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Skill Enhancement Course (SEC)

SEC-1:
1: Physics Workshop Skill
Sample questions with answers
Q. Describe the use of screw gauge for the measurement of the thickness
of a paper. 5
Ans.
Screw Gauge to Measure Thickness of a Sheet
Screw gauge is one of the precision
instruments that can be used to
accurately measure the thickness of a
paper, or even the diameter of a thin
wire. The structure of a screw gauge
consists of a U-shaped
shaped frame along with a
screw spindle that is attached to the
thimble. In
n a screw gauge, mm scales are
engraved, running parallel to that of the
thimble.
The head section of the screw gauge consists of a ratchet that restricts the
over-tightening
tightening of the screw. Within the thimble section, it consists of a
circular scale that iss divided into 50 or 100 equal parts. It is also termed as a
head screw, which moves over the pitch scale while operating.
The anvil, which is the stud with a plane end surface, forms the U-shaped
U
frame. It can be found on the opposite side to the tip of the screw. You will find
the zero of the head scale coinciding with that of the pitch scale. This occurs
when the tip of the screw comes in contact with that of an anvil.
Apparatus Require in the Experiment
Experiment:
 Screw gauge
 Sheet
 Magnifying Lens

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Pitch of the Screw Gauge

The pitch of the screw gauge can be defined as the distance traveled by the
spindle per rotation. The pitch of the screw gauge can be determined by the
distances traveled by the screw, divided by the total number of rotations.
The formula for pitch is given by:
Pitch of the
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘
𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 = …………. (1)
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑭𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

Principle
The screw's linear distance traveled is proportional to the spin applied to it.
The smallest distance that the instrument can reliably measure is the linear
distance moved by the screw when rotated by one division of the circular
scale. It's known as the instrument's least count.
Least Count of the Screw Gauge
When the tip of the screw gauge is turned by one division of the head scale,
the least count (LC) is taken.
The formula for calculating least count is given by:
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 = …………. (2)
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

Q. Calculating Height with the Help of Sextant. 5

Ans.
A sextant is a mechanical device for
measuring the angle between two
objects. Most commonly associated with
navigation at sea, a sextant can also be
used to help calculate the height of trees,
buildings, flagpoles or any other vertical
object.
Steps to be followed:
1. We have to choose an observation
point from which we can clearly see
both the top and the bottom of the
object we wish to measure. Then we

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have to determine the exact distance between the observation point and
the base of the object.
2. We have to set the sextant to zero and look at the object through the
eyepiece, adjusting your view until it is in the center of the frame.
3. Then we have to adjust the sextant arm to split the screen in two halves.
4. We have to continue moving the arm until the top half of the object on one
side of the image is aligned with the bottom half of the object on the other
side of the image.
5. We have to read the angle from the arc of the sextant.
6. We should use a scientific calculator to find the height of the object by
multiplying its distance from the observation point by the tan of the angle
that we measured. For example, if we were 150 feet from the base of the
object, and the recorded angle was 75 degrees, the height of the object
would be 150 x tan 75 = 560 feet.
We should remember to add the height we are holding the sextant above the
ground to the total height of the object.
Q. Draw the block diagram of a cathode ray oscilloscope. 5

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Q. Define Regulated and Unregulated power supply. What is the

difference between a regulated power supply and an unregulated power
supply? 5+5
Regulated Power Supply:
Regulated power supply is a type of power supply that provides a constant
output voltage despite variations in input voltage, load current, and
temperature. The regulated power supply has an active circuit that
continuously monitors the output voltage and adjusts it to maintain the
specified output voltage. The regulated power supply is widely used in
electronic devices that require a stable voltage, such as computers,
telecommunication equipment, and industrial machinery.
Advantages:
One of the advantages of a regulated power supply is that it provides a stable
output voltage regardless of variations in input voltage or load current. This
feature ensures that the electronic device receives a consistent and stable
power supply, which is essential in maintaining the reliability and
performance of the device. Regulated power supply also offers protection
against voltage fluctuations, overloads, and short circuits, which can damage
the electronic device.
Unregulated Power Supply:
Unregulated power supply is a type of power supply that provides an output
voltage that varies with changes in input voltage, load current, and
temperature. The unregulated power supply does not have an active circuit
that regulates the output voltage, making it simple and less expensive than
regulated power supply. Unregulated power supply is commonly used in low-
power electronic devices that do not require a stable voltage, such as small
radios and toys.
Advantages:
The main advantage of an unregulated power supply is that it is simple and
less expensive than regulated power supply. It does not require complex
circuits, which makes it easier to design and manufacture. However, the main
disadvantage of an unregulated power supply is that it provides an output
voltage that varies with changes in input voltage, load current, and
temperature. This variation can lead to a reduced performance and reliability
of the electronic device.

