Chapter 3 Kinematics of Particles: Energy and Momentum Methods

3.1 Introduction

— F = ma and Kinematics
— Method of work and energy
— Method of impulse and momentum

3.2 Work of a Force

Fig. 13.1
— Displacement: Consider a particle which moves from a
point A to a neighboring point A’. If r denotes the
position vector corresponding to point A, the small vector
joining A and A’ can be denoted by dr; the vector dr is
called the displacement of a particle.
— Work: Now, let us assume that a force F is acting on the
particle. The work of the force F corresponding to the
displacement dr is defined as the scalar quantity

dU = F • dr
= Fds cos α
= Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz

— The unit of work: Joule (J) = N.m

— The work of F during a finite displacement of the particle from A1 to A2 is (Fig. 13.2)

A2
U 1→2 = ∫ F • dr
A1

(F cos α )ds = ∫s
s2 s2
=∫ Ft ds
s1 1

=∫
A1
A2
(F dx + F dy + F dz )
x y z

3-1
— Work of a Constant Force in Rectilinear Motion (Fig. 13.3)

U 1→2 = (F cos α )Δx

— Work of the Force of Gravity (Fig. 13.4): The work of the weight W of a body, i.e., of the force of
gravity exerted on that body is obtained as follows:

dU = −Wdy
y2
U 1→2 = − ∫ Wdy = Wy1 − Wy 2 = −WΔy
y1

where Δy is the vertical displacement from A1 to A2. The work is positive when Δy < 0, that is, when the
body moves down.

3-2
— Work of the Force exerted by a Spring (Fig. 13.5): Consider a
body A attached to a fixed point B by a spring; it is assumed
that the spring is undeformed when the body is at A0. We
have

F = kx

where k is the spring constant, expressed in N/m or kN/m when SI

units are used. The work of the force F exerted by the spring
during a finite displacement of the body from A1 to A2 is obtained
by

dU = − Fdx = −kxdx
x2 1 2 1
U 1→2 = − ∫ kxdx = kx1 − kx 2
2
x1 2 2
We note that the work of the force F exerted by the spring on the
body is positive when x2 < x1, that is, when the spring is returning to
its undeformed position.

— Work of a Gravitational Force (Fig. 13.6): We

know that two particles of mass M and m at a
distance r from each other attract each other with
equal and opposite forces F and –F, directed along
the line joining the particles and of magnitude

GMm
F=
r2
Since F is directed toward O, the infinitesimal work
required to move the mass m from A to A´is
negative: Mm
dU = − Fdr = −G dr
r2
The work of the gravitational force F during a finite
displacement from A1 to A2 is

r2 GMm GMm GMm

U 1→2 = − ∫ 2
dr = −
r1 r r2 r1

3-3
3.3 Kinetic Energy of a Particle. Principle of Work and energy
Fig. 13.7
Consider a particle of mass m acted upon by a
force F and moving along a path which is either
rectilinear or curved. Expressing Newton’s 2nd
law in terms of the tangential components of the
force and of the acceleration, we write

dv
Ft = mat = m
dt
where v is the speed of the particle. Then

dv ds dv
Ft = m = mv
ds dt ds
Ft ds = mvdv

Integrating from A1, where s = s1 and v = v1, to A2, where s = s2 and v = v2, we write
s2 v2 1 1
∫ Ft ds = ∫ mvdv = mv 2 − mv1
2 2
s1 v1 2 2
The left-hand member of the above equation represents the work of the force F exerted on the particle
during the displacement from A1 to A2;
s2
U 1→2 = ∫ Ft ds
s1

The expression 0.5mv2 is defined as the kinetic energy of the particle and is denoted by T. We write

1 2
T= mv
2
Thus
U 1→2 = T2 − T1

The principle of work and energy: The work of the force F is equal to the change in kinetic energy of
the particle. The principle applies only with respect to a newtonian frame of reference.

3.4 Applications of the Principle of Work and Energy

Fig. 13.8
Consider the pendulum OA consisting of a bob A of weight W attached to a chord of length l. The
pendulum is released with no initial velocity from a horizontal position OA1 and allowed to swing in a
vertical plane. Determine the speed of the bob as it passes through A2, directly under O.

