Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M.

Mohammed Ali

Signals and Linear Systems

In particular, signals are used to transmit information over a communication channel. Such
signals are usually called information-bearing signals. Speech signals, video signals, and the
output of an ASCII terminal are examples of information-bearing signals. The communication
channel is an example of a system, i.e., an entity that produces an output signal when excited
by an input signal. A large number of communication channels can be modelled closely by a
subclass of systems called linear systems. Linear systems arise naturally in many practical
applications and are rather easy to analyze.

BASIC CONCEPTS
We generally deal with communication signals that are functions of time, i.e., time is the
independent variable. Examples of such signals are audio signals (speech, music), video
signals, and data signals. Such signals are represented as mathematical functions of the form
s(t), or x(t), or f(t). As an example, a sample waveform of a speech signal is shown in Figure 1.

1. Basic Operations on Signals

Basic operations on signals involve time shifting, time reversal (flipping), and time scaling. In
this section, we describe the effect of these operations on signals.

Time Shifting
Shifting, or delaying, a signal x (t) by a given constant time to results in the signal x (t – t0). If
t0 is positive, this action is equivalent to a delay of t0; thus,

Figure 1: A sample speech waveform

The result is a shifted version of x (t) by t0 to the right. If t0 is negative, then the result is a shift
to the left by an amount equal to |t0 |. A plot of a signal shift for positive t0 is shown in Figure
2.

1
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

Figure 2: Time shifting of a signal

Time Reversal
Time reversal, or flipping, of a signal results in flipping the signal around the vertical axis, or
creating the mirror image of the plot with respect to the vertical axis. We can visualize this
flipping of a signal as playing an audio tape in reverse. As a result, positive times are mapped
as negative times and vice versa. In mathematical terms, time reversal of x (t) results in x ( -t).
Figure 3 shows this operation.

Figure 3: Time reversal of a signal

Time Scaling
Time scaling of a signal results in a change in the time unit against which the signal is plotted.
Time scaling results in either an expanded version of the signal (if the new time unit is a fraction
of the original time unit) or a contracted version of the original signal (if the new time unit is a
multiple of the original time unit). In general, time scaling is expressed as x (a t) for some a >
0. If a < 1, then the result is an expanded version of the original signal (such as a tape, which
is played at a slower speed than it was recorded). If a > 1, the result is a contracted form of the
original signal (such as a tape that is played at a higher speed than it was recorded). The case
of a > 1 is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Time scaling of a signal

In general, we may have a combination of these operations. For instance, x (-2t) is a

combination of pipping the signal and then contracting it by a factor of 2. Also, x (2t - 3) is
equal to x [2(t - 1 .5)], which is equivalent to contracting the signal by a factor of 2 and then
shifting it to the right by 1 .5.

2
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

2. Classification of Signals
The classification of signals makes their study easier. Depending on the point of view, signals
can be classified in a variety of ways. In this section, we present the most important ways to
classify signals.
Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals. Based on the range of the independent variable,
signals can be divided into two classes: continuous-time signals and discrete-time signals. A
continuous-time signal is a signal x (t) for which the independent variable t takes real numbers.
A discrete-time signal, denoted by x [n], is a signal for which the independent variable n takes
its values in the set of integers.
By sampling a continuous-time signal x (t) at time instants separated by T0, we can define the
discrete-time signal x [n] = x (n T0). Figure 5 shows examples of discrete-time and continuous-
time signals.

Figure 5: Examples of discrete-time and continuous-time signals.

Example 1
Let
x (t) = A cos (2πf0t +θ)
This is an example of a continuous-time signal called a sinusoidal signal. A sketch of this signal
is given in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Sinusoidal signal

3
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

Example 2
Let
x[n] = A cos (2πf0n + θ)
where n ∈ Z (Z is the set o f integers). A sketch o f this discrete-time signal is given in Figure
7.

Figure 7: Discrete-time sinusoidal signal

Real and Complex Signals

Signals are functions, and functions at a given value of their independent variable are just
numbers, which can be either real or complex. A real signal takes its values in the set of real
numbers, i.e., x (t) ∈ R. A complex signal takes its values in the set of complex numbers, i.e.,
x (t) ∈ C.
In communications, complex signals are usually used to model signals that convey amplitude
and phase information. Like complex numbers, a complex signal can be represented by two
real signals. These two real signals can be either the real and imaginary parts or the absolute
value (or modulus or magnitude) and phase. A graph of a complex signal can be given by
graphs in either of these representations. However, the magnitude and phase graphs are more
widely used.