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Differences: Regulated and Unregulated Power Supply

The following table highlights the major differences between Regulated and
Unregulated Power Supply −

Characteristics Regulated Power Supply Unregulated Power

Supply

Definition A regulated power supply An unregulated power

is an embedded circuit supply is the one that
which produces a constant provides a predetermined
output voltage output based on the input
irrespective of the changes and load voltage and even a
in the input voltage or little variation in the input
frequency and directly affects the output
independent of the voltage.
variations in the output
load conditions.
It supplies a stable voltage
to a device or circuit that
must be operated within
specified power supply
limits.

Output Voltage The output voltage of a The output voltage of an

regulated power supply unregulated power supply,
stays at a predetermined on the contrary, is not
value and is independent regulated meaning the
of the current drawn from output voltage changes as
the temperature on the the load varies so they do
top of any variations in the not have voltage regulation.
AC line voltage. The output voltage
Any variation in the input increases as the output
voltage will not affect the current decreases and vice-
output voltage because of versa.
a voltage stabilizing device
called voltage regulator
used.

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Applications The regulated power The unregulated power

supplies are used for all supplies can be used in
applications that require applications where good
an exact amount of output regulation or low ripple is
voltage such as television, not required, such as LED
computers, mobile lamps, relays, solenoids,
chargers, appliances, actuators, DC motors and
medical and measurement anything that is ideal for
devices as well as for non-critical loads.
electromechanical
applications.
Because they maintain
voltage at a desired level,
they can be used in almost
all kinds of electronic
devices.

Q. Explain the working principle of a power generation system. 5

Ans.
Power Generation Systems:
Electric power is currently the most efficient way to convert potential energy
to working energy and move that working energy to where it is needed.
Power generation systems are simply the combination of a potential or stored
energy converter providing kinetic energy, which, in turn, creates electric
power for use in motors, lighting, heating, and other conveniences of modern
life. These systems, divided into generation at source and generation at need
(with some in between) are outlined below.
Types of Power Generation Systems:
Generation systems at the source describe the traditional, electric power
production model. The systems take advantage of the economies of
transporting electricity over transporting fuel over long distance. Hydro
power is the best example of this. Hydro power uses the potential energy of
water elevation or head. Hydro power plants are required to be built where
elevation drops in water flow occur. In hydro generation systems, water

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pressure is directed at a turbine creating rotational kinetic energy. This

kinetic energy is converted to electric power by a generator, which is
sometimes referred to as a “motor.”
Fossil fuel generation systems can be located near the source of fuel with
electric power transmitted to point of use, or the fuel can be transported
closer to the point of use. Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, or natural gas
are combusted to create heat. Generators can be driven directly from
combustion as in gas turbines or steam created by fuel combustion can be
used to drive the turbine-generator.
Nuclear power generation systems locations are dictated by adequate
water availability but also by political and regulatory restrictions as well.
These systems also use a steam generation process to generate electricity.
Geothermal generation systems can only be placed where subsurface heat
conditions are hot enough and close enough to the surface. For the most part,
favorable conditions exist where there is high seismic and volcanic activity.
Tidal energy generation systems use the natural throttling action created
by shoreline geography to drive turbine-generator systems.
Generation systems near use have the advantage of higher efficiencies due
to low transmission loss.
Wind energy generation is possible anywhere wind is prevalent. Wind
generation exists at many scales from backyard to large wind farms. Linear
wind energy is converted to rotational kinetic energy via large turbine blades,
which, in turn, is converted to electricity by a generator.
Solar power generation can be either thermal or photovoltaic. Thermal
systems have limited options for location and are placed where sunlight is
plentiful and clouds are few to focus solar energy onto a “solar furnace” using
mirrors. This generates enough heat to drive a steam turbine.
Photovoltaic generation systems can be large commercial “farms” or
individual residential or commercial systems. Photovoltaic cells convert solar
energy directly to electric energy. The DC output is converted to AC for
consumption using inverters.
Applications
Finally, point of use generation systems are all around us and used in large
and heavy transport vehicles. Trains, ships, large earthmoving equipment, and
military vehicles use internal combustion engines, gas turbines, and even

