning), and cognitive (students’ use of school mental health and well-being.
meaningful information processing Student engagement has been correlated
strategies in learning) (Jimerson, Campos, & negatively with health compromising
Greif, 2003). Many educators and behaviors (e.g., substance abuse,
researchers consider a focus on school depression, suicide, aggression, early sexual
engagement as crucial in terms of activities) but positively with health
increasing achievement and reducing promoting behaviors (e.g., exercise,
dropout rates in schools (Fredrick, nutrition, safe sex activities) (Carter,
Blumensfeld, & Paris, 2004; Wang & McGee, Taylor, & Williams, 2007). Positive
Fredricks, 2014). Whereas a number of school engagement shields against poor
factors that contribute to school academic achievement and a number of
engagement have been noted, no one clear other negative adjustment outcomes (Lam,
path to success has been identified (Marcus et. al, 2014; Voelkl, 1997). There is a
& Sanders-Reio, 2001). It is the purpose of consistent positive association between
this article to explore wellness factors (i.e., teacher and student reports of behavioral
“attitudes and activities, which improve the engagement and achievement (Connell,
quality of life and expand potential for Spencer, & Aber, 1994; Marks, 2000;
higher levels of functioning,” Mullen, 1986, Skinner, Wellborn, & Connell, 1990).
Published by Scholarship & Creative Works @ Digital UNC, 2020 1

Journal of Educational Research and Innovation, Vol. 8 [2020], No. 1, Art. 5
Wellness Dimensions in School Engagement Nelson, Hemmy Asamsama, Jimerson, & Lam
Positive school bonding contributes not demonstrated positive but lower

only to higher academic achievement relationships with the SEQ (.24 to .28).
(Boekarts, Pintrich, & Zeidner, 2000; Voelkl, Teacher support and instructional practices
1996; Zimmerman, 1990), but also a are important aspects of engagement, as
number of positive developmental and both are malleable practices, and teacher
adjustment outcomes, such as reduced support is an important part of the wellness
substance abuse and delinquency, lower construct of connectedness in general.
antisocial behavior, and higher self-esteem Previous research has examined the
(Maddox & Prinz, 2003; Li et al., 2011; Liem relationship between a similar construct to
& Martin, 2011). Students who report a school engagement, which is school
higher sense of relatedness to teachers attachment or school bonding, and the
show greater emotional and behavioral current wellness scale. Shimada, Hess, and
engagement (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Gest, Nelson (2013) conducted a study with
Welsh, & Domitrovich, 2005; Murray & Japanese middle school students, and found
Greenberg, 2001). that the findings indicated strong and
Other strong, positive relationships consistent relationships between school
with student engagement in school include bonding and all wellness dimensions, with
the findings of Lewis, Huebner, Malone, and correlations ranging from .44 for emotional
Valois (2011), relative to perceived self-regulation, to .77 for a combined factor
happiness or subjective well-being. In a of connectedness and empathy. These
large-scale study of middle school student’s findings are consistent with other school
life satisfaction (LS) and engagement, the bonding research (e.g., Libbey, 2004;
researchers found strong reciprocal Juvonen, 2006; Maddox & Prinz, 2003),
relationships between LS and cognitive indicating strong relationships between a
engagement relative to school activities, sense of being positively connected to
with lower relationships between school, and various positive outcomes.
behavioral and affective engagement in Where schools have focused on
school and LS. Life satisfaction is a major student engagement in school, many
indication of subjective well-being related positive outcomes have been noted. For
to many positive outcomes in a reciprocal instance, Fredericks and Eccles (2006) found
manner, that is, students who are happier students who were more engaged as
perform well in a number a of areas, and indicated by greater participation in various
their positive performance in turn leads to extracurricular activities, showed improved
greater life satisfaction. psychological adjustment in grade eleven,
Lam et al. (2014) found positive but greater participation in sports and clubs,
varying relationships between student greater civic engagement, and less
engagement in school and several externalizing problems. Furthermore,
outcomes. Parent support, teacher support, students who were more engaged in high
and instructional practices respectively school had higher educational status and
demonstrated moderate correlations (.43 to civic engagement one year after high
.50) with an engagement in school total school. The broader the participation, the
(Student Engagement Questionnaire, SEQ); more positive academic, psychological, and
while peer support, positive emotions, behavioral outcomes.
academic performance, and school conduct
https://digscholarship.unco.edu/jeri/vol8/iss1/5 2
McNeely, Nonnebaker, and Blum and activities, which improve the quality of
(2002), gleaning what contributes to life and expand potential for higher levels of
connectedness or engagement in school, functioning” (Mullen, 1986, p. 34). The Child
from the National Longitudinal Study of and Adolescent Wellness Scale (CAWS)
Adolescent Health (75,515 students) (Copeland & Nelson, 2004) was developed
indicated that positive classroom to measure important wellness concepts,
management strategies, participation in and is introduced in this section.
school activities, tolerant discipline policies, Wellness as a construct and as a
and small school size, were the strongest measure of well-being emanates from the
contributors to school connectedness. areas of positive psychology, risk and
Implementing similar strategies in an resilience, prevention science, and social-
expanded School-Wide Positive Behavior emotional learning. Positive psychology
Intervention and Supports (SWPBIS) model, emphasizes building human strengths,
that is, including a mentoring period each virtues and competencies over the
day where small groups of students met remediation of negative emotions and
with a designated adult to not only go over mental illness – the common “disease
rules and expectations, but to discuss model” approach typically observed in
various affective topics, goal setting, and treatment centers and schools today
academic advocacy and support, Angus and (Seligman & Csikszentimihalyi, 2000). An
Nelson (2013) found increases in student overarching goal of positive psychology is
achievement that held up over seven years building factors that allow individuals,
in eight middle schools. This was also true communities, and societies to flourish. The
relative to office discipline referrals, promotion of individual and societal
expulsions and suspensions. strengths requires fostering those
Positive school engagement is a buffer characteristics that “buffer” against the
against poor academic achievement and a onset of mental illness.
myriad of negative adjustment outcomes. Health promotion and prevention go
Exploring wellness factors within the hand-in-hand. Evidence for the
context of positive school engagement may effectiveness of preventive interventions
well contribute not only to a greater for the school continues to develop
understanding of factors contributing to (Gillham, Reivich, Jaycox, & Seligman, 1995;
engagement, but ways of supporting Greenberg et al., 2003; Weissberg, &
activities to further engage students and to Greenberg, 1998; Zins, 2001). Schools are in
support student mental health and well- a favorable position to implement
being. preventive and resilience-building programs
Wellness that possess potentially far-reaching
Wellness constructs may be a natural benefits (Copeland, 2002). The social and
way of determining antecedents to student emotional learning (SEL) movement (CASEL,
engagement at school, as they are 2003) has also contributed to prevention
consistent with many personal factors that efforts:
contribute to school engagement, and they by teaching students to interact in
may be malleable characteristics leading to socially skilled and respectful ways; to
greater student engagement at school. practice positive, safe and healthy
Wellness has been defined as “attitudes behaviors; to contribute ethically and