3-4
 T1 + U 1→ 2 = T2
1W 2
0 + Wl = v2
2 g
v 2 = 2 gl

The example illustrates the following

advantages of the method of work and
energy:

1. In order to find the speed at A2,

there is no need to determine the
acceleration in an intermediate position A and to integrate the expression obtained from A1 to A2.
2. All quantities involved are scalars and can be added directly without using x and y components.
3. Forces which do not work are eliminated from the solution of the problem.

In order to determine the acceleration and the force which is normal to the path, the method of work and
energy must be supplemented by the direct application of Newton’s 2nd law.

Fig. 13.9

Determine the tension in the cord of pendulum as the bob passes through A2. We draw a free-body
diagram of the bob in that position.

∑F t = mat = 0
⎛ v2 ⎞
∑ n
F = ma = m⎜⎜ (
⎟⎟ = m &r& − rθ& 2 )
⎝ρ
n
⎠
2
W v2 W 2 gl
P −W = = = 2W
g l g l
P = 3W

3-5
When a problem involves two particles or more, the principle of work and energy can be applied to each
particle separately. Adding the kinetic energies of the particles involved and the work of all the forces
acting on the particles, we can also write a single equation of work and energy for all the particles
involved.

Since the friction forces have a direction opposite to the displacement of the body, the work of friction
forces is always negative.

3.5 Power and Efficiency

Power is defined as the time rate at which work is done:

dU
Power =
dt
Substituting the scalar product F.dr for dU, we can also write

dU F • dr
Power = = = F•v
dt dt
If SI units are used, power should be expressed in J/s; this unit is called a watt(W).

1W = 1 J s = 1N . m s

If U.S. customary units are used,

1hp = 550 ft.lb s

Recalling that 1 ft.lb = 1.356 J, we verify that

1hp = 550 × (1.356W ) = 746W = 0.746kW

The mechanical efficiency is defined as the ration of the output work to the input work:

output work power output

η= = <1
input work power input

The definition is based on the assumption that work is done at a constant rate.

Example 13.1) An automobile weighing 4000 lb is driven down a 5º incline at a speed of 60 mi/h when
the brakes are applied, causing a constant total braking force (applied by the road on the tires) of 1500 lb.
Determine the distance traveled by the automobile as it comes to a stop.

3-6
Ans)
Kinetic energy:

5280 ft
v1 = 60 = 88 ft s
3600s
1
T1 = mv1 =
2 1 4000
(88)2 = 481,000 ft ⋅ lb
2 2 32.2
v2 = 0
T2 = 0
Work: ( )
U 1→2 = −1500 x + 4000 sin 5 o x = −1151x
T1 + U 1→2 = T2
481000 − 1151x = 0
x = 418 ft

Example 13.2) Two blocks are joined by an

inextensible cable as shown. If the system is
released from rest, determine the velocity of
block A after it has moved 2 m. Assume that
the coefficient of kinetic friction between block
A and the plane is μk = 0.25 and that the pulley
is weightless and frictionless.

Ans)
Work and Energy for Block A

( )
m A = 200kg W A = (200kg ) 9.81 m s 2 = 1962 N
FA = μ k N A = μ k W A = 0.25(1962 N ) = 490 N
T1 + U 1→2 = T2 :

0 + FC (2m ) − FA (2m ) =
1
m Av 2
2
FC (2m ) − (490 N )(2m ) = (200kg )v 2
1
(1)
2

3-7
Work and Energy for Block B

( )
m B = 300kg WB = (300kg ) 9.81 m s 2 = 2940 N
T1 + U 1→2 = T2 :

0 + WB (2m ) − FC (2m ) =
1
mB v 2
2
(2940 N )(2m ) − FC (2m ) = 1 (300kg )v 2 (2)
2
Adding (1) and (2),

(2940 N )(2m ) − (490 N )(2m ) = 1 (200kg + 300kg )v 2

2
4900 J = (250kg )v 2

v = 4.43 m s

Homework
13.9, 13.10, 13.19, 13.20, 13.39, 13.40

3-8
3.6 Potential Energy
— Gravitational Field
Fig. 13.4

Let us consider again a body of weight W which

moves along a curved path from a point A1 of
elevation y1 to a point A2 of elevation y2. The
work of the force of gravity W during this
displacement is

