Module 7: Infectious Disease

Causes of Infectious Disease - How are diseases transmitted?

● describe a variety of infectious diseases caused by pathogens, including

microorganisms, macroorganisms and non-cellular pathogens, and collect primary and
secondary-sourced data and information relating to disease transmission, including:

Disease - any condition which interferes with normal functioning of the body
Health - complete state of physical, mental, social, emotional and spiritual wellbeing, not just
absence of mortality
Pathogen - a disease causing agent or organism such as bacteria, viruses, fungus, protozoa,
prions and macro parasites

Infectious diseases - caused by pathogens and can be transmitted from one person to another
Non-infectious diseases - not caused by pathogens but by other factors such as diet,
environment, psychological issues and genetics. They cannot be transmitted from one person to
another except through genetic inheritance.

–
– classifying different pathogens that cause disease in plants and animals
Pathogen Description Example

Prion - Abnormally folded proteins made by DNA Animal: Mad cow

(non-living) - Can make other proteins abnormal disease
- Small and difficult to sterilise Plant: Chronic
- Both infectious and hereditary wasting disease

Virus - Package of DNA/RNA surrounded by proteins Animal: HIV = AIDs,

(non-living) - Extremely small influenza = flu
- Non-cellular and therefore non-living + can’t grow or reproduce Ebola virus = ebla
- Invades host cells -> injects its genetic material into host cell -> cell Plant: Tomato
metabolises new viruses spotted wilt virus
- Can only survive in live cells
- Vaccines are effective in getting rid of viruses

Bacteria - Tiny prokaryotic single cellular (no nucleus or membrane bound Animal: Tetanus,
organelle) cell wall and cell membrane Tuberculosis,
- Single strand of DNA Bacillus, Lyme
- Reproduce through binary fission Disease
- Invade cells and from colonies that disrupt normal cell function Plant: Apple fire
- Can survive outside a host cell and in reservoirs through spores, blight citrus canker
therefore are hard to eliminate and therefore is hard to eradicated

Protozoa - Single celled eukaryotic organisms (cell membrane but no cell wall) Animal: Malaria,
- Free living heterotrophs (absorb nutrients from their host) Flagellate
- Form colonies that disrupt normal cell function Plant: downy mildew
- Classified by their method of locomotion: flagellates, pseudopods, ciliates, sporozoa

Fungi - Simple organism that are eukaryotic - multicellular or unicellular Animal: Foot tinea,
- Reproduce asexually using spores Thrush, athletes foot
- Similar to plants but without chlorophyll Plant: black spot,
 - Can grow on skin and mucous membrane in body mildew
- Contain cell walls and membrane

Macro- - Multicellular parasites that obtain nutrients from their host and can Animal: Ticks,
parasites cause disease and weight loss Tapeworm
- Act as a vector for other pathogens Plant: Dodder
- Has cell wall and membrane

– investigating the transmission of a disease during an epidemic

Epidemic: sudden spike in the prevalence of an infectious disease in a region / community
Pandemic: sudden spike in a disease across the entire world
Enzootic: endemic amongst animals in a particular region

Example: Ebola Virus pathogen causing ebola fever

Severe and fatal disease that affects humans causing severe bleeding, organ failure and can
lead to death. The rapid spread was due to lack of public health services and the socioeconomic
status of the country = poor hygiene practices, infrastructure and lack of research.

Source:
2 year old boy in Guinea who was infected by wild bats
Virus spread from person to person to West African Countries: Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia
Incidence: 28,000 cases & 11,500 deaths

Mode of transmission: direct - The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals (such as
fruit bats, porcupines and non-human primates) and then spreads in the human population
through direct contact with the blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of infected people
and indirect contact with contaminated items.

Management of the outbreak:

Prevention: methods of reducing the chance of contracting the pathogen
Control: management of existing disease to stop its spread
- Ban on funeral and burial practices (cleaning of the dead) to avoid physical contact
- Specially designed ebola treatment hospitals
- Isolating cases and tracing contacts then isolating and monitoring them for 21 days
- Treated through replacement of body fluids to minimise symptoms
- Screening of passengers as domestic and international airports
- Isolation zones
 – design and conduct a practical investigation relating to the microbial testing of water or
food samples
Aim: To compare fresh and old food in terms of number and type of microbial colonies.
Hypothesis: Plates inoculated with old food will have a greater number and greater variety of
different colonies growing on them than plates inoculated with fresh food.
Independent variable: age of food
Dependent variable: the number of microbial colonies growing on the plate and the number of
different types of colonies found on the plate
Control: agar plate with no food
(This was to verify that microbes on plates come from food samples and are not present in the agar to begin
with. This therefore validates the experiment by ensuring microbes grown are directly from the food)
Variables kept constant:
- Type of agar
- Sterile techniques
- Incubation time and temperature
Equipment
- Variables (source of reservoir)
- Inoculating loop
- Agar plates
- Bunsen burner

Risk assessment
Identification of specific Description of potential Strategies to minimise risk
risk harm

Agar plates with microbe Exposure to colonies -Always seal off Petri dishes after first exposure;
colonies could cause serious -never open again;
disease -sterilise after use and dispose of correctly

Sterilising inoculating loop Burns caused by hot wire Ensure that the only part of the inoculating loop that
after heating inoculating is touched is the handle
loop

Exposure to microorganisms These microorganisms -Benches wiped with disinfectant;

could cause disease -use disposable gloves and wash hands with soap

Method:
1. Swab down your bench with a disinfectant solution.
2. Collect your inoculating loop (wand) and 10 sterile agar plates.
3. Practice various aseptic techniques that your teacher shows you. This includes correct
sterilisation of your inoculating loop, correct streaking procedure, the need for re-sterilisation of
the loop in between streaks, opening agar plates for minimum time necessary and at a small
angle.
4. Streak your plates according to the following specifications (foods old vs fresh) + control group

Microbes in food set up:

5. Seal every plate with sticky tape, and label the food used. Please leave a one centimetre gap on
the edge of the plate where there is no sticky tape, as the plate needs a small space for condensation
to escape.
6. Incubate plates at 37 degrees Celsius for three days. After this time remove from the incubator and
record your results.
7. Disinfect the working surface
8. Repeat experiment multiple times recording results in a table

Results: (full results in booklet)

 Bacterial colonies: normally shiny with a Fungal colonies: normally fuzzy/fluffy or
round uniform shape powdery in a splat like shape

Results: White, translucent, yellow, shiny, Results: fluffy white, fluffy green
yellow translucent

Conclusion: petri dishes inoculated with fresh doof samples grew fewer microbial colonies and
fewer types of microbes than old/past use by date food samples. This means that fresh food is
safer to eat than old food.