responsibly to their peer group, family, deficits, but provide little insight into a
school, and community; and to possess child’s adaptive qualities (Wright & Lopez,
basic competencies, work habits, and 2002).
values as a foundation for meaningful The CAWS reflects many of the
employment and engaged citizenship. personal factors determined as theoretical
(Greenberg et al., 2003, p. 466) and empirical antecedents to positive
Social and emotional learning initiatives student engagement. Dimensions such as
seek to build children’s skills in these areas Self-efficacy, Connectedness, Initiative, and
that support successful educational Social Competence suggest significant
outcomes. relational and prosocial competencies as
Research about children who portray well as motivation and goal directed
resistance to stress has given psychologists behavior. Wellness has previously been
a better understanding of the most suitable related to other positive mental health
intervention targets for building resilience outcomes such as life satisfaction
(Luthar & Zelazo, 2003; Myers & Nastasi, (Copeland, Nelson, & Traughber, 2010;
1999). Resilience research findings of Nelson et al., 2009, August); school bonding
individual and situational characteristics (Shimada, et al. 2013); achievement
predictive of psychologically healthy (Vreeman, Nelson, & Schnorr, 2014); school
children guided the development of many discipline and positive school attendance.
of the wellness constructs. Masten (2001) Following is a brief description of the ten
indicated several person-focused variables dimensions included in the CAWS.
contributing to resilience, which include Items on the Adaptability scale of the
adaptability, the ability to connect or form CAWS target respondents’ ability to
significant relationships with others, negotiate difficult situations as well as their
conscientiousness, social competence, the preparedness for change, flexibility and
ability to regulate one’s emotions, self- acceptance. Adaptability has emerged as a
efficacy, and motivation to be effective in critical predictor of resilience in children
the environment. and adolescents (Luthar & Zelazo, 2003).
The Child and Adolescent Wellness The Connectedness scale elicits information
Scale (CAWS) (Copeland & Nelson, 2004) related to children and adolescents’
was developed to measure positive perceptions of belonging and acceptance in
psychological factors related to health in school, their family, and the community.
children and adolescents. Its items The association between interpersonal
originated primarily from theory and relationships and outcomes of well-being
research based on the psychological and are powerful; the positive psychological
social factors that guard against the onset benefits of healthy relationships, along with
of mental illness, and are found among the detrimental effects of poor
psychologically-healthy individuals. The relationships, have been documented
CAWS provides for a much-needed measure consistently by researchers (Berscheid &
of positive attributes in childhood and Reis, 1998; Reis & Gable, 2003).
adolescent psychological assessment; Conscientiousness as assessed by the CAWS,
social-emotional assessment instruments relates to a child’s concern over personal
used in schools typically provide choices and the assumption of
information on behavioral and emotional responsibility for one’s actions. Roberts,
Walton and Bogg (2005) in their review of intuition and knowledge of personal
conscientiousness and health, found that strengths and weaknesses. Optimism, as
conscientiousness relates to both social measured by the CAWS, refers to hope and
environmental factors and health-related expectancies for the future, and relates
factors, both contributing substantially from closely to explanatory style, or our personal
childhood in regards to longevity and explanations for events that occur in our
quality of life. Emotional self-Regulation daily lives (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi,
contributes to success in many domains of 2000). Optimism has consistently been
behavior, particularly social competence linked to good mood, perseverance,
(Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, & Reiser, 2002), achievement, and physical health (Peterson,
and academic success (Vreeman et al., 2000).
2014). High negative emotionality has been Self-efficacy is a key component of
associated with externalizing problem Bandura’s social cognitive theory (Bandura,
behavior (Nelson, Martin, Hodge, Havill, & 1997a), and is defined as “people’s beliefs
Kamphaus, 1999), and adolescent in their capabilities to produce desired
substance abuse/use. Empathy was effects by their own actions” (p. vii). Self-
included as a component of the CAWS efficacy refers to what we believe we can
based on the premise that empathy-related do (Maddux, 2002), and is early-on in
responding is an important aspect of development determined by mastery. Self-
positive development (Eisenberg, 2003). efficacy as measured by the CAWS also
Empathy has been linked to altruistic relates to the concept of flow
behavior and prosocial responding, each (Csikszentimihalyi, 1990, 1997). Social
associated with psychological health in their Competence as a broad construct
own right (Batson, Ahmad, Lishner, & incorporates affective, cognitive, and
Tsang, 2002). The construct of initiative has behavioral skills that combine to determine
been studied as a component of positive success in interpersonal relationships
youth development, and as indicated by (Topping, Bremner, & Holmes, 2000).
Larson (2000) initiative is the ability to be Examples of skills associated with social
motivated from within to direct attention competence include assertiveness, and the
and effort toward a challenging goal. The ability to cooperate with others and resolve
Initiative dimension incorporates the conflicts peacefully (Copeland, 2002).
elements of intrinsic motivation, self- As indicated, wellness constructs may
determination (Ryan & Deci, 2000) and be a natural way of determining
goal-directed activity. antecedents to student engagement at
Mindfulness, generically referred to as school. They are consistent with many
self-awareness, is central to the theory of personal factors that contribute to school
emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995), as engagement, and they may be malleable
it appears that awareness and attention to characteristics leading to greater student
one’s internal states is a fundamental engagement at school. The wellness
component of emotional competence. Self- dimensions described are derived from
awareness is a cornerstone of SEL multiple sources, and have proven robust
(Collaborative for Academic, Social, and determiners of positive outcomes in
Emotional Learning; CASEL, 2003). Items on research. Although the relationship
the CAWS reflecting mindfulness related to between wellness and engagement is

