CTU Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development Vol. 15, No.

3 (2023): 23-33

DOI:10.22144/ctujoisd.2023.048

Review of the effects of Task-based Language Teaching on EFL learners’ speaking

performance: What remains to be researched?

Huynh Truong Sang1, and Nguyen Van Loi2*

1
An Giang University, Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
2
Can Tho University, Viet Nam
*Corresponding author ([email protected])
Article info. ABSTRACT

Received 10 Mar 2023 Given the research trend on task-based language teaching (TBLT), several
Revised 5 Apr 2023 reviews have been conducted on its effects. However, no review has
Accepted 24 Apr 2023 explored specific skills. This study aims to review previous studies with a
focus on the improvement of EFL learners’ speaking performance. The
main purpose is to reveal a gap for future study. Using the systematic
Keywords review approach, we selected 25 qualified studies from different databases.
Results showed that TBLT implementation promoted both general speaking
TBLT, review, EFL, speaking and speaking components (i.e., complexity, accuracy, and fluency). Most
performance of the studies either employed or adapted Willis’ model. The present study
suggests that future research could explore the comparative effects of
various task-based methodological options. Moreover, the text-driven
approach to task design and implementation can be further researched to
enhance EFL learners’ engagement and speaking performance.

1. INTRODUCTION 2003; Harris & Leeming, 2022; Long, 1985; Nunan,

1991; Skehan, 1996).
A major concern among researchers has been to
seek the most effective approach to teaching The proliferation of research on TBLT may be
English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners with because the approach offers a flexible, adaptable
various characteristics (i.e., motivation, needs, measure for various contexts and learners. In
socio-cultural values). Over the past decades, Vietnam, where English instruction at school
researchers have conducted various studies to mainly prepares students for examinations, not
compare methods and approaches, with the hope of communication (Chau, 2014; Nguyen, 2011; Trinh,
offering optimal measures in teaching EFL 2005; Yen Phuong et al., 2015), recent decades have
(Adiantika & Purnomo, 2018: Benitez-Correa et al., witnessed several studies on the application of
2019; Van Loi & Thanh, 2022; Yen Phuong et al., TBLT in English classrooms at different levels (Bui,
2015; Ellis & Shintani, 2015). Task-based language 2019; Do, 2021; Nguyen & Jaspaert, 2021; Yen
teaching (TBLT) has been promoted for classroom Phuong, 2015; Trinh & Ha, 2017). In congruence
practices as one of the most effective measures with studies around the world, the research results
because it is grounded in knowledge about how a point to the outweighing effects of TBLT.
second language is learned (Van den Branden et al.,
Several review papers have summarised the issues
2009, cited in East, 2017; Ellis, 2009a). Noticeably
related to implementing TBLT such as effects of
in this approach, natural language use embedded in
specific task features and overall program-level
communicative tasks is a prerequisite for language
elements on various learning outcomes, and its
development agreed by numerous researchers (Ellis,

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CTU Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development Vol. 15, No. 3 (2023): 23-33

