TNZ F/2 Notes: 2000

NOTES ON PIPE SUBSOIL DRAIN CONSTRUCTION

SPECIFICATION

These notes are for guidance and must not be included in the Contract Documents.

Specification TNZ F/2 may be used either independently of, or in conjunction with, the
formation specification, TNZ F/1.

1. SCOPE

Water control is the most important factor in highway design and construction.

Although adequate surface drainage is the first step in providing good internal moisture
control, a properly designed and installed subsoil drainage system can be essential.

Soil is a material made up of solid particles and various sizes of pores. Water either
remains in it or percolates through it. Water retention and movement constitute the two
important phases in soil moisture relationship. Water movement takes place by the action
of gravity or of capillarity, or by a combination of the two. Subsoil drainage can improve
the soil moisture relationship by keeping the ground water-table well beneath the paved
surface.

The principal object of all drainage is to facilitate the production of a subgrade of uniform
bearing value and strength.

There are four major points, which should be kept clearly in mind when formulating any
subsoil drainage installation:

(i) the installation must be related to the particular problem. That is adequate
investigation and a proper understanding of the nature of the problem are essential;

(ii) the installation must be specifically designed to meet the problem;

(iii) the drain must be able to pass water without clogging over a long period. That is
proper filter material and satisfactory workmanship during installation are essential;
and

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(iv) the drain must be able to support any superimposed loading. The quality of the pipes
should be specifically checked before their use is accepted.

Subsoil drains should not be expected to transmit large flows of water. The drainage of
springs for example is best catered for by a sealed pipe.

Piped subsoil drains should not be used or designed to drain surface water.

Subsoil drains can be divided into three main types:

(i) Traditional standard subsoil drain placed at least 1 m below the finished subgrade
level to maintain a lower ground water-table. (See Fig 1).

Deep drains are more effective than shallow drains in maintaining a low ground
water-table. While this is as true in heavy clay soils as in the more permeable
materials, the area of significantly lowered ground water level for heavy clay soils is
only in the immediate vicinity of the drain trench.

Although properly placed subsoil drains can maintain a lower ground water-table and
control the capillary rise, they will not completely eliminate the upward movement of
moisture in all soils. On certain subgrades it is essential to place a sand or other
grandular sub-base course in order to intercept and remove capillary moisture as fast
as it accumulates.

Provision should normally be made for the section of the sub-base course located
below the sealed pavement to drain into the backfill of subsoil drains.

(ii) Interceptor drains. (See Fig 2).

These are used in the situation where water seeps along a layer of impervious
material towards the road formation. Interceptor drains are placed to intercept and
drain away this water before it reaches the formation. The most common use of
interceptor drains is in cuttings and sidlings.

(iii) Pavement drains. (See Fig 3).

These drains are actually placed within the road metal, so that they directly drain the
basecourse and sub-base layers. (Unlike type (i) which relies primarily on lowering
the water-table in the subgrade). Because these drains are laid relatively close to the
pavement surface superimposed wheel loading relative to pipe strength becomes an
important consideration.

Small diameter plastic pipes are often used in pavement drains.

Pavement drains will frequently be used where kerb and channelling is installed.

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There are several other types of subsoil drains which are not dealt with in NRB F/2, in
particular:

(i) Slotted, corrugated plastic pipe drains. Refer to TNZ F/5 "Subsoil Drain
Construction Using Corrugated Plastic Pipe".

(ii) French drains. These consist of a trench filled with open graded granular material
(which allows a relatively free flow of water).

Anti-clog french drains. These are a french drain with the open graded granular
material wrapped in filter fabric. The filter fabric acts as a base on which a filter
cake forms between the granular material and the surrounding soil. Refer to NRB
F/6 "Fabric Wrapped Aggregate Subsoil Drain Construction".

The water carrying capacity of french drains can be increased by installing a

perforated pipe within the open graded granular material.

(iii) Pipe subsoil drains where the pipes are enveloped in a filter fabric sock which
replaces the usual filter material.

With this type flow into the pipe can be restricted by head losses in the soil
surrounding the pipe. For this reason use would normally be limited to subsoil drains
in some types of sand.

2. MATERIALS

In general for subsoil drain pipes (usually from 100 to 400 mm diameter) the structural
design need not be considered from first principles, but pipes simply picked from loading
charts. However, in cases involving low cover depths with heavy superimposed traffic
loadings or large cover depths, their structural design should be considered in detail.

Pipes laid underground can be classified into two types, rigid or flexible, according to their
structural behaviour.

