Intercultural Competence

and Communication
Unit 4 – Language, Communication and Culture

Chinta Musundi-Beez
 RECAP
• Identity
• Cultural Identity Theory
• Identity Management Theory (IMT)
• Facework Theory
• Communication Theory of Identity
• Social Identity Theory
• Ingroups and Outgroups
 TODAY
• Guiding questions: How does verbal and non/verbal language impact on
intercultural communication? What impedes effective intercultural
communication and/or relations?

• Verbal Communication: Context, Structure and Content

• Non-Verbal Communication: Context, Structure and Content
• Cross-gender Communication
• Barriers to competent intercultural Communication
• Ethnocentrism, Stereotypes, Prejudice, Discrimination, Racism, etc.
• Cultural Imperialism
• Cultural Appropriation
• Cultural frames
 Language and Culture
• In each community, language use is of vital
importance.

• The influence and power of language is meaningful

to cultural and ethnic group members.

• Each community has its norms, forms and codes for

communication.
 Language and Culture
The interactions of a group of people vary in many
respects:

• In frequency and value of speaking

• In interpretation of speaking performances

• And in shared language forms.

 Language and Culture
• On the one hand, a community usually maintains
the norms and rules of communication, even
though it may gradually change them.

• On the other hand, in every community, there is a

degree of individual deviation from the norms.

• Not all group members communicate in the same

way.
 Language and Culture
• Members of a community or group share a speech code, a
system of symbols, signs, meanings and rules in a specific
situation and interaction.

• Several aspects, like the relationship, age, gender, social

status and generation, affect communication.

• Likewise, the proportion of verbal and nonverbal

communication vary in different communities.
 Language: Rules of communication
• Rules of speaking determine what is appropriate
and inappropriate in a situation with particular
communication partners.

• One is automatically aware of what to say and not to

say, and in what a way.

• Rules of interaction help a person to know how to

act towards others in a particular situation.
 Language and Cultural Identity
• Language is not only used as a means of communication,
but also as a marker or indicator of the speaker's cultural
identity.

• Identity is communicated through a particular language

use during interaction.

• Certain types of expressions are used to express belonging

to a group, but likewise they are sometimes used to
exclude, separate or discriminate.
Verbal Communication
 Verbal communication

•Verbal communication is the

communication through spoken and written
words.

•It implies the use of words which makes

language.
 Oral (spoken) Communication
• Oral communication implies communication through the mouth.

• Anything that emanates from the mouth.

• It includes individuals conversing with each other, be it direct

conversation or telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, etc.

• Oral communication is influenced by pitch, speed, volume, and

clarity
 Forms of Oral Communication
• Face to face communication
• Interviews
• Telephone conversations
• Grapevine
• Negotiations
• Meetings
• Lecture / speech
• Presentation
• Conferences / seminars / workshops
 Advantages of Oral communication
• Immediate Feedback

• Time Saving

• Economical

• Personal Touch

• Secrecy

• Group Communication
 Disadvantage of Oral communication
• Poor Retention

• No Records

• Time Consuming

• Misunderstanding

• Unsuitable for Lengthy messages

• Lack of Responsibility
 Written Communication
• A medium for communication that entails the written
word.

• The power of writing is eloquently expressed in the

saying “the pen is mightier than the sword”
 Forms of Written Communication
• Email (Electronic mail), Website, Memorandums,
Letters, Reports (both business and academic reports),
Notices, Minutes, Circulars, Manuals, Handbooks,
Orders, Enquiries

• Complains, Quotations, Others like sales contracts,

newsletters, bulletin-board notices etc.
 Advantages of written Communication
• Wide Access
• Accuracy
• Lengthy Messages
• Permanent Record
• Legal Evidence
• Fixed Responsibility
• Convenience
 Disadvantages of written communication
• Time Consuming

• Costly

• Lack of Secrecy

• Rigidity

• Impersonal

• Delayed Feedback
 Different Communication Styles
• The way people communicate varies widely between, and
even within cultures.