challenges in specific settings (e.g., Bryfonski & 2.1. Task-based Language Teaching
McKay, 2019; Qin & Lei, 2022). However, few
Task-based language teaching has acquired
studies focus the review of TBLT on specific skills
popularity for years, and given its nature as an
such as speaking. This paper aims to fill this gap by
approach, different interpretations and models exist.
focusing on two questions:
Basically, central to the task-based approach is the
1. What methodological frameworks of TBLT concept of tasks defined as “a piece of classroom
have been employed in research on EFL work which involves learners in comprehending,
learners’ speaking performance? manipulating, producing or interacting in the target
2. What effects does TBLT have on the EFL language while their attention is principally focused
learners’ speaking performance? on meaning rather than form” (Nunan, 1989, p.10).
Several recent reviews (see Do, 2021; Long, 2015
The paper limits the review to the learning of EFL for details) have discussed the theoretical
speaking for some reasons. First, speaking is foundations of TBLT. Herein this study, we briefly
believed to be essential for EFL learners, but there summarise TBLT principles reported by Richards
remain intractable difficulties in teaching and and Rodgers (2014, pp.188-189).
learning this skill. Several researchers (Hojati &
Afghari, 2013; Jaya et al., 2022) describe core i. Language is a means for meaning making
problems learners face in speaking performance and achieving real-world goals.
such as affective problems (self-confidence and ii. Language use involves integrated skills
anxiety), socially related problems (inadequate and spoken interaction.
opportunities to learn and comprehend English in iii. Language learning is internally guided by
speaking class), and linguistic problems (fluency, learners, not external factors.
vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar). Dan et al. iv. A focus on form facilitates language
(2018) notes that cultural barriers as face-saving, learning.
collectivism and conflict avoidance affect v. Meaning negotiation provides learners
Vietnamese EFL learners’ speaking performance.
with comprehensible input and modified
Moreover, EFL learners can be driven to the verge
output.
of nervousness and embarrassment created through
cognitive processing demands (Tomlinson, 2013). vi. Tasks provide opportunities for learners to
Those aforementioned hindrances may downplay ‘notice the gap’.
their chances of performing the speaking skill. A vii. Interaction and communication through
focus on speaking may give insights into what tasks provide opportunities for scaffolded
specific effects TBLT has on this skill, which could learning.
offer pedagogical implications and probably space viii. Learning difficulty can be negotiated and
for future research. fine-tuned for particular pedagogical
To approach the problem, we first briefly revisit the purposes.
foundations and models of TBLT and speaking In terms of task selection, four must-have
performance; then we present how the review was characteristics involve a focus on meaning, presence
conducted. Next, we present the results by of potential information gaps, learners’ involvement
categorising TBLT according to its methodological in linguistic and non-linguistic targets on their own,
frameworks, and reviewing its effects on general and a clearly defined outcome rather than the mere
speaking proficiency and specific dimensions of use of language (Ellis, 2009a). These elements
speaking performance. By examining and distinguish tasks from what is labeled as “situational
synthesising research findings related to the two grammar exercise” (Ellis, 2009a, p.223). Some
questions, we point out what remains to be further researchers (e.g., Long, 2015) put an emphasis on
researched. target real-life tasks, focusing strongly on message
2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK and content, excluding linguistic forms. Ellis
(2009a) called this type unfocused tasks to
Given the focus of this paper, this section will distinguish it from focused tasks, which refers to
present the conceptualization of task-based ones intentionally designed to draw learners’
language teaching and speaking performance. attention to form while they engage in
communication.

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CTU Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development Vol. 15, No. 3 (2023): 23-33

It is worth mentioning that the naturalness of requirements. The task cycle in Skehan’s
language use, learner-centeredness, and meaning- manipulates task features and conditions to affect
focused tasks make TBLT a strong communicative the writing or speaking performance outcomes; in
approach. These significant features provoke EFL contrast, in Willis’ model learners engage in doing
learners’ exposure to the use of target language tasks, planning and reporting their results. A focus
through a sequence of purposeful/communicative on form can be primed by assistance with the
tasks (Harris & Leeming, 2022). Therefore, there is language when learners feel the need for it. The last
a wide consensus among researchers that this phase, according to both models, aims to enhance
approach is an evolutionary shift in curriculum accuracy by using various techniques to enhance
which contributes to an encouragement of attention to form, but for Skehan, fluency can be
communicative orientations among EFL learners, pushed with public performance and provision of
particularly in Vietnam (see Do, 2021; Nguyen & extended tasks.
Jaspaert, 2021; Phuong et al., 2015).
Table 1. Three-stage task-based models
A task-based syllabus makes up the core of TBLT.
This comprises real-life and pedagogic tasks (Long,