(i) Rigid pipes (Ceramic, and concrete pipes). The following code of practice is
recommended for the calculation of loads on rigid pipes:

NZS 4451:1974 "Loads on Buried Rigid Pipes" Amendment A 1974 (which is AS

CA33-1962, "Concrete Pipe Laying Design"). This code sets out a recommended
design practice for calculating installation requirements for the laying of precast
concrete drainage pipes. It includes methods for calculating loads on pipes according
to a range of installation conditions, and gives the corresponding load factors. It pro-

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vides for vertical loads due to fill material, superimposed static uniformly distributed
loads and superimposed concentrated loads.

Chapter 7 "Structural Design of Pipe Culverts" of CDP 706/A August 1978 Culvert
Manual is based on this code. In general the Culvert Manual does not consider pipes
with a diameter less than 375 mm.

(ii) Flexible pipes. (Plastic pipes)

The following code of practice is recommended for the calculation of loads on

flexible pipes:

AS/NZS 2566 : 1998 Buried flexible pipelines – structural design

This Standard sets out a practice for the structural design of buried flexible pipelines.

It includes methods for calculating loads. safe bedding depths and reflections under a
range of laying conditions. (Applies to PVC and polyethylene pipes).

The laying of pipes in general is covered by AS 2032:1977 “Installation of uPVC

pipe systems”, and AS 2033 “Installation of Polyethylene pipe systems”

2.1 Pipe Types

The type of pipes to be used on the contract shall be selected by the engineer from
one of the categories outlined in specification TNZ F/2 and indicated on the
drawings.

2.1.1 Ceramic pipes

NZS 1823:1967 (Imperial units) states:

Ceramic pipes are manufactured by moulding clay into pipe and subjecting to
suitable temperatures (firing) to make them strong and durable.

That pipe barrel lengths be a minimum of 2 feet (600mm) and a maximum of 5 feet
(1500mm).

That nominal diameters vary from 4 inches (100mm) to 15 inches (375mm) with
corresponding wall thicknesses varying from 0.5 inch (12mm) to 1.25 inch (32mm).

That the minimum crushing strength be 2250 lb per linear foot (approximately 33
kN/m). When subjected to this load no pipe shall crack.

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That pipes be tested to ensure that their permeability is no greater than a specified
maximum.

That pipes can be glazed or unglazed or partially internally glazed as agreed between
manufacturer and purchaser.

Availability varies from place to place. An example range from one manufacturer is:

Internal diameters; 100, 150, 225 and 300 mm

Pipe lengths; all 1250 mm

Joints; Rubber ring joints available for 100, 150, 225 and 300 mm diameters.
Rubber sleeve joints available for 100 and 150 diameters.

These pipes exceed the strength requirements of NZS 1823:1967 and in fact exceed
the crushing strength required of class Z concrete pipes.

Minimum cover depths (for operation under wheel loads without special protection)
recommended by the manufacturer are:

INTERNAL DIAMETER (mm) MINIMUM COVER DEPTH (mm)

100 - 150 500

225 - 300 1000

Ceramic pipes are unaffected by all types of ground water and micro-organisms.

2.1.2 Unreinforced concrete pipes

NZS 3107:1978 Class C pipes shall not crack under the following proof loads:

INTERNAL DIAMETER (mm) PROOF LOAD (kN/m)

100 19
153 19
200 19
300 22
400 28

In general pipes available considerably exceed the above strength requirements. One
manufacturer's unreinforced concrete pipes are as strong as class Y reinforced
concrete pipes. Hence they require a minimum cover depth under highway loading
or approximately 600 mm.

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These pipes are available in lengths of 1200 mm and nominal diameters of 150, 225
and 300.

2.1.3 Reinforced concrete pipes

NZS 3107:1978 sets the following minimum proof and ultimate loads:

INTERNAL DIAMETER PROOF LOAD ULTIMATE LOAD

(mm) (kN/m) (kN/m)

Class S (Y) Class S (Y)

100 10 (19) 15 (28)

150 10 (19) 15 (28)
200 11 (19) 16 (28)
300 12 (22) 18 (33)
400 14 (27) 20 (40)
- - -
2400 41 (115) 61

Class X, Y and Z pipes are stronger than class S pipes

Under the appropriate proof load a pipe shall not develop a clearly visible crack (but
may develop minor cracks). Under the appropriate ultimate load pipe may crack
extensively but shall not distort more than 10% of the nominal diameter.

The joints should be specified by the purchaser.