• Language: Across cultures, some words and phrases are

used in different ways.

• For example, even in countries that share the English

language, the meaning of "yes" varies from "maybe, I'll
consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in
between.
 Example – Cultural Misunderstanding
In January 1991, James Baker, then the US Secretary of State,
met with Tariq Aziz, the foreign minister of Iraq. They met in an
effort to negotiate an agreement that would prevent a war.
Present in the room was the half-brother of Saddam Hussein,
whose role included frequent calls to Hussein with updates.
Baker stated, in his standard calm manner, that the U.S. would
attack if Iraq did not move out of Kuwait. Hussein’s half-brother
heard these words and reported, “The Americans will not attack.
They are weak. They are calm. They are not angry. They are only
talking.” Six days later Desert Storm began and resulted in the
loss of about 175,000 of their citizens.
Source: Triandis, H. (1994). Culture and Social Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill
 Why the cultural misunderstanding?
• Many high context cultures attend to how something is said more
than what is said.

• If Baker had pounded the table, yelled, and shown outward signs of
anger, the outcome may have been entirely different.

• His body language, (must have appeared) to be calm and the way he
said what he said, not the words, may have led his counterparts to
assume he must not be sincere.
 Non-verbal
Communication
 Non - verbal communication
• Sending and receiving messages in a variety of ways without the use
of verbal codes (words).

• It is both intentional and unintentional.

• Most speakers / listeners are not conscious of this.

 What is non-verbal communication?

• Non- verbal communication involves those non-verbal

stimuli in a communication setting that are generated
by both the source [speaker] and his or her use of the
environment and that have potential message value
for the source or receiver [listener]

(Samovar et al, 2000, p.149)

 Non - verbal communication
•Research shows that more than half of all
human communication takes place
nonverbally.

•Some estimates suggest that speech only

makes up about 20 to 30% of
communication.
 Non - verbal communication
•The rest of the information is conveyed non-
verbally, by tone of voice, facial expressions,
eye-contact, gestures, how we stand, and so
on.

•When you speak before a group, your listeners

base their judgment of you and your message
on what they see as well as upon what they
hear.
 Non - verbal communication
• Broadly speaking, there are two basic categories of
non-verbal language:

• nonverbal messages produced by the body;

• nonverbal messages produced by the broad setting

(time, space, silence)
 Non - verbal communication

•Non-verbal communication is especially

significant in intercultural situations.

•Probably non-verbal differences account for

typical difficulties in communicating
 Group Discussion
• Name four different kinds of actions/modes of nonverbal
communication?

• Which do you think has the greatest potential to cause intercultural

misunderstandings and conflict? Why? Give an example to support
your answer.

• Then give one example of how each of the other three kinds of
gestures might lead to an intercultural misunderstanding.
 Non - verbal communication
Non verbal communication includes — but is not limited to:
• touch
• Glance
• eye contact (gaze)
• Volume
• vocal nuance
• Proximity
• Gestures
• facial expression ? pause (silence)
• Intonation
• Dress
• Posture
• Smell
• word choice and syntax
• sounds / paralanguage (e.g pitch, volume, intonation)
Why is non-verbal communication important?
• It is one of the key aspects of communication (and especially
important in a high-context culture). It has multiple
functions:

• Used to repeat the verbal message

(e.g. point in a direction while stating directions.

• Often used to accent a verbal message (e.g. verbal tone

indicates the actual meaning of the specific words).
Why is non-verbal communication important?
• Often complement the verbal message but also may
contradict. E.g.: a nod reinforces a positive message; a “wink”
may contradict a stated positive message.

• Regulate interactions (non-verbal cues convey when the other

person should speak or not speak).