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nuclear generation systems to produce electricity that drives motors at the

wheels or the propeller shaft to move these vehicles along.
Q. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of welding over soldering.
Compare the applications of both the processes.
Ans.
Advantages of Soldering:
Soldering does not require much experience or equipment to get started. The
temperatures required to melt the solder are also fairly low, making it safer
for DIY hobbyists.
Another benefit of soldering is that once you have made the joint you can
easily melt the solder and separate the connection. This makes it easy to re-do
mistakes until you get them right.
The biggest advantage of solder is that it is simple to join different types of
metal together. It is also possible to easily join components that have different
thicknesses.
Advantages of Welding:
If you have any kind of metal fabrication application, then welding is far
superior to soldering. By fusing the two metals together you can create a
permanent and strong connection.
There are at least seven different types of welding. These specialist welding
techniques mean that it's possible to perform high-quality welds in a huge
range of applications. This makes welding far more versatile than soldering.
With advances in technology, it is even possible to use robotic welding to
ensure that all your welds are perfect.
Soldering vs. Welding
Soldering and welding both have distinct advantages and disadvantages
depending on the application.
Welding produces a much stronger joint than soldering. This makes it suitable
for load-bearing and structural metal connections. Soldering only makes a
connection as strong as the solder you use.

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Welding two different metals together is generally not possible without

specialist equipment and techniques. In comparison, soldering with certain
types of solder allows you to join any two metals together.
Applications of Soldering:
Soldering allows you to join a range of different metals together. These
include copper, brass, iron, silver, and gold. It is mostly used to make electrical
connections and for non-structural metal connections.
Soldering is commonly used to join together the electrical components on
circuit boards. Using solder makes it possible to connect these tiny
components without using electrical wire.
Another common application of soldering is in plumbing. Copper pipes are
joined together with a leak-proof connection by heating them and using solder
to seal the join.
Soldering is also used to make jewelry and musical instruments like trumpets.
Applications of Welding:
A wide range of industries uses welding to make high-strength structural
metal connections. Making these structural welds requires a lot of equipment,
experience, and skill.
Depending on the type of metals you want to weld together you should
use MIG or TIG welding. All welding machines create a bond strong enough to
withstand extreme stress.
Some common applications of welding are sheet metal fabrication plants,
construction, shipbuilding, and heavy machinery repairs.
Welding is used extensively on automobile and aircraft assembly lines. It is
also used to connect industrial pipes.

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Q. Explain the different manufacturing methods: Casting, Forming and

Welding.
Ans.
Main types of Manufacturing Processes and their subtypes:

Casting:
Casting is a process of pouring liquid metal into a mold containing the hollow
shape of the desired outcome. It uses sprue, gates, and runners to pour the
metal. The main types of manufacturing processes under casting are:-
Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal casting is a process of pouring molten metal into a spinning
die. Spinning die creates high g-forces to the molten metal which gives it the
cylindrical shape. Moreover, spinning let the impurities (less dense material)
to float at the inner dia from where it is removed later. Spinning can either be
on a vertical or horizontal axis depending on the configuration of the desired

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part such as vertical rotation is used to cast ring and cylinder and horizontal
rotation is used to cast tubular shapes.

Example: Some examples of centrifugal casting include jet engine compressor

cases, petrochemical furnace tubes, military products, and other high-
reliability applications.
Die Casting:
Die casting is a manufacturing
process used for producing metal
parts where high precision is
required. This process is
accomplished by forcing molten
metal under high pressure into
reusable metal dies. High volume
production is done using this
process.
Process:
 Steel molds capable of
producing several castings at
once are produced.
 Molds are mounted securely in a die casting machine and are arranged so
that one is stationary while the other is moveable.
 The die cavity is injected with molten metal and allowed to solidify and the
part is ejected.

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Example: Die casting process is used for producing precise non-ferrous metal
parts. Some examples of die casting include engines, clutch housings, and
covers of a four-wheeled vehicle.
Sand Casting
Sand casting is a metal casting process that uses sand as the mold material.
This process has a low production rate as the sand mold must be destroyed in
order to remove the part. Although, it is a cheap process when low volume
production is required.