Framework
2015; Nunan, 1989). Long (2015) argues a task
syllabus is supposed to undergo transformations at
Phases Examples of options
different chronological stages: needs analysis, target
tasks, target task-types, pedagogical tasks, and a
task syllabus. A very first step in designing the task
syllabus, therefore, is an analysis of learners’ needs,
taking account of both linguistic and non-linguistic ● Introduction to the
Pre-task
factors (e.g., L2 proficiency, individual differences, topic and task
learning styles, ages, outcomes, etc.). Relevant tasks
Willis (1996)

are then put into a logical sequence. According to ● Task Planning

Drafting and rehearsal
Ellis (2003, 2009a, 2017), tasks can be integrated to Task Cycle
provide opportunities for communication. This is Assistance with language
called a task-supported learning model, where the Report
last stage of a lesson may engage learners in
Language ● Analysis
communicative tasks. He also suggests the task
focus ● Practice
syllabus consists of focused tasks which are
designed to attract learners to form while they are
Pre-
engaged in meaning expression. ● Consciousness raising,
emptive
Planning
At the methodological level, Prabhu (1987) initiated activities
task-based language teaching in his project in
primary schools with a focus on the pre-task and ● Task choice
Skehan (1996)

task phase, using three main task types: information (difficulty)

gap, opinion gap, and problem solving. The pre-task During task ● Pressure manipulation
is supposed to direct learners to perform two tasks (Conditions e.g., time
of the same kind (i.e., a teacher-guided, whole-class pressure, modality)
activity, and a learner-led activity) as teacher-class
negotiation (i.e., question and answer), which is ● Public performance
considered as a scaffolding stage for learners to ● Transcription analysis
Post-task
perform the main task on their own. A three-phase ● Testing
work
classroom procedure was then developed with ● Extension (task
different approaches (Skehan, 1996; Willis, 1996). sequence, families)
Skehan follows a cognitive approach to impacting
aspects of performance, whereas Willis concurs Subsequently, Ellis (2006) synthesised different
with an integrated skills approach. The pre-task designs based on his review of various approaches
stage, according to Skehan, can engage learners in to task-based language teaching (e.g., Prabhu, 1987;
language restructuring and allow them to plan their Skehan, 1996; Willis, 1996). Ellis’ work offers the
work, reducing their cognitive load. For Willis, in teacher a wide range of methodological options to
contrast, the stage aims to prepare learners for task implement TBLT in the classroom. To illustrate, the

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CTU Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development Vol. 15, No. 3 (2023): 23-33

pre-task phase is to prepare learners for next phases

Table 2. CAF measures in speaking
by engaging them in a variety of task and non-task-
performance (Adapted from Javad et
based activities i.e., learning of new language,
al., 2015, p.48)
consolidation of linguistic knowledge, and
familiarization of tasks. The during-task phase

Items
comprises two methodological options (1) task- Dimensions for measurement
performance options in which the teacher plans for
how tasks can be conducted and thus selected for the
actual performance, and (2) process options which Percentage of error-free clauses; all
are implemented by two agents in classroom i.e., syntactic, morphological, and lexical

Accuracy
teachers and learners to opt for how to perform the errors were counted
task. The post-task phase is aimed at three
Percentage of correct verb forms in terms
pedagogical goals namely an opportunity to repeat a
task, reflections on task performance, and scant of tense, aspect, modality, and subject–
attention to forms that lead to learners’ challenges to verb agreement.
perform the task. Syntactic complexity (amount of
2.2. Speaking performance subordination): the ratio of clauses to AS
units. AS unit is essentially syntactic and
Speaking known as an oral production of language syntactic units are genuine units of
takes forms of monologue and dialogue (Karpovich planning (Foster et al., 2000), which
Complexity
et al., 2021). Of four macro skills, growth in L2 might make them good units for analysing
speaking performance is mainly targeted by EFL spoken language.
teachers and learners (Afshar & Asakereh, 2016;
Boonkit, 2010; Jaya et al., 2022). This is because Syntactic variety: the total number of
humans seem to encounter most spoken different grammatical verb forms used:
communications rather other forms (i.e., reading, Tense (e.g., simple present, simple past,
writing). Researchers have acknowledged past continuous, etc.), modality (e.g.,
outstanding benefits of this skill in both work and should, must, etc.)
life i.e., job interviews, business, group work, and Rate A: number of syllables produced per
knowledge exchanging from different backgrounds minute of speech divided by the number
when one is competent in speaking (Goh, 2007; of seconds used to complete the task and
Fluency

Rao, 2019). multiplied by 60.