• May substitute for the verbal message (especially if it is

blocked by noise, interruption, etc) — i.e. gestures (finger to
lips to indicate need for quiet), facial expressions (i.e. a nod
instead of a yes).
Exercise: Are these physical actions
acceptable in your national culture?
Cultural Differences in Non-verbal
Communication
 Time
• Chronemics simply means the study of how people perceive time and
how they structure time in their relationships.

• Your use of time sends a message without using a single word.

• In Germany, it is assumed that time is limited. Hence arriving early is a

sign of respect, we do not like to waste time, and time is valuable.

• Many high context cultures put more emphasis on people and

relationships rather than set schedules.
 Time
• Now, imagine your first business meeting in Kenya. You arrive at 9.00am as
instructed by your hosts. Your hosts arrive at 9.30am.

• What is a typical reaction? “They are lazy,” “they do not respect you.”

• Now, imagine the meeting starts, but at 10.00am the meeting comes to an
abrupt halt and tea is served.

• How would you typically respond if you were focused on a deadline?

• The negotiation barely got started, and now you are breaking for tea?
Paralanguage
 Paralanguage
• How something is said

• “How we say what we say,” not the actual spoken words.

• Vocal qualifiers - volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo, and tone.

• This aspect of communication is shaped by various elements, often giving the

same words very different meanings

• Volume: How loud or softly you are speaking

• Rate of speech: Or how fast or slow you’re talking
• Use of silence/pauses
 Paralanguage
Loudness indicates;
• strength in Arabic cultures and softness indicates
weakness
• confidence and authority to the Germans
• impoliteness to the Thais
• loss of control to the Japanese
• Gender based as well: women tend to speak higher and
more softly than men.
 Paralanguage
• Vocal characterizers - laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch,
yawn. These send different messages in different cultures

• In Japan - giggling indicates embarrassment;

• India – belching indicates satisfaction

• Vocal segregates - un-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, humm, eh, mah,
lah. Vocal segregates indicate formality, acceptance, assent,
uncertainty.
 Space and Distance
• Proxemics is another word for, how space or distance affects the
communication process.

• In Germany, a handshake sets a standard for maintaining space and

distance.

• Others may be uncomfortable with how others use space and distance. In
most African societies, space is used very differently. People get physically
closer and touchy.

• This can lead to cultural misunderstanding as your counterpart attempts to

move closer and you inadvertently keep backing away.
Body Movement and Gestures
 Body Movement and Gestures
• The study of body movement and gestures is called Kinesics and
comes from the Greek word “motion.”

• Experts focus on many different areas but the more common focus is
on:
• Gestures
• Facial Expressions
• Body Movements
• Eye Movement/Behaviour
 Gestures
• A specific bodily movement that reinforces a verbal message or
conveys a particular thought or emotion.

• Although gestures may be made with the head, shoulders, or even

the legs and feet, most are made with the hands and arms.
 Body Movement
Body movement and position is a key ingredient in sending messages.

• We send information on attitude towards others (facing or leaning

towards another),

• Emotional statue (tapping fingers, jiggling coins, rocking, swaying,

pacing)

• Desire to control the environment (moving towards or away from a

person).
 Gestures
• Gesturing varies from culture to culture. What is acceptable
in one’s own culture may be offensive in another.

• Some cultures are animated; other restrained.

1. Restrained cultures often feel that animated cultures lack
manners and overall restraint.

2. Animated cultures often feel restrained cultures lack

emotion or interest.
 Facial Expressions
• Some say that facial expressions are identical, especially with
respect to smiling, crying, or showing anger, sorrow, or
disgust.

• Nonetheless the meaning attached and the intensity varies

from culture to culture.

• Many Asian cultures suppress facial expression as much as

possible. Is this true?
 Facial Expressions
• Latino / Arabic / African) cultures exaggerate grief or sadness while
most German / American men hide grief or sorrow.

• Some see “animated” expressions as a sign of a lack of control.

• Too much smiling is viewed by some as a sign of shallowness.

• Women smile more than men.