– investigate modes of transmission of infectious diseases, including direct contact,

indirect contact and vector transmission
Transmission - passing of pathogen from an infected person or reservoir to a non-infected person
Host - organism susceptible to a disease
Vector - carries a pathogen and transmits this pathogen
Direct Contact Indirect Contact --------> Vector Transmission (type of indirect contact)

Transfer of a pathogen via exposure to infected skin Transfer of the pathogen to a new Disease vectors are not
or secretions. Occurs when there is physical contact host via non-living objects or a living pathogens themselves, rather
between the host and a non-infected organism. vector. Does not involve contact they carry the pathogens that
Vertical transmission: from mother to fetus (placenta, between host and another organism cause the disease.
vaginal birth, breast feeding) The pathogen is usually injected
Horizontal transmission: from one individual to another directly into the host by the vector,
which overcomes the skin barrier.
Physical contact includes: Indirect means of transmission Malaria is caused by a protist
· touching include: parasite Plasmodium, which is
· sexual contact · airborne transmission — carried by mosquitoes in their
· kissing coughing or sneezing (droplets saliva. In this example, the
· contact with nasal or oral secretions can travel up to 8 metres Plasmodium is the pathogen and
· biting through the air) the mosquitoes are the vector.
· direct contact with any blood or other body · touching an infected surface E.g. malaria caused by
fluids (includes needles) · contaminated food or water plasmodium protozoa on the
· direct contact with wounds · infected surgical instruments vector mosquitoes.
· prenatal (before birth or during pregnancy) or vectors such as mosquitoes,
perinatal (around the time of birth) transmission. ticks and fleas.

● investigate the work of Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur, to explain the causes
and transmission of infectious diseases, including:
– Koch’s postulates
 Koch’s Postulates (reasoning) was a method of proving which microorganisms caused which
disease. He set up a criteria that must be met before a disease can be positively linked to a
pathogen.
1. In all diseased organisms, the suspected pathogen
must be found in abundance
2. Isolate this pathogen and grow in pure culture (not
contaminated with other pathogens)
3. Infecting a healthy test subject with the suspected
pathogen must result in the development of the same
signs and symptoms as the identified disease
4. The pathogen must be re-isolated from the new host
and be identical to the pathogen found in step 2
(Note: Koch was partially wrong as many people can carry a
pathogen but not express symptoms of the disease)

Explanation for the transmission of infectious diseases:

Organisms must be infected by the same pathogen for the same disease to arise.
Found a causal relation between pathogen and development of an infectious disease.

– Louis Pasteur’s experiments on microbial contamination

In the 19th century Pasteur found that fermentation was due to the presence of living
microorganisms (bacteria) called yeast. Therefore he hypothesised that spoilege could be
avoided by killing bacteria present through heat. He proved this theory through his swan
neck experiment.

Argued germs (micro-organisms in the air) are the cause of disease, disputing the theory of
spontaneous generation = germ theory of disease. (microbes come from pre-existing
microbes) This understanding has led to treatment and storage of food to kill existing microbes
and sealing of the food to prevent entry of new microbes. This has also reduced the incidence of
food poisoning.
Pasteurisation = the process of heating food to kill pathogens

Risk Assessment: (RIP - Risk

Injury Prevention)
Risk Precaution/Prevention Management Disposal

Hot plate causing Don’t touch hot plate wait for it to cool down Seek first aid
burn before putting away
Mould/bacteria Don’t open the flask. Disinfect if spills occur If exposed seek Lab assistant will destroy mould with
growing on broth medical help heat/disinfectant

Glassware Place in the centre of the table and wear enclosed Seek first aid Use broom + dustpan to sweep up
causing cuts leather shoes & goggles to protect eyes glass and place into glass bin

Aim: To demonstrate that no decomposition will occur if the microbes are prevented from
reaching the broth
Independent variable: shape of the flask neck (bent or straight)
Dependent variable: clarity of the broth
Controlled variables:
- Volume of broth
- Type of broth
- Boiling time
- Time the broth clarity is checked

Method:
1. Put broth into flasks (straight neck and swan neck)
2. Boil to kill any preexisting microbes
3. Observe flasks for any activity

Results
Time Straight Flask S-Shaped Flask

0 Clear Clear

1 Clear Clear

2 Cloudy Clear

3 Cloudy Clear

4 Mould Clear

Nutrient broth that was not exposed to microbes in air remained clear, while the broth in the
straight neck flask turned cloudy, indicating spoilage. This demonstrates that microbial growth
cannot arise spontaneously and is instead a result of particles in the air carrying
microorganisms. This is because the curved neck flask stopped falling particles of micro
bacteria contaminating the broth.
= Microbes are cause of spoilage
Conclusion - Microbes come from preexisting microbes since no growth occurred in the sterile
swan-necked flask.

● assess the causes and effects of diseases on agricultural production, including

but not limited to:
Role of Agriculture: form of primary industry that involves the cultivation of crops and pastures
and the rearing of animals to provide meat, milk, fibres and other products for humans.
Due to Australia’s isolation from the rest of the world, we are free from many infectious diseases
that affect animal and plant crops in other countries. This makes our agricultural crops highly
sought after in the rest of the world, increasing economic prosperity.
 We must protect our agricultural industry due to transmission of many animal and plant
diseases.
Exotic diseases: Exotic diseases are infectious diseases that normally do not occur in the region
either because they have never been present there or because they were eradicated and then
kept out by government control measures e.g. foot and mouth disease, influenza
Endemic diseases: Diseases present within a country or a region e.g. footrot, anthrax

Causes Effect

- Loss of genetic biodiversity, due to monoculture, - Death and illness in plants and animals
results in a lack of resilience to diseases - Decreased yield and quality of crops
- Intensive agriculture practices such as high - Loss of trading opportunities both
density livestock facilitates the easy transmission domestically and internationally resulting
of diseases (close contact) in a downturn in economic activity and
- Increased globalisation results in mobility of financial hardship for farmers
diseases through people carrying infected plants - Food security can be impacted e.g.
and food products across borders (lack of potato famine
biosecurity) - Rise in prices for fresh produce = fall in
- Wide use of pesticides / antibiotics can result in the health of the population
resistant strains of diseases, increasing their
prevalence and severity

– plant diseases
Potato Blight:
- Potato crops were infected by a fungal pathogen (Phytophthora infestans fungus)
- Spreads through spores and infected tubers
- Destroyed ¾ of the entire potato crops in ireland, poisoning 100,000 people and causing
mass starvation (Irish Potato Famine)
- Was due to a lack of genetic variation in the potato population
- reminder of the importance of maintaining biodiversity in crops to minimise the
transmission of disease

– animal diseases
Lyme Disease in Cattle
- Cattle are infected with the Lyme disease bacterium, Borrelia, through the transmission
of bites from infected ticks (vector)
- dairy cattle may develop fever, stiffness and swollen joints, lameness, and their milk
production decreases
- Outbreaks have been identified in high density livestock facilities aiding in the
transmission of infected ticks through direct contact
- Can result in decrease in demand for cattle due to fall in quality of products and fall in
quantity output
● compare the adaptations of different pathogens that facilitate their entry into and
transmission between hosts

Pathogen - Name Protozoan - Plasmodium (Malaria) Bacteria - Bacillus

Facilitate Entry Similarity

Both have appendages such as flagella to help with locomotion which aids them to move
through fluids.
Difference
Bacteria secrete cell wall degrading enzymes while protozoans have a tubular structure that
 aids them into pushing their way into cells.