complex, and may include other factors and empirical antecedents to positive
such as contextual factors like family student engagement.
support, the culture’s views of education, The concept of student engagement at
peer bonds, as well as individual person- school is complicated by measurement
centered variables, describing positive issues where there is the lack of agreement
variance between the two concepts makes on what engagement in schools is (Jimerson
an important contribution to the literature. et al., 2003). The development of the
Student Engagement in School current measure of student engagement
Contributing to school engagement are was part of a multi-country (twelve) project
family background, relationships with initiated by the International School
teachers, peer bonds, and student variables Psychology Association, to clarify, agree
such as academic success and engagement upon and simplify the construct. Student
in the learning process (Marcus & Sanders- engagement in schools is multidimensional
Reio, 2001). Two overarching sets of and reflected in a number of domains,
factors—personal and contextual—have including affective, behavioral, and
emerged relative to student engagement in cognitive (Jimerson et al., 2003). For
school. Research in student motivation purposes of this research, the Student
suggests that how much students like Engagement in School Questionnaire (SEQ)
learning and exert effort in learning is a was used as part of the large scale,
function of their personal beliefs about international collaboration to determine
learning and themselves, which in turn how engaged students are in school in the
depends on favorable or unfavorable twenty countries (Lam & Jimerson, 2008).
conditions in the school contexts. To reflect the affective, behavioral, and
Several beliefs seem essential to cognitive domains, the scales were derived
students’ intrinsic interest and may be from a comprehensive literature review of
important proximal determinants of different student engagement scales.
student engagement in schools (Schunk & Reliability and validity of the SEQ will be
Zimmerman, 2006). These beliefs include demonstrated in detail in the methodology
goal orientations (Dweck & Leggett, 1988), section.
attribution (Weiner, 1985) and self-efficacy Consistent with the positive psychology
(Bandura, 1977a). Personal variables movement, research on wellness in children
depend on contextual variables (Juvonen & and adolescents supports the philosophy
Wentzel, 1996; Lam, 2001). They include that the psychological and educational
instructional contexts, and social- needs of children will most effectively be
relatedness contexts. How teachers teach in met when optimal individual functioning
classrooms has tremendous impact on becomes the focus of mental health. By
student motivation (Perry, Phillips, & identifying wellness constructs that
Hutchinson, 2006). Children who report a contribute to engagement in school,
higher sense of relatedness to teachers and prevention efforts that develop adaptive
peers show greater emotional and and pro-social characteristics in youth, and
behavioral engagement (Furrer & Skinner, support the development of social-
2003). Wellness factors reflect many of the emotional learning outcomes, may
personal factors determined as theoretical hopefully be developed.
The Present Study The development of the engagement