Karpovich et al. (2021) highly recommend that Rate B: Rate A’s procedure is repeated,
speaking should be regularly practiced. To foster but all syllables, words, phrases that were
learners’ maximal involvement in speaking practice, repeated, reformulated, or replaced are
teachers should focus on not only general speaking excluded.
but also specific aspects of performance. Skehan
(1996, 2018) argues the development of speaking 3. METHOD
performance in terms of complexity, accuracy, and 3.1. Process for systematic review
fluency. Measures of complexity, accuracy, and
fluency triad (CAF) were used in various studies to The current study followed the systematic review
examine the effects of task conditions i.e., pre- approach, but the procedure was adapted in order to
planning, on-line planning, careful planning on oral make it more appropriate with the flow of the study.
production including monologue and dialogue Robinson and Lowe (2015) suggest that there
(Ahmadian & Tavakoli, 2011; Ahmadian, 2012; should be at least 10 and at most 50 publications for
Chau, 2014; Ellis, 2009b; Javad et al., 2015; a systematic review.
Seifoori & Vahidi, 2012). Dimensions of measured
CAF triad are various, but Table 2 illustrates the
frequently measured CAF framework.

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The aims of the current study are to (1) reveal what

Table 3. Suggested stages for a systematic review
TBLT models have been studied for the effect on
adapted from Uman (2011), Robinson
EFL learners’ speaking performance and (2) to
and Lowe (2015)
review what effects these models have on EFL
Stage 1: Focus of review learners’ speaking performance. Several keywords
Establish review questions. This provides a were employed for the selection of reviewed articles
backbone for the further analysis in case of or theses such as task-based language teaching, task-
redundant studies. based language learning, task-based instruction,
Stage 2: Data collection enhanced-technology TBLT, speaking abilities,
-Establish inclusion and exclusion criteria. speaking performance, oral skills, and EFL. Figure
Features of a study like population, intervention, 1 illustrates how the articles were systematically
comparison, outcomes (and context) are carefully selected, screened, excluded, and included for final
investigated prior to selection. Uman (2011) review.
suggests what types of studies to include and
exclude (e.g., qualitative research or quasi- 3.3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria
experimental designs), the minimum number of A set of fixed criteria should ensure the quality of
participants, published versus unpublished included publications for the systematic review
studies, etc. (Dehghanzadeh et al., 2021; Lin & Lin, 2019) so
-A set of comprehensive keywords are generated. that the analysis of results can be triangulated more
Stage 3: Data extraction effectively. Therefore, inclusion criteria for
Necessary information for the review focus is selecting research about effects of TBLT on EFL
extracted; two or more researchers undertake data learners’ speaking performance was established as
extraction. listed below:
Stage 4: Data analysis
Data are compared, contrasted and categorised. − Included works comprise published articles and
Stage 5: Data Presentation unpublished MA/Ph.D. theses on effects of TBLT
PRISMA/CONSORT or similar chart/table of on speaking performance or general proficiency
included papers is constructed. which reported speaking as a component.
Stage 6: Outcome − The time range of selected studies was from
Actions/directions are based on evidence from 2000 to 2022 to ensure the most appropriate and
reviewed papers. state-of-the-art literature to capture the
3.2. Overview of selection overgeneralization of the study.
− The selected studies used quantitative data or
both quantitative and qualitative data to analyze and
DATABASES explain the effects of treatment
Scopus, DOAJ, ERIC, ProQuest, other − Studies were conducted in classroom-based,
peer-reviewed journals, MA/Ph.D. theses virtual or face-to-face contexts.
− Publications focused on effects of traditional
TBLT, technology-enhanced TBLT, or a
comparison of TBLT with other approaches (i.e.,
EXCLUSION Direct Method, PPP) on speaking performance per
Full texts of publications screened (n=50) se or as a component of proficiency.
→ Inappropriate databases (n=25)
− Target participants were learners of English as a
foreign or second language.
− Full texts of articles, or MA/Ph.D. theses were
INCLUSION
available and verified in terms of quality.
Final publications or work remained for
review (n=25) − Research design and methods are well-defined
(closely scrutinized for studies on emerging journals
in terms of validity and reliability).
Figure 1. Flowchart process selection
Having applied the inclusion and exclusion criteria,
(Adapted from Dehghanzadeh et al., 2021) we decided to include 22 published articles and 2