Facilitate Similarity
Transmission Both can go into a dormant state that aids them in survival outside a host cell which can be
spread in the environment by wind and water to a new host
Difference
Protozoa can form resistant cysts that can survive for months while bacteria can form spores
but not cysts

Pathogen - Name Fungi - Potato blight / Athletes foot Bacteria - Bacillus

Facilitate Entry Similarity

Both can produce cell wall degrading enzymes
Difference
Fungi hyphae growth helps them to adhere to host cells while bacteria have long pili that
prevent them washing away in mucus.

Facilitate Similarity
Transmission Both can induce produce spores to be spread and easily dispersed within an environment
Difference
Can induce host behaviour in different ways. Bacteria can induce coughing in order to be
transmitted through air while fungus can induce organism behaviour such as dying near a
damp area to ensure easy dispersal of spores.

Virus and Bacteria Transmission (Influenza and Whooping Cough)

- Can induce host behaviour such as coughing or sneezing to aid in transmission

Protozoan and Virus Transmission (plasmodium and malaria)

- Use vectors such as mosquitoes to aid in transmission

Pathogen
Pathogen Adaptations that facilitate entry Adaptation that facilitate transmission between hosts

Viruses - Viruses can either drill & insert their genetic - Can change their antigens so they are not recognised
material into the host cell as a threat by the immune system
- Can stimulate receptors of the cell that trigger - Can spread through vectors such as mosquitoes, soil,
endocytosis, and be brought directly into the cell’s pollen and needles
body - Uses host cell mechanisms to replicate (polypeptide
- Infect vectors to enter into an organism synthesis)
- Can’t survive outside of host - Can impact host behaviour inducing coughing and
sneezing, expelling virus particles that can be inhaled
by others, causing spread
- Can remain suspended in air for long periods of time
 without drying out

Bacteria - Can survive outside hosts or on a dead host - Have external appendages that help them enter into
- Have long pili (hair) that span the thickness of cells or move to another host e.g. flagellum to move
mucus layers so it does not get washed away by through fluid
saliva or mucus - Can change their antigens so they are not recognised
- Have fimbriae on its pili to attach to cell surfaces as a threat by the immune system
(adhesion)x - Slime layer to help it stick to surfaces
- The bacteria helicobacter has the ability to secrete - Resumes growing when conditions are more
an enzyme which converts urea to ammonia which favourable
helps to combat the acidic environment - Dormant spores allows bacteria to survive in extreme
- Forms spores to survive in the outside environment conditions over long periods of time
- Have external appendages that help them enter - Inducing coughing enabling pathogen to spread
into cells or move to another host e.g. flagellum to through air
move through fluid - Produce enzymes to break down and consume cell
contents

Protozoa - Uses insect vectors for entry into host - Uses insect vectors for transmission between hosts
- Has a tubular structure to push its way into a cell (malaria - plasmodium protozoa)
- Creates a lipid membrane once inside a host to - Can change the behaviour of hosts so they can be
protect against a cell’s defence mechanisms transferred to a new host e.g. rats lose fear of cats
- Form resistant cysts that can survive for months
(thick tough wall)
- Enters into privileged sites (locations within the host
where the immune response cannot operate at full
efficiency)
- Multiply and overwhelm the immune system

Fungi - Secretes cell wall degrading enzymes to break - Can switch between various growth forms e.g. yeast
down host cell for nutrients cell is useful for dispersion in the wind
- Adhesins that help it stick to host cells - Can change behaviour of host facilitating transmission
- Hyphae growth form helps fungus adhere to host e.g. zombie ants - fungi commands ant to go to a
tissues promoting invasive growth damp area before death in order for spores to spread
- Hyphae that grow into the skin or nail as effectively
dermatophytes (feed off keratin) can fragment into - Can survive without a host
other growth types
- Forms spores to survive in the outside environment

Macro- - Secrete immunomodulatory proteins that reduce - Can change host behaviour facilitating transmission
parasites the host’s immune response e.g. rodents attracted to smell of cat urine
- Molecules in saliva prevent vasoconstriction to - Faeces-Oral Transmission e.g. infected organisms can
prevent host initiating inflammatory response secrete tapeworm eggs which can contaminate food
- Have specialised structural adaptations e.g. hooks and water. An individual will be infected upon
on their mouth or legs that allow them to consuming the tapeworm larvae.
piece/attach/dig on to host

Responses to Pathogens - How does a plant or animal respond to infection?

● investigate the response of a named Australian plant to a named pathogen
through practical and/or secondary-source investigation, for example:
Plants do not have an immune system like animals do.
Passive defence mechanisms are those that are present before contact with the pathogen
(physical barriers), while active defence mechanisms are activated only after pathogen
recognition (chemical barriers) - (passive defence is not technically a response)

Passive Defence - Physical Barriers (1st line of defence) - NOT A RESPONSE (INNATE BARRIER)
• Cell walls contain lignin and cellulose or outer bark
• Waxy epidermal cuticles
Active Defence / Barriers
1.Gene for Gene resistance: some plants possess resistance genes which produce proteins that
are able to disable specific pathogens - in response to entry of a pathogen
2.Basal Resistance: When a pathogen is detected, the gaps between cells shut to reduce the
chance of a pathogen spreading throughout the tissue
3.Hypersensitive response: if basal resistance fails, cells surrounding the pathogen die, cutting
off nutrient source for a pathogen - causes dying / yellowing leaves
4.Systemic (throughout) acquired resistance: produces salicylic acid (signally molecule) to alarm
the rest of the plant tissues that a pathogen has invaded - communicates the initiation of other
chemical barriers

• Stomata can be closed when signaled

– fungal pathogens
Disease: Myrtle Rust disease - Myrtle Rust Fungus - Eucalyptus
Causes: deformed leaves, defoliation, reduced fertility, stunted growth and plant death in
bottlebrushes, tea trees and eucalyptus
How:
- Spores land on the stem of the plant causing the site of infection
- Spores send out a germ tube to find an opening into the plant
- Once an opening is found, the fungus penetrates deep into the plant tissue to access
nutrients
- Fungus uses this nutrients to grow more fungi
Plant Response:
- Fungus releases small proteins molecules called effectors into the cell
- Plant cell can detects fungus receptors by releasing proteins that act as defence against
the fungus by binding to the effector proteins
- This binding informs the plant that there is an infection taking place
- When the plant knows that there are infected cells, it will then sacrifice the cells
surrounding by killing them to cut off nutrient supply to the fungus
- After cell death the pathogen will eventually starve from having no nutrients and die
- Gene for Gene response: produces chitin a chemical which breaks the fungus’s cell wall

– viral pathogens
Disease: Banana bunch disease - Banana bunchy top virus
Causes: prevents plant producing fruit, reduced growth with emerging leaves becoming choked
and bunched
How:
- Infected Aphids and other insects that tap into the phloem to feed act as a vector,
creating a pathway for the transmission of the virus
- Leaf munching insects create a wound site for viruses to enter into a plant
- Virus invades plant cells in order to replicate more viral particles
- The virus can inhibit cellular processes such as water and nutrient uptake and even
photosynthesis
Plant Response:
- Systemic acquired response
- Hypersensitive response (evidence is yellowing leaves)
 ● analyse responses to the presence of pathogens by assessing the physical and
chemical changes that occur in the host animals cells and tissues