Example 3
The signal
𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗(2𝜋 𝑓0𝑡 +𝜃)
is a complex signal. Its real part is
𝑥𝑟 (𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋 𝑓0 𝑡 + 𝜃)
and its imaginary part is
𝑥𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜋 𝑓0 𝑡 + 𝜃)

where we have used Euler's relation e jФ = cos Ф + j sin Ф. We could equivalently describe this
signal in terms of its modulus and phase. The absolute value of x (t) is
|𝑥 (𝑡)| = √𝑥𝑟2 (𝑡) + 𝑥𝑖2 (𝑡)
and its phase is
Lx(t)= 2πf0t + θ

Graphs of these functions are given in Figure 8

4
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

The real and complex components, as well as the modulus and phase of any complex signal,
are represented by the following relations:

xr (t) = |x(t) | cos (Lx(t))

xi (t) = |x(t) | sin (Lx(t))

|xr (t)|= √𝑥𝑟2 (𝑡) + 𝑥𝑖2 (𝑡)

𝑥𝑖 (𝑡)
Lx(t) = arctan 𝑥𝑟 (𝑡)

Figure 8: Real-imaginary and magnitude-phase graphs of the complex exponential

signal in Example 3.

Deterministic and Random Signals

In a deterministic signal at any time instant t, the value of x (t) is given as a real or a complex
number. In a random (or stochastic) signal at any given time instant t, x (t) is a random variable;
i.e., it is defined by a probability density function. All of our previous examples were
deterministic signals.

Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

A periodic signal repeats in time; hence, it is sufficient to specify the signal in a basic interval
called the period. More formally, a periodic signal is a signal x (t) that satisfies the property

x (t + T0) = x (t)

For all t, and some positive real number T0 (called the period of the signal). For discrete time
Periodic signals, we have
x [n + N0] = x [n]

For all integers n, and a positive integer N0 (called the period). A signal that does not satisfy
the conditions of periodicity is called non periodic.

5
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

Example 4
The signals
𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋 𝑓0 𝑡 + 𝜃)
and
𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗(2𝜋 𝑓0𝑡 +𝜃)
1
are examples of real and complex periodic signals. The period of both signals is T0 = 𝑓 . The
0
signal
1 𝑡≥0
u-1 = {
0 𝑡<0
illustrated in Figure 9 is an example of a nonperiodic signal. This signal is known as the unit-
step signal.

Figure 9: The unit-step signal.

Causal and Noncausal Signals

Causality is an important concept in classifying systems. This concept has a close relationship
to the realizability of a system. A signal x (t) is called causal if for all t < 0, we have x (t) = 0;
otherwise, the signal is noncausal. Equivalently, a discrete-time signal is a causal signal if it is
identically equal to zero for n < 0.

Example 5
The signal
𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋 𝑓0 𝑡 + 𝜃) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑥(𝑡) = {
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

is a causal signal. Its graph is shown in Figure 10.

Similarly, we can define anticausal signals as signals whose time inverse is causal. Therefore,
an anticausal signal is identically equal to zero for t > 0.

Figure 10: An example of a causal signal.

6
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

Even and Odd Signals

Evenness and oddness are expressions of various types of symmetry present in signals. A signal
x (t) is even if it has mirror symmetry with respect to the vertical axis. A signal is odd if it is
antisymmetric with respect to the vertical axis.

The signal x(t) is even if and only if, for all t,

x(-t) = x (t)
and is odd if and only if, for all t,

x(-t) = -x(t)

Figure 11 shows graphs of even and odd signals.

Figure 11: Examples of even and odd signals.

In general, any signal x (t) can be written as the sum of its even and odd parts as

x (t) = Xe (t) + X0 (t)

Where
𝑥 (𝑡)+ 𝑥 (− 𝑡 )
Xe (t) =
2

𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑥 (− 𝑡 )
Xo (t) =
2

Example 6
From Figure 8, we can see that for θ = 0 and x (t) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗2𝜋 𝑓0 𝑡 , the real part and the magnitude
are evel,1 and the imaginary part and the phase are odd.