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unpublished Ph.D. theses, 1 published MA thesis for variables (i.e., TBLT or technology-enhanced
the systematic review. TBLT) and the dependent variables (general
speaking performance or components of speaking)
3.4. Data analysis
as the corresponding outcomes were decided for
Twenty-two published articles, two unpublished selection.
Ph.D. theses, and one published MA thesis on a
As illustrated in Table 4, there are 25 quantitative
journal were consecutively added to represent
studies selected for the review on the effects of
studies about the effects of tasks directed under
TBLT. Noticeably, two of them (Nguyen &
TBLT in enhancing speaking performance. The
Jaspaert, 2021; Harris & Leeming, 2022) were
studies were categorized according to some
intentionally conducted to examine the effects of
parameters: (1) TBLT frameworks; (2) modes of
task-based instruction on EFL learners’ L2
TBLT: face-to-face or technology-mediated; (3)
proficiency and increased speaking performance as
learning outcomes: increased general
part of L2 proficiency. An analysis directed under a
speaking/general proficiency or speaking
systematic review aimed at revealing the differential
components (i.e., complexity, accuracy, and
effects of task-based of language teaching in
fluency) (see the appended table for details).
comparison with other approaches (i.e., PPP or
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION direct method) on learners’ speaking performance.
4.1. TBLT frameworks for enhancing EFL A total number of 11 studies made use of the TBLT
learners’ speaking performance framework developed by Willis (1996), accounting
for nearly 44% studies. The rest included 14 studies
Table 4. Brief report on selected studies that combined Willis’ (1996) with parts of other
frameworks (e.g., Skehan, 1996) or perspectives
Frequency
Parameters
(N) (e.g., Vygotsky) in designing and implementing
tasks. Regardless of different approaches, most of
Willis (1996) 11 the studies have contributed to the literature strong
Frameworks
Combined 14 evidence that TBLT is beneficial for EFL learners’
Face-to-face TBLT 22 speaking performance measured as part of general
Modes Technology- 3 proficiency and specific speaking components (i.e.,
mediated TBLT complexity, accuracy, and fluency).
Speaking as part of 2
Learning 4.2. Effects of TBLT on speaking performance
general proficiency
outcomes
Speaking only 23 A consistent result from twenty-five studies shows
Assessment CAF measures 4 that task-based instruction has contributed to
of speaking Rubrics 21 improving EFL learners’ general speaking
Note. “Combined” refers to an adaptation of different regardless of different task sequences adapted from
TBLT models or perspectives Willis (1996) and the mixed frameworks (Skehan,
1996; Willis, 1996) which were operated in either
Table 5. Effects of TBLT on general speaking face-to-face or technology-mediated TBLT
and speaking components classroom. In order for improvement of speaking to
be recognized, it is essential to zoom in on speaking
Speaking outcomes Frequency (N)
components (i.e., complexity, accuracy, and
Increased general speaking 10 fluency) in nineteen systematically analyzed
Increased studies. In this way, speaking gains can be evaluated
Complexity (C), CAF-based 4
from various angles to provide a convincing
Accuracy (A), conclusion about its effect. Four studies (Albino,
Fluency (F) Rubric-based 11
2017; Ahmed, 2018; Do, 2021; Rahimpour, 2008)
Regarding the research questions, we have focused used a speaking test that pursues the CAF
on in-depth analysis on the effects of TBLT in two framework (Skehan, 2018) to examine the effects of
aspects: general speaking performance and TBLT on speaking component. Remarkably, Albino
components of speaking (i.e., complexity, accuracy, (2017) concluded forty Grade-9 learners’ speaking
and fluency). Therefore, parameters of articles such fluency experienced a significant increase,
as TBLT frameworks or models as the independent measured by counting the number of spoken words
transcribed from speaking tests. The absence of