The research questions of the present measure was part of a multi-country (12)
study include the following: (a) How project initiated by the International School
positively do adolescents view themselves Psychology Association. The purpose of this
on measures of wellness and school international collaborative project was to
engagement?; (b) Do the proposed investigate the personal and contextual
measures demonstrate acceptable internal antecedents of student engagement in
consistency reliability?; and (c) How schools across countries. This was a large-
strongly do wellness dimensions correlate scale project that involved many variables
with and/or predict student engagement? and themes of investigation, and the
Predictions are as follows: students will relationship between engagement and
view themselves positively on the two wellness was assessed as part of this
measures (Diener, Lucas, & Scollon, 2006); particular sample. Other research from this
the measures of both constructs will display project includes Lam et al. (2011), where
adequate internal consistency (coefficient significant gender differences were found in
alpha exceeding .70); and wellness will favor of girls for all countries relative to
reveal significant association with the engagement at school; Lam et al. (2014)
criterion measure of engagement. where high correlations were found
between the SEQ scale with instructional
Method practices, teacher support, peer support,
Participants parent support, positive emotions,
The target population for this study academic performance, and school conduct;
were adolescents in the United States. and Lam et al. (2015) where consistencies in
The two scales described below were given school engagement were indicated
to 200 ninth grade students in a diverse between all countries, including countries
southern California high school in high in collectivism, and an overall decline
counterbalanced order (Table 1). The in student engagement from grade seven to
students consisted of a sample of nine for those countries reporting samples
convenience as part of a large-scale at that level.
investigation of student engagement Measures
internationally (Lam et al., 2014). The ninth- Child and Adolescent Wellness Scale
grade students, ranging in age from 14 to (CAWS) (Copeland & Nelson, 2004).
16, were part of an academic advisement The CAWS is a pencil/paper measure
group who agreed to participate in the consisting of 100 items. A previous version
study. As freshmen, they were involved in a consisted of 150 items, with the present
number of exploratory activities, including a version developed to reduce examinee time
presentation on wellness after the surveys for completion. CAWS items assess
were given. The 200 students were about characteristics of respondents across ten
40% of the ninth-grade students at the site, “dimensions” associated with psychological
a school of about 3,000 students. The health. Examples of individual items are
sample consisted of all possible students in listed by dimension in Table 2. The CAWS
the ninth grade, with approximately 12% in employs a Likert-type response scale.
special education. About 61% of students Respondents are required to circle either:
were eligible for free and reduced lunch. Strongly disagree/Not at all like me (scored

1 point); Disagree/Unlike me (2 points); Student Engagement in School

Agree/Like me (3 points); or Strongly Questionnaire (SEQ) (Lam et al., 2014).
agree/Very much like me (4 points). The Student engagement was measured by a
scoring for negative items (e.g., “I am often scale that consists of three subscales,
bored”) is reversed. The CAWS typically namely Affective Engagement, Behavioral
takes students between 25 and 30 minutes Engagement, and Cognitive Engagement
to complete. An earlier and longer version Subscales (Appendix 1). Reliability of the
of the CAWS yielded internal consistency three SEQ subscales have been reported as
reliabilities of individual dimensions ranging high ranging from 0.80 to 0.89, with a test-
from 0.74 to 0.86. Previous exploratory retest reliability ranging from 0.60 to 0.74
factor analysis of the CAWS dimensions for a six-month period. Both a one-factor
resulted in a unidimensional factor model and a second-order model with
structure called “Wellness” with all loadings affective engagement, behavioral
at or above 0.83, (Copeland et al., 2010). A engagement, and cognitive engagement as
recent confirmatory factor analysis (Hemmy factors were tested and indicated as a
Asamsama & Nelson, 2014) also indicated a reasonable representation of the data using
super-ordinate “Wellness” construct as a LISREL 8.8 (Lam et al., 2014). The students
first-order factor, with secondary factors were asked to indicate their agreement to
supporting the ten dimensions. Total test- the 33 items on a 5-point Likert scale with 1
retest reliability over a four-week period for strongly disagree and 5 for strongly
was 0.78. At the present time, the CAWS agree. The average of the three subscale-
has only been used informally in practice or scores was used to indicate student
for research purposes. Part of the purpose engagement (SEQ). A high score indicated
of the present study is to contribute high engagement and a low score indicated
reliability and validity data relative to the otherwise.
shorter version. Items were chosen for the Affective engagement. The
shorter version that had the highest Affective Engagement Subscale consists of
internal consistency reliabilities for each of nine items that measure student’s liking for
the ten dimensions, as well as consistent learning and school (e.g., “I like what I am
factor loadings. learning in school.”). These items were
The CAWS, in its present form, consists adapted and modified from the works of
of 100 items divided into ten separate Hill and Werner (2006); Skinner and
dimensions: Adaptability, Connectedness, Belmont (1993); and Rao and Sachs (1999).
Conscientiousness, Emotional Self- Behavioral engagement. The
Regulation, Empathy, Initiative, subscale consists of twelve items that
Mindfulness, Optimism, Self-Efficacy, and measure students’ persistence and effort in
Social Competence. Each dimension is learning (e.g., “I try hard to do well in
theorized or has been shown through school.”). These items were adapted and
research to be uniquely associated with modified from the works of Miller, Greene,
healthy outcomes experienced by children. Mortalvo, Ravindran, and Nichols (1999);
A total score was used to measure general Finn, Pannozzo, and Voelkl (1995); and
wellness with a mean score of the ten Skinner and Belmont (1993).
dimensions.
Cognitive engagement. Subscale the surveys linked participants to their