7
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

Energy-Type and Power-Type Signals

This classification deals with the energy content and the power content of signals. For any
signal x(t) , the energy content of the signal is defined by
+∞ 𝑇/2
ℇ𝑥 = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = lim ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 𝑇→∞ −𝑇/2

The power content is defined by

1 𝑇/2
lim ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇/2

For real signals, |𝑥(𝑡)|2 is replaced by x2(t)

A signal x (t) is an energy-type signal if and only if ℇ𝑥 is finite. A signal is a power type
signal if and only if Px satisfies
0 < Px < ∞

Example 7
Find the energy in the signal described by
2 |𝑥| < 3
𝑥 (𝑡 ) = {
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Solution: We have
+∞ 3
ℇ𝑥 = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 9𝑑𝑡 = 54
−∞ −3
Therefore, this signal is an energy-type signal.

Example 8
For any periodic signal with period T0, the energy is
𝑇/2
ℇ𝑥 = lim ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ −𝑇/2
𝑛𝑡
+ 0
2
ℇ𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑛𝑡 |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑛→∞ − 0
2
𝑡
+ 0
2
ℇ𝑥 = lim 𝑛 ∫ 𝑡 |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑛→∞ − 0
2
=∞
Therefore, periodic signals are not typically energy type. The power content of any periodic
signal is
1 𝑇/2
𝑃𝑥 = lim ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇/2
𝑛𝑇0
1 +2
𝑃𝑥 = lim ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑛𝑇0 −𝑛𝑇0
2
𝑇
+ 0
𝑛 2
𝑃𝑥 = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑛𝑇0 −𝑇0
2

8
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

𝑇0
1 +2
𝑃𝑥 = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 −𝑇0
2

This means that the power content of a periodic signal is equal to the average power in one
period.

3. Some Important Signals and Their Properties

In our study of communication systems, certain signals appear frequently. In this section, we
briefly introduce these signals and describe some of their properties.

The Sinusoidal Signal

The sinusoidal signal is defined by

𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋 𝑓0 𝑡 + 𝜃)

where the parameters A, J0, and θ are, respectively, the amplitude, frequency, and phase of the
signal. A sinusoidal signal is periodic with the period T0 = 1 /f0. For a graph of this signal, see
Figure 6.

The Complex Exponential Signal

The complex exponential signal is defined by

𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗(2𝜋 𝑓0𝑡 +𝜃)

Again A, J0, and θ are, respectively, the amplitude, frequency, and phase of the signal. This
signal is shown in Figure 8.

The Unit-Step Signal

The unit-step signal which is another frequently encountered signal. The unit step multiplied
by any signal produces a "causal version" of the signal. The unit-step signal is shown in Figure
9. Note that for positive a, we have u-1 (at) = u-1 (t).

Example 9
To plot the signal u-1 (t) + 2u-1 (t - 1) - u-1 (t - 2), we note that this is a result of time shifting
the unit-step function. The plot is shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12: The signal u-1 (t) + 2u-1 (t - 1) - u-1 (t - 2)

9
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

The Rectangular Pulse.

This signal is defined as
1
П(𝑡) = { 1 − ≤𝑡≤1
2 2
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

The graph of the rectangular pulse is shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13: The rectangular pulse

The Triangular Signal

This signal is defined as
𝑡+1 −1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤0
{ −𝑡 + 1 0≤𝑡≤1
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Its plot is shown in Figure 14. It is not difficult to verify that

Λ (t) = П (t) * П (t)

Figure 14: The triangular signal

10
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

The Sine Signal

The sine signal is defined as
sin(𝜋𝑡)
sinc(𝑡) = { 𝑡=0
𝜋𝑡
1 𝑡≠0

The waveform corresponding to this signal is shown in Figure 15. From this figure, we can see
that the sine signal achieves its maximum of 1 at t = 0. The zeros of the sine signal are at t = ±
1 , ±2, ±3, . . . .

Figure 15: The sine signal

The Impulse or Delta Signal

The impulse or delta signal is a mathematical model for representing physical phenomena that
occur in a very small time duration, are so small that they are beyond the resolution of the
measuring instruments involved, and for all practical purposes, have a duration that can be
assumed to be equal to zero. Examples of such phenomena are a hammer blow, a very narrow
voltage or current pulse, and so on. In the precise mathematical sense, the impulse signal 𝛿 (t)
is not a function (or signal)-it is a distribution or a generalized function. A distribution is
defined in terms of its effect on another function (usually called the "test function") under the
integral sign. The impulse distribution (or signal) can be defined by the relation
+∞
∫ ∅(𝑡)𝛿(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∅(0)
−∞
which expresses the effect of the impulse distribution on the "test function" ∅(𝑡), assumed to
be continuous at the origin. This property is called the sifting property of the impulse signal.
In other words, the effect of the impulse signal on the "test function" ∅(𝑡) under the integral
sign is to extract or sift its value at the origin. As shown, 𝛿 (𝑡) is defined in terms of its action
on ∅(𝑡)and not defined in terms of its value for different values of t.
Sometimes it is helpful to visualize 𝛿(𝑡) as the limit of certain known signals. The most
commonly used forms are
1 𝑡
𝛿 (𝑡) = lim П( )
𝜖↓0 ∈ ∈
And
1 𝑡
𝛿 (𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐( )
𝜖↓0 ∈ ∈

Figure 16 shows graphs of these signals. (The symbol 𝜖 ↓ 0 means that 𝜖 tends to zero from
above, i.e., it remains positive.)