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comparison group is, however, the weakness of this differently defined speaking components (i.e.,
study. Contrary to the aforementioned studies, the complexity, accuracy, and fluency) were measured.
remaining studies measured CAF by using speaking
However, it is noteworthy that effects of this
rubrics and standardized tests (e.g., IELTS, TOEFL,
approach on speaking performance might be biased.
PET).
First, TBLT models are variously applied for the
To make it brief for a detailed analysis about CAF development of corresponding activities based on
framework used for measuring speaking the researchers’ interpretations and analysis of their
performance in the systematic review, we labelled contexts for research. Second, the effects can be
them as the traditional CAF (Skehan et al., 2012; attributed to various task types or characteristics,
Skehan, 2018) and the adapted CAF (following e.g, reasoning gap and information-gap (Prahbu,
speaking rubrics). Although speaking performance 1987); listing, comparing, experience sharing,
was graded regarding the standardized tests with a ordering, sorting, creating, and problem-solving
focus on the CAF triad, the authors just made a (Willis, 1996); collaborative learning (Chen, 2021);
general conclusion about the impact of TBLT on role-play (e.g., Albino, 2017; Mulyadi et al., 2021);
general speaking rather than complexity, accuracy, personal information exchange, narrative and
and fluency of speaking (Nguyen & Jarpaert, 2021; decision-making (Nguyen & Jaspaert, 2021).
Harris & Leeming, 2022). However, with respect to Different measures of speaking performance may
the adapted CAF designed by researchers or account for the different outcomes. Some
teachers, there were eleven studies. The results all researchers (Ahmed, 2018; Mulyadi et al., 2021;
showed growth in both speaking components (15 Torky, 2006) analyzed speaking tasks to measure
studies, 60%) and general speaking (10 studies, speaking performance while others (e.g., Harris &
40%). Leeming, 2022; Nguyen & Jaspaert, 2021) used
standardized tests to measure speaking proficiency.
Obviously, the traditional CAF in assessing
speaking components was more often used than the Overall, a majority of reviewed studies either use or
adapted CAF. This can be because modification or adapt Willis’ framework as the main classroom
adaptation in measurement methods depends on procedure in the implementation. Few studies use
certain contexts in which the traditional CAF could Skehan’s approach per se as the major approach in
not be used to triangulate results. Moreover, it might their studies. No research has yet to compare the
be understood that different TBLT frameworks or effects of methodological task-based options on
perspectives were used for treatment, leading to the overall speaking proficiency. In terms of
use of a different set for measures. Dimensions of perspectives, TBLT currently advocate a cognitive,
speaking performance measured in terms of adapted socio-interactionist approach that emphasizes
CAF are varied since they were defined differently cognitive, psychological processes in language
in speaking rubrics. Despite this, enhanced speaking learning. Affective factors seem to be ignored or
components were still witnessed in eleven studies, given less attention. A text-driven approach that
i.e., complexity, accuracy, and fluency (Mulyadi et combines both affective and cognitive principles in
al., 2021; Nget et al., 2020; Torky, 2006; Majeed & second language learning has been proposed and
Memon, 2022; Panduwangi, 2021); complexity and implemented (Tomlinson, 2013). Cognitively and
accuracy (Sarıçoban & Karakurt, 2016; Yaprak & emotionally engaging texts are selected and drive
Kaya, 2020); complexity and fluency (Fang et al. the design of tasks, combined with techniques such
2021); fluency (Khoshsima & Bajool, 2015); as visualization, imagery, imagination, acting out,
accuracy and fluency (Munirah & Muhsin, 2015; and so on to prepare learners for the main task. The
Murad & Smadi, 2009). It is worth mentioning that framework comprises several stages to developing
growth in speaking fluency mostly received task materials for enhancing second language
recognition among eleven studies irrespective of the learning as presented in the table below.
traditional or adapted frameworks in which