 Eye Contact and Gaze
• In most western cultures, eye contact;

• Indicates degree of attention or interest

• influences attitude change or persuasion
• regulates interaction
• communicates emotion
• defines power and status
• has a central role in managing impressions of others
 Eye Contact and Gaze
• Western cultures - see direct eye to eye contact as positive
(they advise children to look a person in the eyes).

• Its said, within USA, African-Americans use more eye

contact when talking and less when listening with reverse
true for Anglo Americans.

• A prolonged gaze is often seen as a sign of sexual interest.

 Eye Contact and Gaze
• Arabic cultures make prolonged eye contact. They believe it
shows interest and helps them understand truthfulness of
the other person. (A person who doesn’t reciprocate is seen
as untrustworthy)

• Japan, some African, Latin American, Caribbean countries -

avoid eye contact to show respect.
 Posture
• Posture is the attitude assumed by body either when the body is
stationary or when it is moving.

• It is the position in which you hold your body when standing or

sitting.

• Posture can reflect emotions, attitudes and intentions.

• Research has identified a wide range of postural signals and their

meanings, such as:
 Open and Closed Posture
• Open and Closed Posture, which may reflect an individual's degree of
confidence, status or receptivity to another person.

• An open posture can be used to communicate openness or interest in someone

and a readiness to listen, whereas the closed posture might imply discomfort or
disinterest.

• Someone seated in a closed position might have his/her arms folded, legs crossed
or be positioned at a slight angle from the person with whom they are
interacting.

• In an open posture, you might expect to see someone directly facing you with
hands apart on the arms of the chair.
 Posture
• Bowing (not done or criticized in western communities; yet shows
rank in Japan)
• Slouching (rude in most Northern European cultures)
• Hands in pocket (disrespectful in Turkey, cool amongst youth)
• Sitting with legs crossed (offensive in Ghana, Turkey)
• Showing soles of feet (offensive in Thailand, Saudi Arabia)

• Is there a gender difference on acceptable posture?

 Pointing and counting
• Pointing: using hands to point and count differ.
• US with index finger; Germany with little finger;
Japanese with entire hand (in fact most Asians
consider pointing with index finger to be rude)

• Counting: Thumb is 1 in Germany, 5 in Japan & Kenya.

Middle finger is 1 in Indonesia.
 General Appearance and Dress
• All cultures are concerned about how one looks hence make
judgements based on looks and dress.

• Americans, Italians, French, for instance, appear almost obsessed

with dress and personal attractiveness.

• Consider differing cultural standards on what is attractive in dress and

on what constitutes modesty.

• Dress is used as a sign of status

 Touch
Question:

• Why do we touch?
• where do we touch?
• Who touches whom?
• What meanings do we assign when someone else touches us?
 Touch
• Touch is culturally determined! But each culture has a clear concept of what parts of
the body one may not touch.

• Basic message of touch is to affect or control — protect, support, disapprove (i.e. hug,
kiss, hit, kick).

• At the beginning of a negotiation, Germans may shake hands while a Kenyan may
embrace their visitors. An embrace may be extremely uncomfortable to many Germans,
but for many high context cultures, this is a sign of respect.

• USA — handshake is common (even for strangers), hugs, kisses for those of opposite
gender or of family (usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis. Most African
Americans touch on greeting but are annoyed if touched on the head
 Touch
• Many Asians don’t touch the head (Head houses the soul
and a touch puts it in jeopardy).

• Islamic and Hindu: typically don’t touch with the left

hand. To do so is a social insult. Left hand is for toilet
functions. Its mannerly in India to break your bread only
with your right hand (sometimes difficult for non-Indians)
 Touch
• Islamic cultures generally don’t approve of any touching between
genders (even hand shakes). But consider such touching (including
hand holding, hugs) between same-sex to be appropriate.