consists of twelve items that measure responses on the two surveys and
students’ use of meaningful information allowed correlation analyses to be
processing strategies in learning (e.g., conducted.
“When I study, I try to connect what I am Data Analysis
learning with my own experiences.”). These Due to a significant number of CAWS
items were adapted and modified from the surveys containing at least one incomplete
works of Dowson and McInerney (2004); item, missing data points were estimated
Elliot, McGregor, and Gable (1999); Greene, using the mean score value of the subscale
Miller, Crowson, Duke, and Akey (2004); to which the item belonged. Participants
Samuelstuen and Bråten (2007); and missing more than two items on any one
Wolters (2004). subscale were excluded from the analysis,
Design and Procedure as were those who missed greater than ten
California State University-San items overall (or greater than five items on
Bernardino Institutional Review Board the SEQ). Less than five percent of data
approval was obtained prior to the points were missing. In cases where
collection of data for this study. The participants circled two adjacent responses
CAWS and the Student Engagement (e.g., Disagree and Agree, or Agree and
Scale were administered during students’ Strongly Agree), a mean value was assigned
daily advisement period. During this (e.g., 2.5). If non-adjacent response options
period, groups of approximately fifteen were circled (e.g., Strongly Disagree and
students meet with an assigned faculty Strongly Agree), or if more than two
advisor/mentor in classrooms. Faculty responses were circled, the item was
advisors, the large majority of whom are considered to be missing data. Prior to data
teachers, were informed of the study analysis, scoring on “negative” items (e.g.,
and agreed to administer the surveys. “I am often bored”) was reversed.
The advisors were asked to administer Coefficient alpha was calculated to
and collect the surveys according to determine the internal consistency
standardized administration procedures, reliability of the CAWS scale and its
and to provide students with any individual dimensions, as well as the SEQ.
necessary help reading or understanding The total mean CAWS scores were
items. Participants were informed of the correlated with total mean scores on the
general nature of the study (Informed SEQ as a test of criterion-related construct
Consent) and were asked to sign a form validity, as well as the individual dimensions
affirming their assent to participate. of both scales. Moderate to strong
Students under the age of sixteen were correlations with the SEQ were expected. A
asked to have parents complete the hierarchical multiple regression analysis
consent from and return to their advisor. predicting student engagement from
The administration of the two surveys dimensions of wellness was conducted. All
occurred in counterbalanced order assumptions relative to the regression
across classrooms. Surveys and the model were met (Licht, 1995).
assent forms were pre-labeled with a
unique identification number for each
participant. Numerical identification of