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Table 6. Text-driven framework for task-based teaching extracted from Tomlinson (2013, p. 24)
Stages Learners’ activities Principles
(i) Thinking about something personal which Personal connection.
Readiness will help them connect with the content of Visual imaging.
activities the core text Use of inner speech.
(ii) Linking the images and thoughts from the Personal connection.
readiness activities to the text when first Visual imaging.
Initial response experiencing it. Use of inner speech.
activities Affective and cognitive engagement.
Use of high-level skills.
Focus on meaning.
(iii) Developing and then articulating personal Personal connection.
Intake response responses to the text. Visual imaging.
activities Affective and cognitive engagement.
Use of inner speech.
Interaction.
Personal connection.
(iv) Developing the text by continuing it, Visual imaging.
Development relocating it, changing the writer’s views, Use of inner speech.
activity 1 personalizing it, responding to it, etc. Affective and cognitive engagement.
Use of high-level skills.
Focus on meaning.
Interaction.
Purposeful communication
(v) Focusing on a specific linguistic, pragmatic, Personal connection.
Input response discourse, genre or cultural feature of the Visual imaging.
activity text and in order to make discoveries Use of inner speech.
about its use. Affective and cognitive engagement.
Use of high-level skills.
Interaction.
Noticing.
(vi) Revising the first draft from 4 above making As for 4.
Development use of their discoveries in 5 above
activity 2

Zhang et al. (2022, p.2) claimed that “not all tasks could be an option because theoretically the
engage learners”. In this respect, Tomlinson (2018) approach aims to promote learning conditions based
argues that a text-driven task-based approach can on text-driven tasks that engage learners cognitively
enhance EFL learners’ cognitive and affective and emotionally, which may promote learners’
engagement, increase the educational values and engagement, comprehension and production of
content values of a unit, and stimulate authentic language.
tasks in which learners can be more exposed to rich
4.3. Conclusions and suggestions for future
and meaningful input.
research
The gap remains as to empirical research on
After scrutinizing the 25 quasi-experimental/
enhancing language skills using this framework. In
classroom studies conducted mainly to assess the
a recent publication, Van Loi and Thanh (2022)
effects of TBLT on EFL speaking performance, we
concluded that most of the text-driven approach
have concluded that the majority of them have
studies are case studies or action research. Their
indicated an enhancement of EFL learners' general
quasi-experiment study illustrates that the text-
speaking performance and specific speaking
driven approach had an effect on EFL learners’
components (i.e., complexity, fluency, accuracy).
reading performance. Further research is needed to
Various tasks were employed in treatments such as
test the effect on other skills. Speaking learning
narrative, role play, technology-mediated tasks,

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collaborative tasks, and so on. The results imply implemented from various perspectives.
TBLT could be an effective measure to enhance Comparative research on task-based methodological
EFL learners’ speaking. Despite the research options can be conducted. The text-driven approach,
findings, further research is still needed to advance with its principles drawing on second language
task-based language pedagogy, especially adding acquisition research, could also be an option for
diversity to how tasks can be designed and advancing TBLT.

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