U 1→2 = Wy1 − Wy 2

The work W depends only upon the initial and

final values of the function Wy. This function is
called the potential energy of the body with
respect to the force of gravity W and denoted by
Vg. We write

U 1→2 = (V g )1 − (V g )2

We note if the potential energy increases during the displacement, the work U 1→2 is negative. The level
or datum from which the elevation y is measured can be chosen arbitrary. Bite that potential energy is
expressed in the same units as work, i.e., in joules when SI units are used.

Fig. 13.6

It should be noted that the above expression for the

potential energy of a body with respect to gravity is valid
only as long as the displacements of the body are small
compared with the radius of the earth. If not, we use the
expression
GMm GMm
U 1→2 = −
r2 r1
The expression, which should be used for the potential
energy Vg when the variation in the force of gravity cannot
be neglected, is

GMm
Vg = −
r

3-9
Taking the relation into account,
GMm
W = mg = 2
or GMm = WR 2
R
we write Vg in the alternative form

WR 2
Vg = −
r
where R is the radius of the earth and W is the value of the weight of the body at the surface of the earth.
The distance r is measured from the center of the earth. Note that Vg is always negative and that it
approaches zero for very large values of r.

— Potential Energy due to an elastic force

Fig. 13.5
Consider a body attached to a spring and moving
from a position A1, corresponding to a deflection
x1 of the spring, to a position A2, corresponding to
a deflection x2 of the spring. The work of the
force exerted by the spring on the body is

1 2 1
U 1→2 = kx1 − kx 2
2

2 2
The potential energy of the body with respect to
the elastic force F is denoted by Ve. We write

U 1→2 = (Ve )1 − (Ve )2 with Ve =

1 2
kx
2
Note that the expression obtained for Ve is valid
only if the deflection of the spring is measured from its undeformed position. The work of the elastic
force depends only upon the initial and final deflections of the spring. (see Fig. 13.10b)

3.7 Conservative Forces

Fig. 13.11
A force F acting on a particle A is said to be conservative if its work U 1→2 is independent of the path
followed by the particle A as it moves from A1 to A2. We can then write

U 1→2 = V (x1 , y1 , z1 ) − V ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 )

3-10
or, for short,
U 1→2 = V1 − V2
The function V(x,y,z) is called the potential energy, or potential
function, of F.

If A1 is equal to A2, then

∫ F • dr = 0
The elementary work dU corresponding to the displacement dr
from A to A´is

dU = V (x, y, z ) − V ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) = − dV ( x, y, z )

Thus, the elementary work of a conservative force is an exact

differential. Then

dU = Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz
∂V ∂V ∂V
dV ( x, y, z ) = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V ∂V ∂V
Fx = − Fy = − Fz = −
∂x ∂y ∂z

⎛ ∂V ∂V ∂V ⎞
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k = −⎜⎜ i+ j+ k ⎟ = −∇V
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠

The vector in parentheses is known as the gradient of the scalar function and is denoted by grad V.

3.8 Conservation of Energy

The work of a conservative force can be expressed as a change in potential energy. When a particle
moves under the action of conservative forces, the principle of work and energy can be expressed as

U 1→2 = V1 − V2 = T2 − T1
T1 + V1 = T2 + V2

: The sum of the kinetic energy and of the potential energy of the particle remains constant. The sum
T+V is called the total mechanical energy of the particle and is denoted by E.

3-11
3.9 Motion under a Conservative Central Force: Application to Space Mechanics
Fig. 13.14, 13.15
Consider a space vehicle of mass m moving under the
earth’s gravitational force. Let us assume that it begins
its free flight at point P0 at a distance r0 from the center of
the earth, with a velocity v0 forming an angle ϕ0 with the
radius vector OP0. Let P be a point of the trajectory
described by the vehicle. Applying the conservation of
angular momentum about O between P0 and P,

ro mvo sin φ 0 = rmv sin φ

Now, we apply the principle of conservation of energy

between P0 and P:

T0 + V0 = T + V
1 GMm 1 2 GMm
mv0 − = mv −
2

2 r0 2 r

where M is the mass of the earth.