Results alphas of.77 and .66 respectively. The SEQ

Table 2 displays the mean raw scores internal consistency reliabilities ranged
for both the CAWS and the SEQ. Students from .77 for the Affective subscale to .94 for
perceived themselves as well in general, the Cognitive subscale for the SEQ, with and
with all scores being above the theoretical overall alpha of .93.
midpoint score of 2.5, as would be expected The overall CAWS and SEQ means
(Diener, 1994; Diener et al., 2006). The strongly correlated (r = 0.50, p < .001).
distribution was slightly negatively skewed. Correlations between the CAWS and the
The average total CAWS score for the SEQ scales are displayed in Table 4. The
sample was 3.03 (on a 4-point Likert scale), strongest relationships were between
and the average total SEQ score was 3.17 student engagement as measured by the
(on a 5-point Likert scale). Students rated SEQ and the dimensions of Initiative,
themselves as engaged in school as Conscientiousness, and Self-Efficacy.
indicated by their responses on the SEQ, Whereas these three dimensions exhibited
with theoretical midpoint of 3. Gender and the strongest relationships with
ethnic differences were not observed for engagement, all wellness dimensions
both CAWS and SEQ. related significantly to engagement, ranging
The present scores on the 100-item from .28 to .50 between wellness
version of the CAWS are consistent with dimensions and the SEQ. The SEQ,
other research using the 150-item version. Behavioral and Cognitive subscales related
The overall mean score of 3.17 is consistent moderately and significantly to the CAWS
with the original sample with an overall dimensions, while the majority of Affective
mean of 3.08 (Copeland, Nelson, & subscale correlations evidenced smaller
Traughber, 2010), and 2.96 from a U.S. relationships. These strong relationships
subsample of an international study contribute to the criterion validity of the
(Hemmy Asamsama et al., 2014). The CAWS, as relationships with other positive
dimension scores are similar as well. The measures/outcomes do in general. Also,
SEQ is also consistent with other research important to note are the inter-correlations
with a mean of 3.17 in the current study, between various CAWS dimensions. The
consistent with Lam et al. (2014) with an strength of the relationships lends further
overall average of 3.37. support for the overall construct of wellness
Internal consistency coefficient alphas as measured by the CAWS, contributing to
ranged from .51 for Empathy to .75 for Self- test homogeneity (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2005).
Efficacy for the CAWS dimensions on the A hierarchical multiple regression
100-item scale, with an overall alpha of .94. analysis predicting student engagement
(See Table 3.) With the exception of from dimensions of wellness was conducted
Empathy, the coefficient alphas with the total SEQ score as the dependent
demonstrate adequate reliability. Previous variable. The total CAWS score was entered
research with the 150-item version internal in the first step and the following variables
consistency coefficients ranged from .74 to in the listed order: Adaptability,
.85, suggesting more items contribute to Connectedness, Conscientiousness,
greater internal consistency. Also, in two Emotional Self-Regulation, Empathy,
other papers, (Copeland et al., 2010; Initiative, Mindfulness, Optimism, Self-
Vreeman et al., 2014), Empathy evidenced Efficacy, and Social Competence for eleven
10
variables. Regression analysis yielded strong moderate happiness. Whereas the majority
predictive relationships between the CAWS of Diener’s work pertains to adults, recent
and student engagement with R=.56, R2 = research compilations support his findings
0.31, (p < .001), with the dimensions of for children and adolescents as well.
Initiative (β = 0.39, p < .01) and Abubakar et al. (2016), looked at the
Conscientiousness (β = 0.30, p < .05) construct of subjective well-being (SWB),
accounting for the most variance. With the which included a measure of life
total removed, R=.497, R2 = .247, and with satisfaction (LS) internationally in fourteen
Initiative removed, R = .260, R2 = .06. countries for eight, ten and twelve-year-
olds. They found little invariance between
Discussion countries and ages across the globe that
The current study provides support for sampled five continents, and that SWB was
the association between dimensions of consistently high in all fourteen countries.
wellness and measures of engagement in Dinisman and Ben-Arieh (2016), explored LS
school. The moderate correlations suggest using a brief measure in fifteen countries
that the concepts of perceived for adolescents (including the US), spanning
psychological wellbeing or wellness and five continents with over 8,000 participants.
engagement at school are related, however, They found relatively high ratings of LS
as they are only moderate, they seem to be across the board. These results reflect
assessing different constructs. Total mean earlier findings (Gilman & Huebner, 2003;
scores were above the theoretical midpoint Huebner, Suldo, & Gilman, 2006),
for both scales, suggesting students suggesting that LS or SWB is moderately
perceive themselves as both psychologically high universally for children and
well and engaged in school. The SEQ mean adolescents.
score of 3.17 is consistent with other Additionally, other studies using both
research (Lam et al., 2014) indicating that wellness and life satisfaction by the current
students as a whole perceived themselves authors support moderate to high
as engaged in school. perceptions of wellness, SWB and LS
It is an important finding that children (Copeland et al., 2010; Hemmy Asamsama
and adolescents from an unselected sample et al., 2014). Asian cultures report slightly
perceive themselves as both psychologically lower Wellness scores relative to western
well and engaged in school. Of course, cultures, possibly due to the collectivism
there may be a bias towards positive ratings phenomenon (Hemmy Asamsama, et al.,
of health in the first place, as students from 2014). In studies exploring the relationship
an unselected sample may want to appear between Wellness and LS, a consistent
healthy or well (Diener, 1994; Diener et al., pattern emerges where the dimensions of
2006). There may also be a bias towards Connectedness, Optimism, and Self-efficacy
positively worded statements, although an are the strongest predictors of LS.
attempt was made to reduce this bias by Whereas consistently high ratings of LS
having 11% of the wellness items across the globe and in multiple samples
negatively-phrased. may suggest we are approaching optimal
Diener, in his multiple articles on happiness for children and adolescents,
subjective wellbeing, has found that across other reports suggest otherwise. The CDC’s
the globe, there is a universal portrayal of Mental Health Surveillance of Children
11