Line of Response Barrier Innate immunity Adaptive immunity

Defence (immune system) Barriers to pathogens Defence that is present Immunity defence is
Occurs only when that are always working at birth and is non- specific to pathogen
pathogen presence is (passive) specific present
detected = activated
(active)

First ✓ ✓

Second ✓ ✓

Third ✓ ✓

Physical barrier against infection Physical responses to Chemical barriers against infection Chemical response to infection
infection

Microbiome Vomiting and Urine Inflammation (chemical response)

- Microbes are microscopic organisms diarrhoea - Urinating flushes pathogens out of - When cells are challenged by pathogens or
that live on the skin, respiratory tract, - Reflex to the body damaged, they release chemical signals
(histamines) that cause the capillaries to dilate
intestines, mouth and vagina. pathogens present - Antimicrobial peptides are and increase in permeability (allows
- Microbes outcompete pathogens on the in the stomach secreted by the cells lining the movement of white blood cells to infected site
skin, protecting the body from disease. - Bodies way of urinary tract to kill bacteria and - perform phagocytosis & nutrients to heal the
- Impact on homeostasis can change the expelling harmful prevent them from attaching to wound) - swelling due to increased blood flow
microbiome, causing an imbalance in substances to cells Damaged cells onsets the release of chemicals
microbes which makes it easier for reduce the number - pH of urine creates a good (histamines) that:
pathogens to survive of pathogens environment for phagocytes to - attract white blood
cells & nutrients
present in the body work best in killing pathogens - Increase the bodies
temperature (fever)

Skin Increased urination Sebum and sweat Phagocytosis (and chemical signalling)
- Tightly packed cells that contains - When the bladder - Sebum is an oily material secreted - The process where phagocytes /
keratin which is hard for pathogens to is attacked by a by sebaceous glands macrophages (specialized types of white
blood cell) surround a pathogen and
break through pathogen urine is - It waterproofs and lubricates the
completely enclose/engulf it
- Epidermis is the thin outer layer of the used to flush away skin, providing a protective film - A type of endocytosis
skin which is resistant to degradation microbes from the against microbial growth - Once the foreign particle is fully inside it,
by bacterial enzymes urinary track (urine - Sweat and other skin secretions enzymes destroy it.
 - The skin is well supplied with blood, is sterile) release toxins, salt and lysozyme - Lysosomes are an organelle found in white
contributing to their effectiveness in (enzymes) that wash, break down
fighting infections due to easy supply of bacterial cell walls and kill P L
white blood cells microbes h ys
- Constant shedding carries microbes a o
away from the surface
g s
o o
cy m
te e
blood cells that produce digestive enzymes
Antigen is displayed on the surface by phagocytes
to alert 3rd line of defence

Mucous membranes /mucous Wound healing Commensal Bacteria The complement system
- Internal cavities are lined with epithelial - Group of 20 proteins that assist other defense
- When there is a Good bacteria that secretes
tissue called mucous membrane mechanisms (second line) in destroying extracellular
breach in the antibacterial compounds, killing pathogens
- Mucous membrane forms a barrier to
pathogen entry by trapping pathogens
bodies tissue, it pathogens that enter into the host. - They stimulate phagocytes and attract them to the site
becomes exposed (Antibiotics are harmful to commensal of infection where they can destroy the membranes of
- Works in conjunction with cilia (tiny hairs) the invading cell
which beat in coordination, pushing to environmental bacteria) - Bound antibodies activate the cascade of complement
pathogens out of the body pathogens proteins which then can then breakdown the
- Platelet in the membrane of a pathogen/invaded cell causing it to
burst or can attract phagocytes to destroy pathogens
blood seal the
wound to prevent
Tight junctions pathogens Tears Fever (pyrogens as chemical response)
- Blood vessels are lined with endothelial - Tear film covers the cornea & - The hypothalamus regulates the bodies
entering
cells (semi-permeable membrane) conjunctiva and contains chemical temperature
- Protein called - The body may react to a pathogen by altering
- These cells can become compact, Fibrin forms a substances which have the hypothalamic set body temp, allowing the
preventing the entry of pathogens from mesh to trap antimicrobial properties, including body to heat up
infected tissue into the bloodstream platelet to form a AMPs, lysozyme, & IgA - It does this by releasing ‘fever causing’
- If pathogens enter the bloodstream, clot to seal the - Lysozyme breaks down cell walls chemicals known as pyrogens
they can travel to distant sites, causing wound and thus acts as an antibiotic; - The heat kills and limits the growth of
a new infection killing bacteria pathogens + enhance the activity of white
- E.g. blood brain barrier restricts - Crying work to wash away blood cells + onset sweat to flush out
pathogens
diffusion of pathogens into brain pathogens (response)

Peristalsis Granuloma / cyst Gastric (stomach) secretions Cytokines

- Smooth muscle in the alimentary canal - Cells die creating a - Cells lining the stomach - Protein chemical signals released by cells in
(tube where food moves from the wall of dead cells secrete hydrochloric acid response to pathogens to signal to
neighbouring uninfected cells E.G
mouth to the anus) constantly contracts to seal of an - This highly acidic - Cytokines ( interferons) signal neighbouring
in one direct to prevent intestinal infected site environment discourages cells to reduce protein synthesis to stop
bacterial growth creating a capsule the growth and survival of replication of viruses.
known as a microbes - Cytokines onset lethargy, muscle pain and
granuloma nausea to signal the animal to isolate and rest
- prevents infection - Cytokines signal neighbouring cells to go
Sphincters Saliva
from spreading under apoptosis (programmed death of
- A circular muscle that maintains - Saliva consists of water, mucus, damaged cells - e.g. cancerous cells)
constriction of natural body passages / - Cells inside the electrolytes, enzymes and
openings granuloma then antimicrobial substances such as Lymphatic System
- By narrowing / closing openings, the die, destroying the lysozyme and immunoglobulin A -Set of vessels that flow closely to the circulatory
muscle Physically seals off parts of the pathogens that (lgA) system but filter interstitial fluid
body to reduce risk of pathogen caused the - Saliva can flush microbes - delivers lymph that carries white blood cells
invasion infection away and kill microbes -Removes fluids in body tissue that leak out of
using antimicrobial peptides blood vessels and cleans this fluid in lymph nodes
(creates lymphocytes (type of white blood cell)
-Lymph system then joins back to heart delivering
clean fluids
-Model: Sewage system of the body

Immunity - How does the human immune system respond to exposure to a

pathogen?

Antigens - a substance that induces the formation of antibodies, therefore

stimulating an immune system response. Antigens are proteins on the surface of
pathogens and are how the immune system recognises threats. Often invading
pathogens are referred to as antigens. The immune system doesn’t affect self cells
because our cells contain self antigen markers, indicating that they’re not foreign particles.
Antibodies
- Proteins which are produced in response to the presence of an antigen in
the body.
- Y shaped with two binding sites
 - Antibodies develop structures that recognise and bind to specific antigens
- Can be found on the surface of Plasma B-cells or in bodily fluid
- Produced from plasma B-cells when they are activated (come into contact with antigen)
- The formation of the antigen-antibody complex causes the deactivation of the antigen.