Process:
 Furnace, metal, pattern, and sand mold are used in the sand-casting
process.
 The molten metal is poured using ladle into the cavity of the sand mold,
which is made from the pattern.
 The casting is allowed to solidify and then removed by breaking the mold.
Example: More than 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting
process. Some examples of sand-casting process include engine blocks,
machine tool bases, cylinder heads, pump housings, valves, gears, pulleys,
crankshafts, connecting rods, and propellers.

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Permanent Mold Casting

Permanent mold casting is a manufacturing process that offers reusability of
metal molds which makes it eligible for high volume production. This process
uses gravity or vacuum or gas to fill the mold.

Process:
 The mold is preheated and a ceramic coating is applied to the mold cavity
surfaces to facilitate part removal.
 The molten metal is poured from a ladle and gravity or vacuum is used to
raise the molten metal into the mold assembly.
 The casting is allowed to solidify and then removed by opening the mold
assembly.
Example: Some examples of permanent mold casting include gears, pipe
fittings, fuel injection housings, splines, wheels, gear housings, engine pistons.
Investment Casting
Investment casting is metal casting process of pouring molten metal into an
expendable ceramic mold. This process is also known as “lost-wax casting” as

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the wax pattern is melted out of the mold when molten metal is poured.
Complex parts are made using this process.

Process:
 The wax pattern is prepared and surrounded/invested by the ceramic
slurry that hardens it and converts it into a mold.
 The mold is preheated to evaporate the wax and the molten metal is
poured from a ladle into the mold.
 The casting is allowed to solidify and then the mold is broken and the
casting removed.
Example: Some examples of investment casting include turbine blades,
airplane parts, firearm components and military equipment.
Shell Molding:
Shell molding is a metal casting process that uses a sand covered with resin to
form the mold. This process is similar to sand casting process but has better
dimensional accuracy, higher productivity rate, and lower labor requirements.
Also, the Shell Molds are reusable and expandable.

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Process:
 A two-piece metal pattern is created in the shape of the desired part using
iron or steel.
 These patterns are clamped to a dump box containing the mixture of sand
and a resin binder. This is known as shell preparation method.
 These shells are joined together and clamped to form the complete shell
mold and the molten metal is poured from a ladle into the mold cavity.
 After the casting is solidified, the mold is broken and the casting removed.
Example: Shell molding is used for producing high precision parts. Some
examples of shell molding include gear housings, cylinder heads, connecting
rods, and lever arms.
Thermo-forming:
Thermoforming is a molding process where a plastic sheet is heated to an
elastic forming temperature and formed into the desired shape. This method
is often used for sample and prototype parts. It is divided into three types of
manufacturing processes namely vacuum forming, pressure forming and
mechanical forming.

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Process:
 The thermoplastic sheet is heated using either convection or radiation until
it gets soften.
 This soft sheet is then pressed against the mold using the vacuum or air
pressure or mechanical force.
 The excess material is then trimmed away and the formed part is released.
Example: Some examples of thermoforming include switchgear, motor
components, thrust washers, ash cups, valve covers, disc brake pistons, knobs,
and handles.
Forming:
Forming is a manufacturing process that uses suitable stresses such as
compression, tension or shear to deform the material and get the desired
shape. This process involves deformation and displacement of material
leading to no material removal or loss of material. The different types of
manufacturing processes under forming are: –
Forging:
Forging is a manufacturing process that uses compressive forces to shape the
material. This process is accomplished with the help of a hammer, press or
a special forging machine. The forged parts have good strength and toughness
without the defects of porosity, inclusion or voids, also they can be used
reliably for highly stressed and critical applications.
Forging may be carried out on materials in either hot or cold state and
therefore, it is divided into types of manufacturing processes i.e. cold forging
and hot forging.
Example: Some examples of forging include hammers, sleds, wrenches, garden
tools, sockets, hardware, hand tools, edged weapons, cymbals, jewelry, rivets,
bolts.

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Bending:
Bending is a manufacturing process
used to deform metal into the desired
shape by using a die and punch. This
process is most commonly used for
sheet metal products to get the
required U-shape, V-shape
shape or the
channel shape. Commonly used
bending machines are pan
brakes, brake presses, and other
specialized machine
hine presses.