Example 13.6)
A 20-lb collar slides without friction along a vertical rod as shown. The spring attached to the collar has
an undeformed length of 4 in. and a constant of 3 lb/in. If the collar is released from rest in position 1,
determine its velocity after it has moved 6 in. to position 2.

3-12
Ans)
Position 1

kx1 = (3 lb inch )(8inch − 4inch ) = 24in.lb

1 2 1
Ve =
2

2 2
Vg = 0
T1 = 0
Position 2

kx 2 = (3 lb inch )(10inch − 4inch ) = 54in.lb

1 1
Ve =
2 2

2 2
V g = Wy = (20lb )(− 6inch ) = −120in.lb
1 1 20 2
T2 = mv 2 =
2
v2
2 2 32.2
Conservation of Energy

(V e + V g + T )1 = (Ve + V g + T )2
V2 = ±4.91 ft s

3-13
Homework
13.60, 13.76, 13.86, 13.87, 13.95, 13.115

3.10 Principle of Impulse and Momentum

Consider a particle of mass m acted upon by a force F. Newton’s second law can be expressed in the
form d
F= mv
dt
where mv is the linear momentum of the particle. Multiplying both sides of the equation by dt and
integrating from a time t1 to a time t2, we write

Fdt = dmv
t2
∫ t1
Fdt = mv 2 − mv 1

mv 1 + ∫ Fdt = mv 2
t2

t1

The integral is a vector known as the linear impulse, or simply the impulse, of the force F during the
interval of time considered. Resolving F into rectangular components, we write

t2 t2 t2 t2
Imp 1→2 = ∫ Fdt = i ∫ Fx dt + j∫ Fy dt + k ∫ Fz dt
t1 t1 t1 t1

The unit is the same as that of linear momentum:

(
N.s = kg. m s 2 .s = kg. m s)
When several forces act on several particles, each particle can be considered separately. The internal
impulses of the forces cancel out and only external ones need to be considered.

3.11 Impulsive Motion

Fig. 13.19

„ Impulsive force: a force during a very short time interval that is large enough to produce a definite
change in momentum
„ Impulsive motion: the resulting motion

3-14
When impulsive forces act on a particle,

mv 1 + ∑ FΔt = mv 2

Any force which is not an impulsive force may be neglected, since the corresponding impulse FΔt is very
small. In the case of the impulsive motion of several particles,

∑ mv + ∑ FΔt = ∑ mv
1 2

Only external impulsive forces count.

Example 3.11)
A 4-oz baseball is pitched with a velocity of 80 ft/s toward a batter. After the ball is hit by the bat B, it
has a velocity of 120 ft/s in the direction shown. If the bat and ball are in contact 0.015s, determine the
average impulsive force exerted on the ball during impact.

Ans)
mv 1 + ∑ FΔt = mv 2

X components:

− mv1 + Fx Δt = mv 2 cos 40 o

−
4 16
(80 ft s ) + Fx (0.015s ) = 4 16 (120 ft s ) cos 40 o
32.2 32.2
Fx = 89.0lb
Y components:

Fy Δt = mv 2 sin 40 o
Fy = 39.9lb
Therefore
F = 97.5lb
∠24.2 o
Homework
13.128, 13.130, 13.132, 13.142, 13.152

3-15
3.12 Impact
Figure 13.20

„ Impact: a collision between tow bodies which occurs in a very small interval of time and during
which the two bodies exert relatively large forces on each other.
„ Line of impact: the common normal to the surfaces in contact during the impact
„ Central impact: impact where the mass centers on the two colliding bodies are located on the line of
impact
„ Eccentric impact: not the case of central impact
„ Direct impact: impact where the velocities of two particles are directed along the line of impact
„ Oblique impact: not the case of direct impact

3.13 Direct Central Impact

Consider two particles A and B, of mass mA and mB,
which are moving the same straight line and to the
right with known velocity vA and vB. (Figure 13.21)
If vA is larger than vB, particle A will eventually strike
particle B. Under the impact, the two particles, will
deform and at the end of the period of deformation,
they will have the same velocity u. A period of
restitution will then take place, at the end of which, the
two particles will have gained their original shape or
will stay permanently deformed;