Lymph - Fluid that leaks out of capillaries into spaces between cells; circulates in the vessels of
the lymphatic system.
lymph node - Small structures located on lymphatic vessels where pathogens are filtered from
lymph and destroyed by lymphocytes.
lymphatic system - System of the body consisting of organs, vessels, nodes, and lymph that
produces lymphocytes (in the bone marrow) and filters pathogens from body fluids.

● investigate and model the innate and adaptive immune systems in the human
body

Immune
System

Innate Immune Adaptive Immune

System System
(third line of defence)
Innate Barrier Innate Immune Response Specific meaning each pathogen / antigen detected is
(first line of defence) (second line of defence) responded to in a different way. Involves memory,
In place at birth and In place at birth and occurs meaning the immune system will remember
prevents entry of when pathogen is detected after subsequent encounters with the same antigen,
pathogens. Response is entering the tissue. Response is allowing them to effectively refight the pathogen.
also non-specific also non-specific.
E.g. skin, mucous, cilia, E.g. inflammatory response, Cell mediated immunity Humoral
tears, sweat, urine phagocytosis, cell death, Immunity
complement system, fever,
cytokines

Innate Immune System

- Inflammation - Cell death to seal off pathogen
- Phagocytes - The complement system
- Lymph System - Natural Killer Cells that kill infected cells

Adaptive/Acquired Immune System

The difference between lymphocytes and phagocytes is that lymphocytes generate specific immune responses
against pathogens whereas phagocytes generate the same response to any pathogen. Lymphocytes are a type of
white blood cell produced

When B and T cells bind to an antigen, they become “activated” differentiating into specific cell functions.
Cell mediated immunity Humoral / Antibody mediated Immunity
Involves T-lymphocytes (T cells) Involves B-lymphocytes (B-cells)

Helper T-Cells Plasma B-cells

Gets alerted by phagocytes (engulfed a pathogen and has antigen displayed Specialises when it comes into contact
on surface) or antigens present which then causes the duplication of T-cells with antigens. It will then produce
which release chemicals such as cytokines that alert the cloning & activation antibodies that can respond to specific
of T and B cells to differentiate into cytotoxic T-cells and B cells -> activates antigens present.
cell mediated immunity & humoral immunity Antibodies bind to antigen and form
antigen-antibody complex to inactivate
Memory T-Cells
antigen.
Remain in the body in order to remember the antigen and respond faster on
subsequent infections by the same antigen. It is these memory cells that
allow the adaptive immune response to improve over time, becoming faster
and stronger

Cytotoxic T-Cells Memory B-cells

Specialise when coming in contact with an antigen and produce Same as memory T-cells except if it comes
chemicals that destroy any cell infected by pathogen with the antigen across an antigen it remembers, it turns
marker into plasma cells and responds fast
producing antibodies used in subsequent
Suppressor T-Cells infections
Stops the immune system response after the antigen has been eliminated (need both memory B and T cells as T cells
can detect infected cells and B cells can rapidly
produce antibodies but can’t enter cells)

Cytotoxins

How do Antibodies fight antigens?

An antigen-antibody complex is formed when

antibodies attach to antigens.
These antibodies disable / inactivate antigens so
they are no longer able to harm the body.
Phagocytes come along and engulf the antigen-
antibody complex, killing the pathogen.

Adaptive
Immunity
Active Passive
Natural: when Baby gets
you come antibodies through
across placenta or breast
 body develops People with
memory cells suppressed
Artificial: if you immune systems
are vaccinated
When a pathogen breaks(organ
throughtransplant
the first line of defence it encounters the second line of
and youMacrophages are
defence. cancer
part ofpatients)
the second line of defence and are important in activating the
develop
third line of defence. can get transfusion
memory cells of antibodies
Third line of defence:

activate T-cells which

Helper T-cells send
out cytokines to

} activate naive T-
cells which clone
and differentiate
into:

Activated T-cells

Chemical - Perforin

● explain how the immune system responds after primary exposure to a pathogen,
including innate and acquired immunity (secondary exposure)

The innate immune system responds the same way to a secondary exposure as they have
no memory and therefore does not learn anything.

Adaptive immunity Secondary Exposure:

1. Memory B (or Memory T) cell detect the presence of a memorised antigen
2. Memory B cells alert helper T-cells about re-infection

3. Memory B cells differentiate into 3. Helper T cells are activated, differentiating

plasma B cells which produce large into cytotoxins to kill off pathogens (cell
quantities of antibodies fast so that mediated response)
signs of disease never develop
 Prevention, Treatment and Control - How can the spread of infectious diseases be
controlled?

There are many laws and legislations that have been put in place to control the spread of infectious
disease.
- Laws can improve access to vaccinations and contraceptives, and by facilitating screening,
counselling and education of those at risk of infection. Law also has a reactive role: supporting
access to treatment, and authorizing public health authorities to limit contact with infectious
individuals and to exercise emergency powers in response to disease outbreaks
- Immunisation is a successful and cost-effective public health strategy that saves millions of lives
each year. Governments can support vaccination coverage by ensuring that vaccination is free or
affordable
- Screening individuals to determine if they have been infected with or exposed to an infectious
disease is a core public health strategy. E.g. screening individuals for COVID
- Laws can ensure the confidentiality of test results, and protecting individuals diagnosed with
particular diseases from discrimination.
- Australia has strong biosecurity laws surrounding the entry and exit of goods
- Public health laws should authorize compulsory treatment only in circumstances where an
individual is unable or unwilling to consent to treatment, and where their behaviour creates a
significant risk of transmission of a serious disease
- Public health laws may authorize the isolation of individuals and groups who may have been
exposed to an infectious disease, as well as the closure of businesses and premises and the
confiscation of property e.g. during COVID

● investigate and analyse the wide range of interrelated factors involved in limiting
local, regional and global spread of a named infectious disease

Malaria: vector (mosquito) infectious disease causing fever symptoms.