• Basic patterns:
• Cultures (English , German, Scandinavian, Chinese, Japanese) with high
emotional restraint concepts have little public touch

• those which encourage emotion (Latino, Middle-East, Jewish, African) accept

frequent touches.
 Touch: Illustration
An African-American male goes into a
convenience store recently taken over by new
Korean immigrants. He gives a $20 bill for his
purchase to Mrs Cho who is cashier and waits for
his change. He is upset when his change is put
down on the counter in front of him.
 What is the problem?

•Traditional Korean (and many other Asian

countries) don’t touch strangers., especially
between members of the opposite sex. But the
African-American sees this as another example
of discrimination (not touching him because he
is black).
 Smell
• USA - fear of offensive natural smells (billion dollar industry to mask
objectionable odours with what is perceived to be pleasant ) — again
connected with “attractiveness” concept.

• Many other cultures consider natural body odours as normal (Arabic).

• Asian cultures (Filipino, Malay, Indonesian, Thai, Indian, African)

stress frequent bathing - and often criticize Western communities e.g
German, American, British, of not bathing often enough!
 The Concept of High context and low context
in Communication
• The concept of high and low context was introduced by
anthropologist Edward T. Hall in his 1976 book Beyond Culture, and it
refers to the way different cultures communicate.

• The dimensions of communication differ greatly between low-context

and high-context cultures.
• Differences can be derived from the extent to which meaning is
transmitted through actual words used or implied by the context.
 High context and low context
• A low-context culture is one that decodes messages
from the words used to encode the message. In
other words, those hailing from a low-context
culture focus on “direct” communication.

• A high-context culture is one that decodes messages

from non-verbal and environmental clues. In other
words, people from a high-context culture prefer
“indirect” communication
 High-context cultures
• A high-context culture relies on implicit (implied, indirect) communication
and nonverbal cues.

• In high-context communication, a message cannot be understood without

a great deal of background information.

• A great portion of a message is being "read" from the context: the

person, his appearance and nonverbal behaviour, personal history, the
communicative situation, and the interaction process.

• These kinds of messages are often called metamessages.

 High-context cultures:
Metamessages
• Metamessages are interpreted with the help of certain cues, which carry
cultural meanings.

• A smile, for instance, is a cue for interactional interpretation. In many

cultural contexts it may mean well-being or happiness; in some cultures, a
smile is also being used in certain situations to express embarrassment or
even hate (e.g., China, Japan).

• Differing interpretations of these contextual cues can be a source of

intercultural misunderstandings. Asian, African, Arab, central European and
Latin American cultures are generally considered to be high-context
cultures.
 Low-context cultures
• A low-context culture relies on explicit communication.

• In low-context communication, verbal communication gets

emphasized.

• “Communication styles that focus relatively more on words

to communicate and less on behaviour - the context in
which the words are used are said to be low context”.
(Novinger,2001)
 Low-context cultures
• Information is coded in words that are expected to
correspond relatively accurately to what is meant.

• In low-context communication, more of the information in

a message is spelled out and defined.

• Cultures with western European roots, such as the United

States and Australia, are generally considered to be low-
context cultures.
 Communication Dynamics in High and Low
Context Cultures
• Cultural differences shape every aspect of communication across
cultures.

• High-context cultures prefer personal bonds and informal

agreements over meticulously worded legal documents.

• They look for meaning and understanding in what is not said — in

body language, in silences and pauses, and in relationships and
empathy.
 Communication Dynamics in High and Low
Context Cultures
• In low-context cultures, emphasis is placed on sending and receiving
accurate messages directly, and by being precise with spoken or
written words.

• Business people from western cultures sometimes fall into a

communication trap by disregarding the importance of building and
maintaining personal relationships when interacting with people from
high-context cultures.
 Communication Dynamics in High and Low
Context Cultures
• Notwithstanding, this classifications can be an oversimplification as
there are indeed differences even within high- and low-context
cultures.

• For example, although American culture is classified as low context,

communication, among family members, it tends to be high context.