Impact = deformation + restitution

3-16
 Considering first the two particles as a single system, we note that there is no impulsive, external
force. Thus, the total momentum of the two particles is conserved, and we write

m A v A + m B v B = m A v ′A + m B v ′B (13.37)

Let us now consider the motion of particle A during the period of deformation and restitution.

m A v A − ∫ Pdt = m A u

m A u − ∫ Rdt = m A v ′A
where P and R are forces exerted by particle B during deformation and restitution, respectively. (Figure
13.22) Then coefficient of restitution, e, is defined by

e=
∫ Rdt (13.40)
∫ Pdt
The value of the coefficient e is always between 0 and 1. It depends on the materials, impact velocities,
and shape and sizes of two particles. Then
u − v ′A
e=
vA − u
A similar analysis of particle B leads to the relation

u − v ′B
e=
vB − u
Thus,

e=
(u − v ′A ) − (u − v ′B ) = v ′B − v ′A
(v A − u ) − (v B − u ) v A − v B
v ′B − v ′A = e(v A − v B ) (13.43)

The relative velocity of the two particles after impact can be obtained by multiplying their relative
velocity before impact by the coefficient of restitution. The velocities of the two particles after impact
can now be obtained by solving Eqs. (13.37) and (13.43) simultaneously.

3-17
 Two particular cases of impact are of special interest:
i) e=0, Perfectly Plastic Impact:
(13.43)Æ v ′B − v ′A = 0
v ′B = v ′A ≡ v ′
(13.37)Æ
m A v A + m B v B = (m A + m B )v ′
ii) e=1, Perfectly Elastic Impact:
(13.43)Æ
v ′B − v ′A = v A − v B (13.45)
Eqns. (13.37) and (13.45) can be written as follows:

m A (v A − v ′A ) = m B (v ′B − v B )

v A + v ′A = v B + v ′B
Multiplying the above two equations member by member, we have

m A (v A − v ′A )(v A + v ′A ) = m B (v ′B − v B )(v B + v ′B )
m A v A − m A v ′A = m B v ′B − m B v B
2 2 2 2

1
2
( 2 2 1
2
) (
m A v A + m B v B = m B v ′B + m A v ′A
2 2
)
Therefore, in the case of a perfectly elastic impact, the total energy of the two particles, as their total
momentum, is conserved. However, when e is not equal to 1, the total energy of the particles is not
conserved.

3-18
3.14 Oblique Central Impact
„ Oblique impact: the case when the velocities of two colliding particles are not directed along the line
of impact (Fig. 13.23).

„ We need 4 independent equations since v A´and v B´ are unknown. We choose as coordinate

axes the n axis along the line of impact and the t axis along their common tangent. Assuming that
the particles are perfectly smooth and frictionless, we observe that the only impulse is directed along
the line of impact (Fig. 13.24).

It follows that
- The component along the t axis of the momentum of each particle is conserved:

(v A )t = (v ′A )t
(v B )t = (v ′B )t
- The component along the n axis of the total momentum of the two particles is conserved:

m A (v A )n + m B (v B )n = m A (v ′A )n + m B (v ′B )n

- The component along the n axis of the relative velocities of two particles follow the rule of the
central impact:
(v ′B )n − (v ′A )n = −e[(v B )n − (v A )n ] (13.49)

3-19
„ Let us now examine the case when one or both of the colliding particles is constrained in its motion
(Fig. 13.25). Assuming no friction between the block and the ball, or between the block and the
horizontal surface, we note that impulses exerted on the system consist of the impulses of the
internal forces F and –F directed along the line of impact, and of the impulse of the external force
Fext exerted by the horizontal surface on block A and directed along the vertical. The velocities of
block A and ball B immediately after the impact are represented by three unkowns: the magnitude of
the velocity v A´of block A and the magnitude and direction of the velocity v B´of ball B. The
three equations are

- The component along the t axis of the momentum of ball B is conserved.