Geographica Measures put in place Judgement of effectiveness
l Section

Local - - Wearing insect repellent - Protective measures prevent the increase in

country - Sleeping with insecticide treated mosquito nets reservoir size, decreasing the ability for
(preventati - Indoor residual spraying mosquitoes to pass the disease
ve) - Saying in places with effective air conditioning and screening on doors - Educating individuals increases awareness and
and windows participation in protective behaviours. It also
- Educating people about the disease increases rates of early detection and
- Taking anti-malaria medication treatment.
- Killing mosquitoes on a large scale using pesticides - Killing mosquitoes is effective as they are the
- Increasing the number of healthcare facilities to treat people with malaria source of transmission
- Drainage programs to get rid of still water where mosquitoes can breed

Regional - - Wearing long sleeves and covered clothing when travelling - Genetically engineering mosquitoes can be
groups of - Genetically engineering mosquitoes which mate with malaria vectors, highly effective in eradicating vectors before
countries passing a fungus that kills them (CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology transmission as increasing numbers of
(control) was used to make changes in mosquito genes that could reduce their mosquitos are becoming resistant to pesticides
ability to spread malaria. This could provide a new way to reduce and malaria pathogens are getting resistant to
illnesses and deaths caused by malaria.) antimalarial drugs.
- Establishing government monitoring programs to better react to an - Creating a government strategy can reduce the
outbreak blowout of the outbreak and contain it faster
- Testing travellers across borders before it spreads
- Vaccinations - Australia and many other countries used an
- Insecticides insecticide called DDT which killed mosquitoes,
- Maintained drains to prevent breeding sites stopping transmission = effective
- Spray illegal boats entering the country - Last 3 methods have been effective in Australia
- Spraying planes with insecticides as they have eradicated mosquitoes carrying
this pathogen

Global - Media awareness campaigns - Testing travellers and closing borders will
(control) - Closing flights in an out of countries prevent the spread of the disease into new
- Closing off travellers from malaria endemic areas population groups
- Informing and vaccinating travellers
- Screening people entering the country

● investigate procedures that can be employed to prevent the spread of disease,

including but not limited to: (Link to a reduced number and chance of pathogens to be spread & enter body)

– hygiene practices
Some microbes use human waste products as sources of nutrients. Microbes can live on food that has
been left in a warm place for some time, in water supplies that have been contaminated with waste (for
example sewage) and in human faeces. Because food, water and personal hygiene habits are potential
sources of infection by pathogens, it is important that they are kept sterile or disposed of in a hygienic
manner. Heat, detergents and water, used to achieve cleanliness, kill or remove pathogens.

Hygiene
Food Water Personal
- Wash fresh produce thoroughly - Water purification system - Disinfecting cuts and
- Prevent cross contamination (raw - Boiling water before use in covering them up
meat) third world countries - Regularly brushing teeth
- Keep hot foods above 60 degrees - Domestic water supply in - Washing hands frequently
- Cover and seal food for storage Australia must comply with (before eating, after blowing
- Fully cook pink meat to kill all strict standards your nose etc.)
pathogens - Washing dishes with
- Strict hygiene guidelines at detergent
restaurants

These practices all aim to kill pathogens or reduce their presence to decrease the chances of
pathogens entering the body.

– quarantine
Quarantine: isolation of a person who has been in possible contact/exposed to an infectious
disease. Not necessarily have the disease.
It is a biosecurity measure that allows us to keep diseases we don’t have in the country out of the
country. This is because the movement of people, animals and plants, across borders, can carry
pests, disease and microbes across borders. Quarantine periods differ depending on the pathogen
as they have different incubation periods. E.g. 19 days for COVID
It is an effective measure that prevents further transmission of the disease.
- Protects all borders: water, exports/imports, immigration ect.
Example: dogs at borders sniff for fresh fruit. This is before fresh produce can carry Mediterranean
fruit flies which are detrimental to the Queensland banana industry.

– vaccination, including passive and active immunity

Immunisation: a process which stimulates the immune system to produce memory B and T cells
and antibodies so that on a secondary infection, the body can effectively fight off an infection.
Vaccination is a method of providing immunisation, in which weakened/dead or replicated pathogens
are introduced to the body.
Vaccination: a chemical preparation that contains antigens which induce the third line of defence.
This results in the body making antibodies and memory B and T cells. When the body comes across
the real pathogen, the body has immunological memory and can effectively fight off the disease
through a quick response.

Active immunity - immunity developed by undergoing the immune response (memory B and T cells)
Passive immunity- immunity gained by obtaining antibodies from a vaccination or through the placenta.
Only lasts a few months as the body is actively making antibodies.
(vaccines can be passive and active)
Notes: antibodies given to a newborn baby do not last forever, therefore passive immunity wears off
Herd Immunity - form of immunity that occurs when the vaccination of a significant portion of a population
provides a measure of protection for individuals who have not developed immunity
 – public health campaigns
Programs that are designed to reduce the spread of diseases.
Examples:
- Government regulations and standards for handling, cooking and storing food in
kitchens, water quality and sterilising equipment at clinics and hospitals
- Awareness campaigns have been used during COVID to raise awareness on the signs
and symptoms and importance of getting tested when sick
- Laws require certain diseases to be reported to authorities if they are detected. This
allows early detection in order to control the spread of the disease.
- Legislations during COVID required individuals to stay inside and only go out for
essentials which required wearing a mask. This limited human contact to stop the spread
of the disease.
- Public immunisation programs (commonly done as a child through school nurse visits)
for diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, measles, mumps and rubella help to prevent
contracting these diseases. This also increases herd immunity, reducing the
transmission of the disease.
- Public Education programs are put in place to educate individuals on protective factors
towards their health. E.g. as part of the highschool curriculum children are educated on
safe sex to reduce the spread of chlamydia, HIV, AIDs.

– use of pesticides
Pesticides can be used to kill the vectors that can carry harmful pathogens. Killing these vectors
reduces the occurrence of the disease through preventing its mode of spreading. Pesticides
include insecticides (insects), fungicides (fungus) and herbicides (weeds).

E.g. mosquitoes are vectors for malaria and dengue fever. The chemical DDT was used to kill
these mosquitoes to prevent the spread of the disease.
Pesticides are also used widely in Australia to spray imported items into Australia to kill any
insects or other organisms present.

- genetic engineering
Genetic engineering involves altering the genetic composition of an organism.
- Altering the genetic makeup of an organism can result in the production of disease
resistant plants and animals to prevent the occurrence of disease and therefore control
its spread within a population e.g. BT cotton resistant to caterpillars
- Genetic engineering can lead to the creation of vaccines that immunise large population
groups, preventing the spread of a disease
- Can also be used to create pesticides to control pathogen numbers and spread
- Can be used to alter vectors e.g. mosquitoes have been altered so they are unable to
transmit the disease

Mortality from infectious diseases has declined significantly in many parts of the world over the
past century. This has been due to four major factors
- increased hygiene (to prevent disease),
- widespread immunisation procedures (to control/prevent disease),
-improved nutrition (to resist disease)
-the use of antibiotics & antiviral medication (to treat disease).

● investigate and assess the effectiveness of pharmaceuticals as treatment

strategies for the control of infectious disease, for example:
 – antivirals
Antiviral drugs are prescription medicines that fight against viruses in the body. They inhibit the
development of viruses inside a cell, allowing the body’s natural defense system to kill the virus.
Viruses most commonly targeted include: HIV, influenza, herpes and hepatitis B and C.
They do not destroy viruses, rather inhibit their replication.
They target only 1 particular virus and can be used as a preventative medicine.

Example: There are 3 types of antivirals used for HIV/AIDS:

Drug PrEP - Pre-exposure PEP - Post Exposure ART - Antiretroviral therapy, for
prophylaxis for people not Prophylaxis is only effective in someone who is infected. They
infected but live with the first 48-72hrs. It is a would take this daily medicine to
someone who is infected. medication designated to reduce the daily count of a virus
Prevents a virus from prevent HIV infection if you to prevent the transmission of
establishing itself in the body. have been exposed to the virus. this disease. It is very effective
in decreasing the viral load
down to an undetectable level.