• This may be because of high level of shared experiences within

family members, which may require fewer words because of the
existing mutual understandings.
Content and Relationship Levels
• The interaction between two or more individuals.

• The message exchange carries information /content.

• The participants of the conversation interpret the choice and meanings of the
words based on their experiences.

• The interactions also show the relational level based on how a person delivers
the message.

• This level of a message implies a cultural interpretation of who is in control, their

levels of closeness, what they feel about each other, level of trust, etc.
 Linguistic relativism
• Does language affect the way we think about the world?
• The way we think is also strongly affected by our native languages.
• There are certain thoughts we have in one language (e.g. English) that
cannot be understood by those who exist in another language context
(e.g. Spanish).
 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
• In the 1930s, two anthropologists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee
Whorf, noticed that the Hopi Indians in the United States had no
words to differentiate between the past, present, and future. This was
a surprising discovery. In English, we can easily think of tense and
know what time frame someone is referring to. The two scholars
found that the way language is used affected the way we think about
and perceive the world. In other words, worldviews and cultural
influences are largely embedded within the language we use, even if
we are saying things like coffee. When we talk about coffee in the US,
we would think of a large mug, and the coffee would come from a pot
of coffee. When Europeans talk about coffee, they are most likely
thinking about little espresso cups filled with strong coffee.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
• The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is a controversial theory
championed by linguist Edward Sapir and his student
Benjamin Whorf.

• The hypothesis states that the way people think is

strongly affected by their native languages.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
• The hypothesis is based on the idea that people experience their
world through their language,

• and that they therefore understand their world through the culture
embedded in their language.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
• The hypothesis states that there are certain thoughts of an individual
in one language that cannot be understood by those who live in
another language.

• Essentially, the hypothesis argues that language shapes thought,

hence if a person can’t describe the experience, the person is not
having the experience.
Examples of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
• Whorf claimed that the Hopi, a Native American tribe, who live in
north-eastern Arizona didn't have any words for time – no direct
translation for the noun time itself, no grammatical constructions
indicating the past or future – and therefore could not conceive of it.

• That the sexist language influences the way in which our society views
men and women. For instance, we use words like 'fireman,'
'policeman,' and 'male nurse.'
• The scientific testing of Whorf's hypothesis seemed to prove him
wrong. His idea that people cannot conceive of realities for which
they have no words just doesn't make sense

• How would we ever learn anything if that were true? We aren't born
with words for everything that we understand.
 Non-verbal Communication
• Non-verbal communication, which is communication without words,
can be a barrier to intercultural communication.

• In non-verbal communication, messages can take a number of forms.

Some of these are our use of personal space, gestures, facial
movements and eye contact; use of time and space and use of
touch.
• These forms of communication can easily be misinterpreted.

• Other important nonverbal messages can involve interpretations

of the meanings of silence, clothing, the arrangement of space
and furniture and so on.

• Because the meanings, which are attached to all these things

differ from one culture to another, it is possible to misread the
message.
Examples of non-verbal communication
• Proximity: The distance that one would stand
when talking to a stranger varies from culture to
culture and someone breaking this unspoken
rule makes people very uncomfortable.

• Gestures and eye contact can have very

powerful meaning, which vary across cultures. In
some cultures the appropriate greeting is a
handshake, in others a bow, in others an
embrace and in others a peck/kiss on the
cheeks.
(Jandt, 2001)
• Some cultures look into the eyes of conversational
partners, whereas others only use a peripheral gaze or no
gaze at all.

• Punctuality: Use of time also varies. How long you should

be kept waiting can vary from culture to culture.

• Silence, for some cultures, can indicate respect (for

Chinese people), while it can be interpreted as shyness or
lack of interest (for Australians)

Jandt, 2001
• Touch has different meanings in different cultures. In Thailand, it is
rude for strangers to touch the top of a child’s head because it is the
home of the spirit and soul, but in western countries it is very
common to affectionately touch a child’s head.