(Perou et al., 2013) indicates that upwards Asamsama et al., 2014; Vreeman et al.,
of 20% of children and adolescents have 2014). Developing strategies to improve
identifiable mental health problems, emotional self-regulation, impulse control,
whereas the Center for Behavioral Health delaying gratification, and cognitive
Statistics and Quality (2016) reports 25% of rehearsal can only help students with
adolescents have experienced an anxiety greater focus and less conflict in a number
disorder, and 12.5% of students have of areas.
experienced a major depressive disorder. The obtained internal consistency
These reports seem to indicate that work coefficients are promising (with the
remains to be done in improving and exception of Empathy), and suggest the
maintaining the positive mental health of subscales are adequately reliable for
our youth. To that end, it has been research purposes. Subsequent reliabilities
proposed that we frequently assess both need to be determined for diverse samples,
pathology and wellbeing in what has been such as multicultural and clinical ones. A
called a dual model of mental health (Suldo secondary result of this study’s findings is
& Schaffer, 2008). In Suldo and Schaffer’s additional support for the reliability and
work, they identified a group of students validity of the SEQ. The strong correlations
with optimal mental health; that is, not only between the CAWS and the SEQ are
an absence of mental health problems or encouraging. Wellness factors seem to have
psychopathology, but with high SWB as a strong influence on student engagement
well. These students out performed at school. Whereas all ten dimensions are
counterparts who also evidenced an significantly related to engagement,
absence of pathology, but without individual dimensions are not as strongly
corresponding high SWB, on a variety of related to the Affective engagement
academic and behavioral indices. As has subscale. CAWS dimensions statistically
been frequently called for by the positive related to Affective engagement relate
psychology movement, it is important to moderately to the SEQ as well, such as
identify what students do well, not just Initiative.
pathology. The CAWS as one measure of Dimensions most strongly related to
SWB or Wellness may contribute to an engagement might be expected to do so
overall measure of mental health in intuitively, and have empirically. Vreeman
adolescents. et al., (2014) found that Initiative, Self-
Interestingly, the one-dimension score efficacy and Conscientiousness had the
below 3.0 on the CAWS was Emotional Self- strongest moderate but statistically
Regulation. Adolescents may rightfully significant relationships with large-scale
perceive themselves as less capable of state standards assessments in language
regulating their emotions at these ages. arts and math, as well as GPA. The Initiative
Research suggests that emotional dimension incorporates the elements of
regulation lags behind cognitive intrinsic motivation, self-determination
development for adolescents (McClelland, (Ryan & Deci, 2000) and goal-directed
Ponitz, Messersmith & Tominey, 2010). The activity; CAWS items under the initiative
current findings are consistent with other dimension gauge children and adolescents’
wellness studies that include emotional levels of perceived engagement and
self-regulation as a measure (Hemmy motivation.
12
Roberts et al. (2005) examined the to review progress, do so as well (Sinclair,

most comprehensive review of Christenson, Lehr, & Anderson, 2003) as
conscientiousness and health to date, and Check-in Check-out programs (Crone,
found that conscientiousness relates to Hawken, & Horner, 2010).
both social environmental factors and A number of resiliency and SEL
health-related factors, both contributing programs exist that focus on related
substantially from childhood to longevity concepts contributing to connectedness
and quality of life. It is not surprising that through developing social competency and
Conscientiousness also strongly relates to a emotional awareness, and optimism
positive perception of student engagement. through perspective taking and explanatory
Self-efficacy theory maintains that style (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor &
efficacy beliefs, developed over time and Schellinger, 2011). The Penn Resiliency
through experience, are influencing factors Program (Reivich & Gillham, 2010) focuses
of psychological adjustment, psychological on cognitive and social problem solving, and
problems, and physical health (Maddux, SEL programs (DeAngelis, 2010) work to
2002). It is listed as a crucial aspect of develop self-awareness and self-
resiliency (Masten, 2001), and as indicated, management, relationship skills and
Self-efficacy substantially related to responsible decision-making.
engagement in this study. Mental health professionals in schools
Implications may also benefit from using the CAWS as a
Seligman et al. (2009) have found that screening device for possible pathology as
teaching resiliency related concepts to both the 100-item version has been
children and adolescents in two large-scale demonstrated to have a strong negative
pilot studies resulted in a greater love for relationship with various pathology
learning and higher grades in class. Knowing measures (Hemmy Asamsama, Nelson,
that certain positive traits predict greater Kodama, Huang, & Huebner, 2011). The
student engagement, it makes intuitive current wellness dimensions would also
sense to try and strengthen those traits in support a strengths-based intervention
school-aged youth through appropriate approach to such endeavors as IEP
curriculum. Community service, a Futures development and child study teams. Both
orientation, Advisor/Advisee Programs, and the CAWS and the SEQ could be used as pre
Learned Optimism are all proven ways to and post tests for universal SEL curriculums.
enhance wellness dimensions contributing Currently the CAWS is being used by
to engagement. clinicians with targeted curriculums at tiers I
Strengthening characteristics defined and II (universal and secondary) in three
by the CAWS may enhance engagement in separate interventions, including SWPBIS.
school. Programs like Advisor/Advisee or Both the CAWS and the SEQ could also be
mentoring programs (Nelson, Campbell, included as an overall measure of school
Nelson, & Schnorr, 2009) strengthen the climate. Hopefully, future attempts at
bond between students and significant increasing student engagement will explore
adults at school, therefore increasing a various uses for the two instruments.
student’s sense of connectedness. Check Limitations
and connect programs, where students Of course, there is a bias towards
meet with their teacher on a regular basis positive ratings of health and wellness in
13