(v B )t = (v ′B )t
- The component along the horizontal x axis of the total momentum of block A and ball B is
conserved.
m A v A + m B (v B )x = m A v ′A + m B (v ′B )x
- The component along the n axis of the relative velocities of two particles follow the rule of the
central impact:
(v ′B )n − (v ′A )n = −e[(v B )n − (v A )n ]

Note: The relation (13.49) between the components along the line of impact of the relative velocities of
two colliding particles remains valid even when one or both of the particles is constrained in its motion.

3.15 Problems involving energy and momentum

Three methods for the solution of kinetics problems:

- Newtone’s 2nd law: F = ma

- Work and energy
- Impulse and momentum

3-20
We choose the most suitable method among the above three methods depending on applications.
Consider, for example, a pendulum A, of mass mA and length l, which is released with no velocity from a
position A1 (Fig. 13.28a). The pendulum swings freely in a vertical plane and hits a second pendulum B,
of mass mB and length l, which is initially at rest. After the impact, pendulum B swings through an angle
θ that we wish to determine. The solution of the problem can be divided into three parts.

1. Pendulum A swings from A1 to A2: Work and energy

m A gl =
1
2
( )
m A v A2
2

v A2 = 2 gl

2. Pendulum A hits pendulum B: Impulse and momentum

m A v A2 = m A v A3 + m B v B3
v A3 − v B3 = −ev A2

3. Pendulum B swings from B3 to B4: Work and energy

m B (v B 3 )
1
m B gl cosθ =
2

2
Example 13.15) y 4 = l cosθ
The magnitude and direction of the velocities of two identical frictionless balls before they strike each
other are shown. Assuming e = 0.90, determine the magnitude and direction of the velocity of each ball
after the impact.

3-21
Solution)

(v A )n = v A cos 30 o = 15 3 ft s
(v A )t = v A sin 30 o = 15 ft s
(v B )n = v B cos 60 o = −20 ft s
(v B )t = v A sin 60 o = 20 3 ft s
In t axis,
(v ′A )t = (v A )t = 15 ft s
(v ′B )t = (v B )t = 20 3 ft s
In n axis,
m A (v A )n + m B (v B )n = m A (v ′A )n + m B (v ′B )n
( )
m 15 3 + m(− 20) = m(v ′A )n + m(v ′B )n
(v ′A )n + (v ′B )n = 6.0 (1)
and
(v ′B )n − (v ′A )n = −e[(v B )n − (v A )n ]
(v ′B )n − (v ′A )n [
= −(0.90) 20 − 15 3 = 41.4 ] (2)

Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously, we obtain

(v ′A )n = −17.7 ft s
(v ′B )n = 23.7 ft s

Adding vectorially the velocity components of each ball, we obtain the velocities.

3-22
Example 13.17)
A 30-kg block is dropped from a height of 2 m onto the 10-
kg pan of a spring scale. Assuming the impact to be
perfectly plastic, determine the maximum deflection of the
pan. The constant of the spring is k = 20 kN/m.

Solution
1) conservation of energy

T1 = 0
( )
V1 = W A y = (30kg ) 9.81 m s 2 (2m ) = 588 J

T2 =
1
2
( )
m A v A2
2
=
1
2
( )
(30kg ) v A2 2

V2 = 0
T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
v A2 = 6.26 m s ↓
2) conservation of momentum

m A (v A )2 + m B (v B )2 = (m A + m B )v3
30 × 6.26 + 0 = (30 + 10)v3
v3 = 4.70 m s ↓

3-23
3) conservation of energy

T3 =
1
(m A + m B )v3 2 = 442 J
2

initial deflection x3 = =
(
WB (10kg ) 9.81 m s 2 )
= 4.91 × 10 −3 m
k 20 × 1000 N m
1 2
V3 = V g + Ve = 0 + kx3 = 0.241J
2
T4 = 0
total maximum deflection x 4 = x3 + h

V4 = V g + Ve = (W A + WB )(− h ) +
1
2
2 1
2
( )
kx 4 = −(392 )h + 20 × 10 3 x 4
2

T3 + V3 = T4 + V4
x 4 = 0.230m
h = 0.225m

Homework
13.165, 13.168, 13.174, 13.180, 13.187, 13.191, 13.C5

3-24