Minimum cover depths under highway loading are tabulated below:

APPROXIMATE MINIMUM
COVER DEPTH
INTERNAL DIAMETER (mm) UNDER HN-HO-72 LOADING (mm)

Class
S X Y Z

150 800 650 400 300

225 1400 750 500 400
300 * 900 600 400
375 * 1000 600 400
450 * 1000 600 400
525 * 1000 600 400

* This installation is inadequate to support the design loading under any fill height.

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2.1.4 Clause deleted

2.1.5 Corrugated steel pipes

Pipes covered by this standard are not manufactured in New Zealand at present.

2.1.6 Nestable corrugated steel pipes

These pipes become more competitive when transport distances become significant,
especially with the larger diameter pipes.

NOMINAL DIAMETER (mm) MINIMUM COVER (mm)

200 300
300 300
400 300

For full list of diameters available and maximum and minimum cover depths see
appendix A of chapter 18 of the Culvert Manual.

2.1.7 PVC pipes

These are the type commonly used for domestic drain, waste and vent systems colour
coded light grey. These pipes can be solvent welded or use elastomeric sealing ring
joints.

2.1.8 High Density Polyethylene Pipes

NZS 7604:1981 mentions pipes with a nominal internal diameter of from 80 mm to

225 mm. Pipes are classified in terms of nominal internal diameter but are
dimensioned and standardised on outside diameter and wall thickness.

Dimensioning is based on the diametral deflection of the pipe due to vertical external
loading and must not exceed 5% - 7% of the outside diameter over 50 years.

Performance of a pipe in service is likely to be impaired if the depth of a scratch

exceeds 20% of the wall thickness, or if a surface abrasion exceeds 10% of the wall
thickness and extends over more than 3% of the circumference of the pipe.

Three classes of pipe:

(a) Light wall (SDR = 32)

(b) Medium wall (SDR = 25)

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(c) Heavy wall (SDR = 15)

where SDR (standard dimension ratio)= Maximum mean outside diameter

Minimum wall thickness
Restrictions on use:

Situations requiring the use of medium and heavy wall pipe should be the subject of
deliberate engineering consideration, and reference made to the pipe manufacturer for
detailed information on such applications.

For many situations light wall pipe will be suitable, and the following comments
should be used for guidance on installation.

Ceramic, concrete and other rigid pipes support vertical loads without deformation
mainly by the ability of their walls to resist circumferential bending. Polyethylene, or
PVC being flexible, can utilise the backfill material to support a large portion of the
imposed load, by deflecting a small amount.
Thorough compaction of selected backfill against the sides of either rigid or flexible
the pipe is vital to the integrity of the pipe system.

Recommended minimum depths of cover (NZS 7604:1981, appendix B) unless pipe

protected from backfill and superimposed load (for example by encasing in concrete)
are as follows:

MINIMUM COVER (mm)

Sealed Roads 600

Embankment conditions/construction equipment loading 750
Unsealed roads 750
Not in roadways 450
Not subject to vehicular loading 300

These requirements are as per the following standards AS/NZS 2566; AS 2032; AS
2033

The use of unprotected pipe is not recommended at cover depths exceeding 4 m, nor
at any depth under a road or street that may be used as a route for overweight
movements involving axle loads greater than 1.5 times class I loads.

2.2 Joints

The specification has been written to preclude rigid joints.

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2.3 Filter material

In nearly all installations, the same material is used in contact with the trench walls
and pipe holes. Clearly the properties required to act satisfactorily against the
trenched soil are dependent upon the soil. The stock graduation is designed to be a
"universal" filter and there are very few soil/pipe combinations for which it is not
appropriate.

However, when the Engineer considers that the stock F/2 aggregate is not suitable,
the granular filter should be specially designed as to be explained shortly.

Note however that in the majority of cases satisfactory alternative materials that are
substantially cheaper than the stock mix will be available. As a start point, all in
'builders mix' and similar clay free, well sanded gradings available locally should be
examined. In specifying variant gradings tolerances should only be set as tightly as
are needed by the soil to be protected.

For a protected soil requiring special considerations, care should be taken to

minimise the problems and expense of obtaining alternative non-standard gradings
from local quarries.

Filter materials should be selected and graded to comply with a number of rules. The
terminology adopted for the presentation of the rules is as follows. d (mm) is used
when defining d filter material particle size. D (mm) is used when defining a
protected soil particle size. A numerical subscript xx refers to the percentage by mass
of particles less than the size d or D as the case may be.

The symbol u denotes the coefficient of uniformity of the filter material; ie, u =
d60/d10. The symbol U denotes the coefficient of uniformity of the protected soil; ie, U
= D60/D10.