Process:
 The material is placed on the die and positioned in place with the help of
stops.
 The upper part of the press with appropriately shaped punch attached to it
descends and forms the VV-shaped bend.
 The U-punch
punch forms the U
U-shape with a single punch.
Example: Some examples of bending operations include electric enclosures,
electrical boxes, brackets, rectangular ductwork.
Stamping
Stamping or pressing is a manufacturing process in which thin walled metal
parts are shaped desirably with the help of punches and dies. This process is
accomplished by placing flat sheet metal into a stamping press where a tool
and die surface forms the metal into the desired shape. Stamping uses
hydraulic or mechanical press to perform the operations which can c be done at
a single die station or multiple die stations. Also, this process is usually carried
out on sheet metal, but can also be used on other materials, such
as polystyrene.

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Example: Some examples of stamping include trunks, doors, panels,

enclosures, fenders, roof, and hood outer parts.
Shearing
Shearing is a manufacturing process used to remove a blank of required shape
and dimension from a large sheet of metal, paper or plastics. This process
includes cutting of sheet without the formation of chips or the use of burning
or melting. Shearing is divided into following types of manufacturing
processes: –
 Blanking
 Piercing
 Roll slitting
 Trimming
 Coining
Process:
 The punch applies pressure to the sheet forming cracks on both the top
and bottom edges of the sheet.
 The punch goes down further to grow these cracks and eventually separate
the slug from the material.
Example

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Some examples of shearing include industrial machinery, automobile parts,

electronic equipment, knives, scissors.
Machining:
Machining is a manufacturing process used to cut a piece of raw material into
the desired shape and size with the help of controlled material-removal
process. These processes are based on a common theme known as subtractive
manufacturing. The machining process is used for all the types of product
especially metal products. The different types of manufacturing processes
under machining are: -
1. Milling – Milling is a process of removal of material from a workpiece
using rotary cutters and getting the desired shape.
2. Turning -Turning is a process of removal of unwanted material from
circular parts using a cutting tool. This process requires a lathe,
workpiece, fixture, and a cutting tool.
3. Shaping – Shaping process uses a cutting tool that reciprocates against a
stationary workpiece producing a plane or a desired surface.
4. Drilling – Drilling process uses a drill bit to make a hole of circular cross-
section into the solid material.
5. Honing – Honing process produces a precision surface on
a metal workpiece by scrubbing an abrasive stone against it.
6. Finishing – Finishing process is used to improve appearance, adhesion,
wettability, wear resistance, hardness or to remove burrs and other
surface flaws with the help of sanders.
Joining:
Joining or assembling process are part of every production processes where
two or more parts are combined together to get the required product. The
main types of manufacturing processes under joining are:-
1. Welding – Welding process is used to heat and melt two or more parts and
force them together making a single functional part. Arc welding,
resistance welding, oxyfuel gas welding are few types of welding
operations.
2. Soldering – Soldering process is also used to join two or more metal items
by melting and putting a filler metal (solder) into the joint. It differs
from welding as it does not involve melting of the workpieces.

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3. Brazing – Brazing process is used to join two or more metal items together
by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint. Brazing uses higher
temperatures for a similar process as compared to soldering. Also, it
requires much more closely fitted parts than in soldering.
4. Adhesive Bonding – Adhesive bonding is used to hold multiple closely
spaced parts together using a filler material called an adhesive. It is mainly
used for a non-metallic substance such as a polymer.
5. Mechanical Assembly – It is a fastening process which uses nut, bolts, and
rivets to join the parts together. It is also a reversible joining process.
Coating or Plating:
This process is defined as a method of covering the part surface with powder
or zinc or other chemicals to protect it from corrosion, wear and other defects.
It is also done to improve the electrical conductivity or magnetic response of
the material. The main types of manufacturing processes under the coating
process are powder coating, electroplating, sputter deposition.
Additive Manufacturing:
Additive manufacturing is the process reversible to subtractive manufacturing
i.e. machining. It is a manufacturing process that builds 3D objects
by adding layer-upon-layer of material, whether the material is plastic, metal
or concrete. Additive manufacturing comprises many technologies such as 3D
printing, rapid prototyping, direct digital manufacturing, layered
manufacturing and additive fabrication. This technology is growing at a very
fast speed due to its high-efficiency and accuracy.
Example: Some examples of 3D printing include jewelry, toys, decorative
items, phone cases.

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