11
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

The following properties are derived from the definition of the impulse signal:
1. 𝛿 (t) = 0 for all t ≠ 0 and 𝛿 (0) = ∞

2. x (t) 𝛿 (t – t0) = x(t0) 𝛿 (t – t0)

3. For any ∅ (t) continuous at t0

+∞
∫ ∅(𝑡)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )𝑑𝑡 = ∅(𝑡0 )
−∞

4. For any ∅ (t) continuous at t0

+∞
∫ ∅(𝑡 + 𝑡0 )𝛿 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∅(𝑡0 )
−∞

5. For all a ≠ 0
1
𝛿 (𝑎𝑡) = 𝛿 (𝑡 )
|𝑎|

Figure 16: The impulse signal as a limit

6. The result of the convolution of any signal with the impulse signal is the signal itself:
x (t) * 𝛿 (t) = x (t)
Also
x (t) * 𝛿 (t-t0) = x (t-t0)

12
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

7. The unit-step signal is the integral of the impulse signal, and the impulse signal is the
generalized derivative of the unit-step signal, i.e.,
1
𝑢−1 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝛿 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏
−∞
And
𝑑
𝛿 (𝑡 ) = 𝑢 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 −1

8. Similar to the way we defined 𝛿(t), we can define 𝛿'(t), 𝛿"(t), . . . , 𝛿 (n)(t), the
generalized derivatives of 𝛿(t), by the following equation:
9.
+∞
𝑛 𝑛
𝑑𝑛
( ) ( )
∫ 𝛿 𝑡 ∅ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −1 ∅(𝑡)|𝑡=0
−∞ 𝑑𝑡 𝑛

We can generalize this result to

+∞
𝑑𝑛
∫ 𝛿 𝑛 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 )∅(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = −1𝑛 ∅(𝑡)|𝑡=𝑡0
−∞ 𝑑𝑡 𝑛

10. The result of the convolution of any signal with nth derivative of x(t) is the nth
derivative of x (t), i.e.,
x(t) ∗ 𝛿(n) (t) = x(n) (t)
and in particular
x(t) ∗ 𝛿′ (t) = x’ (t)

11. The result of the convolution of any signal x(t) with the unit-step signal is the integral
of the signal x(t), i.e.,
1
𝑥(𝑡) ∗ 𝑢−1 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
−∞

12. For even values of n, 𝛿 (n)(t) is even; for odd values of n, it is odd. In particular, 𝛿(t) is
even and 𝛿'(t) is odd.

A schematic representation of the impulse signal is given in Figure 17, where the integral of
𝛿 (t) over all time (-∞ < t < ∞) is unity.

Example 10
+∞
Determine (cos t) 𝛿 (t), (cos t) 𝛿 (2t -3), and ∫−∞ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝛿 ′ (𝑡 − 1)𝑑𝑡

Solution:
To determine (cos t) 𝛿 (t), we can use Property 2:
(cos t) 𝛿 (t) = (cos 0) 𝛿 (t) = 𝛿 (t).

To determine (cos t) 𝛿 (2t -3), we can use Property 5:

1 3
𝛿 (2t - 3) = 2 𝛿 (t - 2 )

13
Analog Communication Systems 2nd Lecture Dr. M. Mohammed Ali

Figure 17: The impulse signal

Then, from Property 1, we have

1 3 cos 1.5 3 3
(cos t) 𝛿 (2t-3) = 2 (cos t) 𝛿 (t - 2 ) = 2 𝛿 (t - 2 ) ≈ 0.0335 𝛿 (t - 2 )

+∞
Finally, to determine ∫−∞ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝛿 ′ (𝑡 − 1)𝑑𝑡 we use Property 8 to obtain

+∞
𝑑 −𝑡
∫ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝛿 ′ (𝑡 − 1)𝑑𝑡 = (−1) 𝑒 |𝑡=1 = 𝑒 −1
−∞ 𝑑𝑡

14