• In Australia walking hand in hand with friends of the same sex can
indicate a romantic relationship
 Written communication
• The content and style of written organisational communications
may differ between cultures.

• In some cultures, a direct approach is favoured. In others, the main

message is preceded by polite words that have little or nothing to
do with the main purpose of the message.
 Written communication
• Written documents that may be considered appropriate in one
culture, may not necessarily be appropriate in another culture
and could be understood as offensive.

• Strong statements in written messages in some cultures may be

considered as improper or even rude in other cultures.
 Written communication
• E.g most written communications from Japan are apologetic in tone,
containing statements that place the writer in an inferior position to
the recipient.

o Japanese or Chinese executives may consider written documents received

from American or English executives as being too bold and directional.

o Conversely, the American/English perception may be that the Japanese are

weak and uncommitted to their positions.
 Written communication
• Customs and practices in written communications vary greatly from
culture to culture.

• E.g, the word 'dear' has a special connotation in Spain, as the word is
a term of endearment or affection for a loved one or family member.

• Therefore, when writing a business letter to a Spanish person, the

salutation containing the word ‘dear‘, may be misconstrued.
 Values
1) Cultural values
2) Personal values

• Values identify what should be judged as good or bad.

• There exists different value systems amongst

different cultures.
 Cultural Values
• Groups, societies, cultures or religions have values
that are largely shared by their members.

• The values identify those objects, conditions or

characteristics that members of the society consider
important, hence, valuable.
 Cultural Values
• The values of a society can often be identified by noting which people
receive honor or respect.

• E.g. professional athletes are honored (in the form of monetary

payment) more than college professors.

• Could this be because the society respects personal values such as

physical activity, fitness, and competitiveness more than mental
activity and education?
 Cultural versus Personal Values

• Members take part in a culture, even if each member's personal

values do not entirely agree with some of the normative or
mainstream values sanctioned in the culture.

• This reflects an individual's ability to synthesize and extract aspects

valuable to them from the multiple subcultures they belong to.
 Personal Values

• Personal values indicate what a person thinks is right and thus

chooses to do or to see things in those right ways.

• This is not to say that the value concepts themselves are not universal,
merely that each individual possesses a unique conception of the
values.
 Personal Values
• Personal values evolve from circumstances within the external world
and can change over time.

• Personal values are implicitly related to choice; they guide decisions

by allowing for an individual‘s choice to be compared to the values
associated with the choice.
 Beliefs
• Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a
proposition or premise to be true.

• Mainstream psychology and related disciplines have traditionally

treated belief as if it were the simplest form of mental representation
and therefore one of the building blocks of conscious thought.
 (INTER-CULTURAL) CONFLICT

• Conflict is a state of discord caused by the actual or perceived

opposition of needs, values and interests.

• Conflict as a concept can help explain many aspects of social life such
as social disagreement, conflicts of interests, and fights between
individuals, groups, or organizations.
 Conflict
• Without proper social arrangement or resolution, conflicts in social
settings can result in stress or tensions among stakeholders.

• In political terms, "conflict" can refer to wars, revolutions or other

struggles, which may involve the use of force, as in the term “armed
conflict”.
How can we deal with the barriers to Intercultural
Communication
Can you avoid?
• Stereotypes
• Prejudice
• Bias
• Discrimination
• Conflict
 Overcoming Communication Barriers
1. Increase intercultural communication competence

2. Understand national cultures, taking note of individual differences

and personal multiple identities

3. Apply effective communication skills!

 Cultivating Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes

• Knowledge that includes:

• understanding a generic orientation to the culture that includes their world-
view, belief systems, contemporary issues, diversity within the communities,
ways of learning.
• Skills:
• Ability to listen and engage, flexibility and adaptability, being able to
negotiate rituals and issues that seem alien or wrong in your culture,
language
• Attitudes:
• non judgemental, respect, openness to learn and challenge oneself, belief in
humanity of others
(Weaver 1999)
How to deal with discrimination, stereotypes, prejudices, etc

• Stereotypes are necessary for establishing one’s own cultural

identity. If a cultural group cannot compare itself to other groups,
then it cannot become aware of what it is

• Others help us to know who we are – they help us learn from the
other
How to deal with discrimination, stereotypes, prejudices,
etc
We need to work hard to avoid the dangers of the ingroup-
outgroup trap. Here are some suggestions:

• Recognize the arbitrary nature of many ingroup - outgroup

distinctions.