Effectiveness

Drugs have The mortality

been effective rate from HIV
as the has reduced
the number of for patients
HIV taking ART
diagnoses therefore is
rates have effective.
gone down.

Cons Cons: these medications are very expensive and often are not subsidized by the government. Therefore it is
out of reach for developing countries and lower socioeconomic groups where HIV and AIDS is of greater
impact due to lack of education.
Additionally developing safe and effective antiviral drugs is challenging as viruses use the host cell's
machinery to reproduce. Therefore drugs used to target a virus often cause harm to the host cell.
Another challenge is that there is extreme diversity between viruses, some have DNA, some have RNA,
some single stranded, some are double. This makes it hard to produce broad spectrum antivirals.

– antibiotics
Antibiotic: chemical capable of destroying or inhibiting the growth of bacterial cells. There are a
range of antibiotics to treat a whole range of bacterial diseases. Antibiotics are produced
naturally by fungi or soil bacteria or artificially synthesised in the lab. They work by:
- Interfering with the metabolic activity of bacteria
- Damaging the cell membrane of bacteria

Example: Penicillin
Penicillin attacks enzymes that build the cell walls of bacteria. Therefore the drug greatly
weakens the cell wall, increasing the permeability for water to flow in. This causes the bacteria
to swell and explode, causing the bacteria to die and allowing a person to recover from a
bacterial infection.
Effectiveness - Estimates are that 200 million lives have been directly saved from the
discovery of penicillin.

Genetic technology:

Cons
- Bacteria can grow resistant to antibiotics, reducing the effectiveness of antibiotics in
controlling the outbreak of a disease. Antibiotic resistance leads to higher medical costs,
prolonged hospital stays, and increased mortality. This can be due to the overuse /
unnecessary use of antibiotics, making resistant bacteria more common.

- Individuals may fail to complete the full prescription course, resulting in bacteria
surviving and redeveloping an infection
- People can be allergic to antibiotics e.g. penicillin
- Antibiotics only work on bacterial infections

- Reducing habits and reservoirs of vectors

- Draining water reservoirs where mosquitoes can breed
- Blocking up drains and pipes where bats may live

● investigate and evaluate environmental management and quarantine methods

used to control an epidemic or pandemic
 Ebola Virus Case Study
Methods of control have been effective as ebola was contained to a small region in africa and reduced to a point
where it is no longer a pandemic.
Evaluate - link management strategy to reduce chance of contracting and spreading the disease, reducing incident rates

Environmental Management

Control Evaluate Cons

- Use of protective gear by health staff such as full body suits, Personal protection - Traditions are important to
gloves, face shield to prevent contact. gear prevents communities and therefore it will
- Frequent cleaning of infected surfaces contaminated body be hard to change behaviors.
- Training doctors and nurses on health and safety protocols such as fluids coming into Burial restrictions limit people’s
sanitising equipment contact with healthy cultural freedoms
- Safe and prompt burials using protective clothing to prevent coming people, reducing the - Some groups rely on wild meat
into contact with the infected body. Trusted community members spread of the disease as a source of food and therefore
should deliver these messages. and decreasing will not change their behaviours
- Educating individuals about eating wild meat as they can be easily incidence numbers. - Often it is hard to maintain health
contaminated and pass on the virus Educating individuals protecting behaviours in a
- Educating individuals on protective health behaviours such as on health protective developing country where there
regular hand washing, fully cooking meat, cleaning all surfaces, behaviours reduces is a lack of funds for sanitary and
sanitising water (boiling, importing), properly seal food, disposal of the number of water infrastructure
infected items and properly disposing of rubbish individuals exposing - This conflicts economic growth
- Proper provision of adequate and hygienic facilities for barrier themselves to the and development such as
nursing and treating patients virus, reducing the building of infrastructure to
- Limiting deforestation as it increases density of animals, increasing spread of the disease increase the quality of life and
the spread of the disease and decreasing creating new jobs
- Isolation and treatment centres incidence numbers. - Difficult to monitor human
- Contact tracing involves identifying, testing and quarantining all behaviour
individuals who have potentially come into contact with infected
individuals. - constant monitoring

Quarantine

Control Evaluate Cons

- Quarantining individuals until they either show signs of the disease This prevents the - Unethical to quarantine people
or are no longer at risk (42 days - double incubation period) contact between as it limits their freedom
- Placing sick people in beds 3m apart to reduce contact infected people and - Difficult to monitor mobility of all
- Assigning clinical staff to particular patients to reduce potential for non-infected people, people
transmission since ebola is
- Isolating infected people in hospitals and ebola virus centres transmitted through
- Quarantining individuals moving in and out of countries body fluids. Reduced
- Screening all individuals moving across borders contact leads to
reduced change of
spread which
decreases the
prevalence and
incident rates of the
disease.

● interpret data relating to the incidence and prevalence of infectious disease in

populations, for example:
Incidence: the number of new cases
Prevalence: total number of people who have the disease (all active cases + new cases)
Epidemic: A sudden increase in the prevalence of a disease above the endemic rate in a country
 Pandemic: A sudden increase in the prevalence of a disease across multiple countries and/or multiple
continents.
Outbreak: A sudden increase in the prevalence of a disease above the endemic rate within a
small Or specific geographic area.
Endemic level of disease: The baseline rate at Which a specific disease typically occurs in a
given population e.g. chicken pox in Australia

– mobility of individuals and the portion that are immune or immunised

Humans act as a carrier for pathogens therefore population mobility increases the
chance of the spread of disease. Although some diseases that are infectious, we
have immunity against them (vaccinations). For some diseases there are no
vaccines.
Herd Immunity: when an estimated 80% of a population is vaccinated against a
disease, there is less of the disease in the community, making it harder for the disease to
spread. This is essential to protect individuals who cannot be vaccinated for medical reasons or
babies who are too young to yet receive vaccinations. Therefore the decision to not vaccinate
can therefore affect other individuals, even kill them.
Even though diseases may be eradicated from Australia, we must still immunise for these
diseases due to high mobility where a disease can be carried back into the country. Good herd
immunity means that the community transmission is reduced to prevent the spread of the
disease.
An effective vaccine reduces the incidence of the disease. It is a preventable measure not a
cure as it requires activating your immune system response. Therefore to determine the
effectiveness of a vaccine, it is important to look at the incidence of disease, not the mortality.

