DSTL UNIT 4

Abhay Kumar Singh

author
 ii.Associativity :

 An algebraic structure is a mathematical system comprising Let X, Y and Z  G

a collection of elements.  X = x1 + 2y1 Y = x2 + 2y2 Z = x3 + 2y3 where x1 ,x2 , x3 ,
 One or more operations defined on the set, such as addition, y1 , y2 , y3  Q
multiplication, or binary operations. Consider (X + Y) + Z = (x1 + 2 y1 + x2 + 2y2 ) + (x3 + 2 y3 )
 Suppose * is a binary operation on G. Then (G, *) is an = ((x1 + x2 ) + 2(y1 + y2 ) ) + (x3 + 2y3 )
algebraic structure = (x1 + x2 + x3 ) + (y1 + y2 + y3 ) ---- eq(1)
 The behavior of elements within the structure is determined Also X + (Y + Z) = (x1 + 2y1 ) + ((x2 + 2y2 ) + (x3 + 2y3 ))
by properties like: = (x1 + 2y1 ) + ((x2 + x3 ) + 2(y2 + y3 ) ) ---- eq(2)
1. Closure property : Result of combining elements is = (x1 + x2 + x3 ) + (y1 + y2 + y3 )
always in the group From eq. ( 1) and (2) (X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z)
(a * b)  S  a, b,  S Therefore, G is associative under addition.
2. Associativity: Grouping doesn't change the result iii.Identity element :
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)  a, b, c  S
3. Commutativity: Order of operands doesn't matter. Let e  G be identity elements of G under addition then
(a * b) = (b * a) (x + 2y ) + (e 1 + 2e2 ) = x +2y where e = e 1 + 2e2 and e1 , e2 , x,
4. Distributivity: Operation interacts with another in yQ
specific way. e1 + 2e2= 0 + 0 2 e1 = 0 and e 2 = 0 Therefore, 0  G is identity
a * (b + c) = (a * b) + (a * c) (right distributive) element.
(b + c) * a = (b * a) + (c * a) (left distributive)
iv. Inverse element :
5. Identity Elements: Elements that don't change others.
a * e = a = e*a – x – 2y  G is inverse of x + 2y  G. Therefore, inverse exist for
6. Inverse Elements: Elements that cancel each other every element x + 2y G
a * a –1 = e = a – 1 * a
such that, y  Q. Hence, G is a group under addition.

 Set with closure and associative property . Quantum 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.11 2.13 2.14 (2019-2020)
Ex: (N,+) (Z, +), (R, +), and (Q, +) are all semigroups

 A ring is an algebraic system (R, +, •) where R is a non-empty

 Set with closure , associative property, identity, inverses. set and + and • are two binary operations
 Ex: (Z, +), (R, +), and (Q, +) are all groups  if the following conditions are satisfied :
1. (R, +) is an abelian group.
2. (R, •) is semigroup
3. The operation • is distributive over +.
 Group with commutative operation.
 Ex: (Z, +) is abelian group i.e., for any a, b, c  R
a • (b + c) = (a • b) + (a • c)
Note: z=set(integer) N=set(natural) Q=set(rational) R=set(real) or (b + c) • a = (b • a) + (c • a)
 Ex: (Z, +,*), (R, +,*), and (Q, +,*) are all ring
N:1 -> Show that the set G = {x + 2y |x, y  Q} is a group with
respect to addition

i.Closure :

 Let X = x1 + 2y1 Y = x2 + 2y2 where x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 Q  A ring is called an integral domain if :

and X, Y  G 1. It is commutative
Then X + Y = (x1 + 2y1 ) + (x2 + 2y2 ) 2. It has unit element
= (x1 + x2 ) + 2(y1 + y2 ) 3. It is without zero divisors
= X1 + 1 2Y  G where X1 , Y1  Q  Ex:(Z, +, *),(R, + ,*), and (Q, + ,*) are all integral domain
Therefore, [ Sum of two rational numbers is rational].
 A ring R with at least two elements is called a field  Cyclic permutation cyclically rearranges elements in a fixed
 if it has following properties : sequence, typically returning to the initial element after a
 R is commutative certain number of steps
 R has unity  For example : Consider A = {a, b, c, d, e}. Then P =[ a b c d e ]
 R is such that each non-zero element possesses [ c b d a e ].
multiplicative inverse then P has a cycle of length 3 given by (a, c, d).
 Ex: (R, +, *), and (Q, +, *) are fields
Quantum 2.33
Quantum : 2.32 2.33 2.31

 Let H be a subgroup of group G and let a  G then

 it refers to the number of elements in the group.  set Ha = {ha : h  H} is called right coset generated by H
 It represents the size or cardinality of the group. and a.
 For EX: Z4={0,1,2,3} with order 4.  Also the set aH = {ah : h  H} is called left coset generated by
a and H

N.5: Find the left cosets of {[0], [3]} in the group (Z6 , +6 ).
 A cyclic group is a group that is generated by a single
element, often denoted <g>. Let Z6 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]} be a group.
 where g is called a generator. H = {[0], [3]} be a subgroup of (Z6 , +6 ).
 The group consists of all powers of g, including positive and
negative powers. The left cosets of H are,

N:2-> Show that the multiplicative group G = {1, – 1, i, – i} is [0] + H = {[0], [3]} [1] + H = {[1], [4]}
cyclic. Also find its generators. [2] + H = {[2], [5]} [3] + H = {[3], [0]}
Quantum 2.18 2.19 (2019-2020) [4] + H = {[4], [1]} [5] + H = {[5], [2]}
N:4-> Prove that every cyclic group is an abelian group Quantum : 2.25
Let G be a cyclic group and let a be a generator of G so that
G = {a n : n  Z} If g1 and g2 are any two elements of G, there
exist integers r and s such that g1 = a r and g2 = a s .  A subgroup H of group G is a normal subgroup if aH=Ha for
Then g1 g2 = a r a s = ar+s = a s+r = a s . a r = g2 g1 So, G is abelian. all a in G, indicating that left and right cosets of H generated
by a are identical.
 Property:
 If (G, *) is a group and H  G. Then (H, *) is said to subgroup 1. every subgroup H of an abelian group G is a normal subgroup
of G if (H, *) is also a group by itself. i.e., of G. For a  G and h  H, ah = ha.
1. a * b  H  a, b  H (Closure property) 2. Since a cyclic group is abelian, every subgroup of a cyclic
2.  e  H such that a * e = a = e * a  a  H where e is called group is normal.
identity of G.
3.  a–1 H such that a * a –1 = e = a –1 * a  a  H

Quantum 2.12

 A permutation group G on a non-empty set A under the

binary operation ∗.
 If A={1,2,3,…,n}, then the permutation group formed by A is
called the symmetric group of degree n, denoted by Sn.
 Number of Elements in Symmetric Group:
 The number of elements in Sn is n!,