• Put yourself in the place of the outgroup member.

• If people could place another culture in its own context and avoid
judging it according to their own ‘system’, stereotypes would
eventually disappear. Really???
 How to deal with discrimination, stereotypes,
prejudices, etc
• Look for commonalities between opposing groups. Fans of
opposing sports teams equally love the sport. People of different
religions regard their faith as important to them. There are basic
human needs that transcend particular labels.

• Work on building your inner sense of security. People are more

likely to stereotype when they feel they have something to lose.

If you feel more confident about your own identity, you'll be less
likely to criticize someone else's.
 At the individual level
• Stereotype suppression: pushing away negative thoughts
and replacing them with positive ones (Problem: rebound
effect - stronger stereotyping)

• Self regulation model:

oDeveloping cues warning individuals for the control of
prejudice (i.e. noticing one’s own reactions towards
those who are different)
oUsing cues to control prejudice and suppress prejudiced
response
oFind substitute behavior
 At the group level (inter-group contact)

• Members of interacting groups should be of equal status outside the

situation as well as inside the situation
• Members of interacting groups should hold similar attitude, values and
beliefs on issues not related to relations between groups
• Members of interacting groups should have equal ability on the task
the groups will be working together
• The group interaction should result in successful completion of the task
• There should be opportunities for the groups to interact outside the
immediate situation
• The contract should be voluntary
Efective communication skills
• Active Listening
oGive responding cues
oUse paraphrasing
oAsk questions for repetition, clarification and details
oSummarize

• Inquiry
oUse more open-ended questions
Efective communication skills
• Reflection
oSlow down your thinking process while
communicating
oBe aware of other speakers’ reactions,
emotions and assumptions while
communicating
oReflect on the communication process later
and prepare for next encounter
 CONCLUSION

• Increasing cultural knowledge is important. However, we

need to recognize that our cultural knowledge is ‘initial’ in
understanding and it should grow as any intercultural
communication proceeds.
 References
• Barna, L. M. (1997). Stumbling blocks in intercultural communication . In Samovar, L. A., &Porter,R. E., (1997). Intercultural communication
(eighth ed). Belmont, ca: Wadsworth Publishing.
• Bell, V., Halligan, P.W. & Ellis, H.D. (2006) A Cognitive Neuroscience of Belief. In P.W. Halligan & M. Aylward (eds) The Power of Belief. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
• Bennett, M. (1993). Towards Ethnorelativism: a developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In R. M. Paige. Education for the
intercultural
• Brislin, R. (1988). Prejudice in intercultural communication. In Samovar, L.A., &Porter,R.E. (eds). Intercultural communication: A reader .
Belmont CA: wadsworth.
• Diversity Council: Cross-Cultural Communication -- Translating Nonverbal Cues -
https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/585763_8ea8dab2b7574c1a85d491beaaa90a5f.pdf
• Eckert, Susan (2006) Intercultural Communication. Thomson.
• Jandt, F. E. /2001). Intercultural communication: an introduction (third ed). Thousand oaks: Sage.
• Payne, Neil (n.d.). Breaking the barriers of cultural communication. kwintessental.ae www.essortment.com/all/cultural
• Rosnow, Ralph L.; Poultry and Prejudice. Psychologist Today, (March, 1972): p. 53.
• Samovar, L. A., & Porter, R. E., (1991). Communication between cultures. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
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