– Malaria or Dengue Fever in South East Asia

(both mosquito borne infections that cause flu-like symptoms and can be fatal)
Why are these diseases prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions?
- Tropical areas - high rainfall and temperature is ideal breeding conditions for mosquitoes
- Less infrastructure and funds to reduce reservoir

Dengue Fever - on the rise

- Due to increased urbanisation in these regions, half of the world's
population is now at risk of contracting dengue fever
- Prevalence of the disease is on the rise -> we have learnt how to
diagnose dengue fever and a lot of people don’t see the doctor as they
mistake the disease for the flu. This allows the disease to spread as mosquitoes spread
the disease from unknown infected people to uninfected people. Spread is therefore due
to misdiagnosis
Malaria - gradually falling
- Decrease in incidence numbers in south east asia which has lead to a drop in mortality
rates
- Currently eradicated all malarious mosquitoes in Australia (still cases though)

● evaluate historical, culturally diverse and current strategies to predict and control
the spread of disease
Historica Louis Pasteur
l - Predicted that diseases spread through contaminating sterile objects
- He invented the process of pasteurization to kill microbes present in goods in order to reduce pathogen exposure
and entry
Robert Koch
- Urged for the sterilization of surgical instruments using heat to reduce spread of disease
 - Created Koch’s postulates to identify the cause of infectious diseases
- Developed pure culture (pure isolation of microbes) which helped to understand how a microbe caused a disease
John Snow
- Proposed that cholera was water borne through identifying the trend that higher prevalence of cases occurred
around specific water pumps
- Removed water pump that was responsible for harbouring contaminated water
- Effective as educated people on the importance of water sanitation
Quarantine
- Quarantine practices can be dated back to the ancient hebrews who would separate lepers (people with leprosy)
from society as they were considered unclean
- Quarantine practices were used during the black plague were ships had to wait 40 days before docking into
venice
Bloodletting
- 19th century doctors believed draining blood could treat any illness or disease.
- Was ineffective as blood is essential for transporting nutrients (most importantly white blood cells) around the
body and removing waste
- Bloodletting therefore hindered the immune system response through reducing white blood cells
- Also exposed other people to blood that may have been contaminated with the pathogen

Cultural Traditional Aboriginal Medicines

- Aboriginals have acquired extensive knowledge on using flora and fauna to treat diseases
- They found that certain plants contain antibacterial properties and painkiller properties
- Were effective in treating illnesses but not in controlling the spread
Tiger parts in Chinese traditional medicine
- No evidence to support the hypothesis of consuming tiger parts to assist in controlling disease spread
- Threatens the extinction of tiger species
- People who believe in this medicine will ignore seeking appropriate help
- Therefore highly ineffective in controlling the spread of disease

Current Global Surveillance of health cases (similar to John Snow)

- Healthcare providers are required to report all cases of specific diseases to the Australian Department of health
(has been made easier through technology)
- This allows for early detection, identification of the source and data analysis of health trends to create effective
responses to outbreaks
- E.g. during COVID tracking movement of people through sign in helped to identify close contacts to prevent
further spread
Health Campaigns
- Educate people on the importance of hygiene
- E.g. during COVID wearing masks, washing hands and getting tested if signs and symptoms appear
Quarantine & Isolation
- Individuals who have the disease are isolated from society until they no longer harbor the pathogen
- This prevents the transmission of the pathogen, controlling the spread
Antibiotics & Anti-viral drugs.
- Help to prevent the growth and kill bacteria + viruses therefore preventing transmission to control spread
Vaccines
- Strengthens the immune system through activating memory B and T cells
- Prevents pathogens infecting new hosts, reducing transmission and controlling spread of pathogen
- Herd immunity can protect individuals not vaccinated
Viruses being used as vectors
- Genetically engineering viruses to inject beneficial DNA into organisms can provide organisms DNA to fight of
infections that require this gene
● investigate the contemporary application of Aboriginal protocols in the
development of particular medicines and biological materials in Australia

– bush medicine: Traditional methods of treating and managing illnesses by indigenous Australians
Soap Tree
Crushed up soap tree leaves and water produce a soap solution that has antibacterial
properties and thus works as an antiseptic. The leaves contain an acid which suppresses
bacterial growth. Traditionally this was used to clean cuts on their skin.
Modern Application
The bark of soap trees are crushed and boiled into an ash that is used in a paste to relieve
muscle or body pains.

FreshWater Mangrove (barringtonia acutangula)

Traditionally bark placed on wounds to relieve pain.
Modern Application
Traditional knowledge provided the initial observations and the inspiration for research into
analgesics extracted from barringtonia acutangula. Griffith University investigated B acutangula
to identify and isolate the active analgesic ingredient to be used in an analgesic drug, used as a
painkiller.

Tea tree oil and Eucalyptus Oil used as a disinfectant

Aboriginal people would inhale the oils of tea tree leaves to treat coughs, crushed and applied
the leaves as a paste to wounds and even brewed the leaves in tea for sore throats.
Modern Application
Tea Tree oil is used as an ingredient in many health products. It is used to treat acne and fungal
infections due to its antiseptic property and anti-inflammatory properties.

– smoke bush in Western Australia

Smokebush is a plant used by Aboriginal people for their healing properties in increasing the
rate of healing for cuts on their skin and other skin conditions.
Experimental results obtained from trials performed by the American National Cancer Institute
revealed that the smokebush had properties capable of killing the HIV virus that can be used to
cure AIDS and curing cancer.

Aboriginal people did not receive recognition for the healing capacity of the plants when the
Australian government granted a US firm rights for exclusive use of the plant. The Aboriginal
people also did not receive money when products derived from the plant were sold. Moreover,
Aboriginal people are restricted from using their cultural knowledge due to the patent granted to
the biotechnology company.
Therefore the US firm stole an endemic plant from Australia and shared the knowledge with
them. No royalties or other compensation or even acknowledgement were given to the
aboriginal people of WA Highlighting the shortfall in patent laws and need to protect traditional
knowledge about remedy used by aborignal people. This is why now all aboriginal IP rights are
protected by law.

Why is recognition and protection of Indigenous cultural and intellectual property important?
Aboriginal knowledge of bush medicine is important in terms of culture and intellectual property
(IP). ATSI people are the original founders of Aboriginal bush medicine and therefore deserve
the recognition and acknowledgement of their ownership and findings. For aboriginal people,
bush medicine is not only linked to physical wellbeing but also to the social, emotional and
cultural wellbeing of the community = must be respected. Some bush medicine has the potential
for large-scale modern pharmaceutical application, but Aboriginal people’s IP must be
recognised and protected so their expertise is neither disregarded nor exploited for commercial
and financial use. Therefore traditional knowledge must be respected and must be
acknowledged. Although we must first research and confirm the traditional remedies before
medical use and recognise the IP rights of aboriginal people.
 - Bush food
Kakadu plum is a small purple fruit which contains substantially more Vitamin C than an
orange. It has been used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to boost the body’s
nutrient levels. It has also been used to combat or prevent diseases such as scurvy. Similarly,
the Kakadu plum is incorporated into modern natural medicines as a Vitamin C source. It is also
used in skin treatments for its antioxidant properties which help restore the skin membrane and
elasticity.

Grass Trees (Xanthorrhoea) are a type of tree that looks like a bush growing on top. The
nectar produced by flowers can be harvested and eaten. Seeds can be crushed to make flour.
The soft white leaf base also contains 5% sugar which can be eaten and has a sweet nutty
taste. The resin produced can be used as glue to make weapons and the flower spikes can be
used on spears.

Validity = reliable, relevance to research/tested hypothesis, controlling variables, adding

a control group
Reliability = larger sample size, repeating experiment, concurrence with other research,
long period of time

Spots = fungus
Bacteria = rotting
Virus = mosaic pattern

Bar graph - when data is not connected

Line graph - when data from each year is connected