the first place, as most students from an Octaviana Hemmy Asamsama, Pys.D.,
unselected sample may want to appear Ph.D., is a clinical psychologist at the
healthy or well (Diener, 1994). An additional Cincinnati Veterans Hospital. She can be
bias towards positively worded statements contacted at
exists, which we attempted to correct by [email protected].
having 11% of the wellness items
negatively-phrased. The possibility exists Shane R. Jimerson, Ph.D., is a Professor of
that the psychometric properties and Counseling, Clinical, and School Psychology
structure of the CAWS may be dependent in the Gevirtz Graduate School of Education
upon the age group of children being at the University of California, Santa
assessed. The results are certainly limited to Barbara. He can be contacted at
populations similar to the one reported in [email protected].
the present sample, and the sample size is
relatively small. Shui-fong Lam, Ph.D., is a faculty member
Summary and Future Research of Social Sciences in the Department of
The research questions were answered Psychology at the University of Hong
positively by the statistical data. Children Kong. She can be contacted at
and adolescents viewed themselves [email protected].
positively overall on measures of wellness
and school engagement. The proposed References
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21

WELLNESS DIMENSIONS IN SCHOOL ENGAGEMENT 22
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3

Table 4
Appendix 1
Sample CAWS Items by Dimension and SEQ Sample Items
Children and Adolescent Wellness Scale (CAWS)
Adaptability (10 items)

13. I am agreeable
70. It’s important to be flexible
84. I try to find new ways of looking at things
Conscientiousness (10 items)

23. I am dependable
82. The choices I make are thoughtful ones
93. I can admit to mistakes I make
Connectedness (15 items)

11. I am cared for and loved
31. I get plenty of support from friends and the community
66. I don’t like to volunteer to help others*
Emotional Self-Regulation (17 items)

72. I feel in control of my emotions
88. I acknowledge my anger but don’t express it with hostility
90. It’s important to analyze events before we over-react
Empathy (12 items)

13. I enjoy differences in people
26. I can see things through other peoples’ eyes
35. I accept another’s point of view
Initiative (13 items)

3. I am not engaged in life*
74. I set challenging goals
12. I envision what I want, and make a plan on how to get it
Mindfulness (13 items)

12. I know what I am good at and not good at.
61. I am aware of how I make other people feel
68. I lack confidence in my abilities*

Optimism (17 items)

8. My problems seem to be never ending*
37 I keep on trying, as I know I will get there
51. My future is bright
Self-Efficacy (16 items)

58. My life is empty*
62. I take pride in my accomplishments
99. I am confident and self-assured
Social Competence (16 items)

1. I am respectful of others
17. Listening is a very important skill
33. I enjoy participating in activities with others
Student Engagement in School Questionnaire (SEQ)
Affective Engagement (9 items)

2. I think what we are learning in school is interesting
5. I think learning is boring*
Behavioral Engagement (12 items)

3. When I’m in class, I participate in class activities
7. When I’m in class, my mind wanders*
Cognitive Engagement (12 items)

1. When I study, I try to understand the material better by relating it to things I already know
9. I try to understand how the things I learn in school fit together with each other
Note. *Negative items; responses to these items are reversed for scoring purposes.

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Journal of Educational Research and Innovation

The Association Between Student Wellness and Student

Octaviana Hemmy Asamsama

Follow this and additional works at: https://digscholarship.unco.edu/jeri

Part of the Education Commons

The Association Between Student Wellness

Octaviana Hemmy Asamsama

School engagement is an important p. 34), from the Child and Adolescent

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Positive school bonding contributes not demonstrated positive but lower

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The Present Study The development of the engagement

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1 point); Disagree/Unlike me (2 points); Student Engagement in School

Cognitive engagement. Subscale the surveys linked participants to their

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Results alphas of.77 and .66 respectively. The SEQ

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Roberts et al. (2005) examined the to review progress, do so as well (Sinclair,

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Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a in African-American youth: Context,

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classroom perceptions and motivation. intervention, (pp. 357-368).

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emotion. Psychological Review, 92, Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated

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Sample CAWS Items by Dimension and SEQ Sample Items

Children and Adolescent Wellness Scale (CAWS)

Adaptability (10 items)

Conscientiousness (10 items)

Connectedness (15 items)

Emotional Self-Regulation (17 items)

Empathy (12 items)

Initiative (13 items)

Mindfulness (13 items)

Published by Scholarship & Creative Works @ Digital UNC, 2020 25

Optimism (17 items)

Self-Efficacy (16 items)

Social Competence (16 items)

Student Engagement in School Questionnaire (SEQ)

Affective Engagement (9 items)

Behavioral Engagement (12 items)

Cognitive Engagement (12 items)

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