The rules are:

(a) d15 < 5 D85

(b) d15 > 5 D15

(c) d15 < 40 D15, except when U < 4, in which case d15 < 20 D15

(d) d15 > 0.2 mm

(e) d50 < 25 D50; this rule may be disregarded for clay soils, but the filter must be
well graded, and satisfy u < 20 to avoid segregation.

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(f) d85 > 1 x hole diameter in pipes, this rule may be disregarded if the pipe is
enclosed in a filter fabric.

Rule (a) has the purpose of resisting the piping of fine soil particles through the filter.
Rules (b) and (d) ensure that the permeability of the filter is adequate. Rules (a) and
(b) are the most important, and stem from early experiments carried out by Terzaghi
and by the US Waterways Experimental Station. Rule (e) is sometimes called a
"uniformity" condition: it ensures that the grading envelopes of filter and soil do not
depart too much from being parallel. Rule (c) is present in some references only, and
is perhaps a further uniformity condition. Uniformity conditions have a bearing on
both piping and permeability.

When the protected soil contains a large percentage of gravels, the filter should be
designed on the basis of the gradation curve of the portion of the soil which is finer
than 19.0 mm.

The method of design for filter materials is explained in article 17.32, page 334 of the
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London, publication "Soil
Mechanics for Road Engineers" but the above slightly modified criteria shall be used.
Another excellent reference is "Seepage, Drainage and Flow Nets" by H R Cedergren
(Wiley), pages 175-181. This book lists several references. A worked example of
granular filter design appears as appendix 2 of these notes.

3. EXCAVATION

For a trench installation the load which reaches the pipe is less than the weight of the fill
material above the pipe (plus traffic load) because of the friction between the fill material
and he sides of the trench. The frictional resistance diminishes with increase in trench
width at the level of the top of the pipe. So the width of the trench should not exceed the
specified dimensions as this could increase the loading on the pipe.

Thus the narrower the trench and the nearer the sides of the trench approach the vertical (in
particular from the trench bottom to 300 mm above the top of the pipe), the greater the load
the pipe will support.

It should also be appreciated that the trench must be wide enough to enable the pipes to be
properly laid. For rigid pipes a trench width of one diameter plus 300 mm is usually
recommended.

The sides from 300 mm above the top of the pipe to the surface may diverge if desired,
using either a smooth divergence with side slopes of to one or steeper, or a stepped
divergence giving the same trench width at the top.

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4. BEDDING

In general the effective life of a pipeline depends very largely on the uniformity of support
and absence of point loads. Non-uniform support can be due to hard spots or localised
settlement in the foundations. The purpose of bedding is to ensure uniform longitudinal
support to the pipe and also to provide lateral support.

However, for pipe subsoil drains, unless laid with minimum cover, the bedding is not
usually critical because the shallow depths subsoil drains are laid at means there is often a
considerable reserve of pipe strength available. Consequently the cheapest and most
practical bedding is used. Often this is best achieved by bedding on a minimum thickness
of compacted filter material.

(a) Bedding on clay. The barrel is supported on compacted filter material with the joints
having little or no filter material under them.

(b) Bedding on rock. Using approximately 40 mm thickness of compacted filter material

under the joints and a matching greater thickness under the barrel to ensure the pipe
is supported for the full length of the barrel.

If bedding design is warranted for a particular pipe then the various bedding types and
associated pipe structural design are comprehensively dealt with in chapter 7 of the Culvert
Manual.

5. BACKFILLING

Bearing in mind the need to relate subsoil drainage to the peculiar factors applying in each
specific installation, the usual "standard" backfilling details can not always be applied, in
which case, the necessary modifications should be shown on the plans, or detailed in the
job specification.

6. OUTLETS

Open subsoil drain outlets should be constructed on a relatively steep grade to ensure
unimpeded pipe discharge. The outlets should be located so that flooding of adjacent water
course; does not sub-merge the outlets. The outlets should be located so that they will
remain clear and be marked so as to be easily found for maintenance inspection under all
normal circumstances.

In many situations the outlet pipe(s) may be non-perforated and not surrounded with filter
metal.

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Outlets should be provided whenever there is discharge opportunity. This reduces

uninterrupted subsoil drain length.

7. MAINTENANCE

If subsoil drainage construction is let in conjunction with other contracts, eg, formation,
basecourse construction and sealing, the expiry date for the maintenance period should be
the same as that fixed for the entire works.

On the other hand, should subsoil drainage construction be advertised as a contract

independent of other construction contracts, the date fixed for the termination of the
maintenance period should be some time after the winter following the completion of the
sub-soil drainage system.

8. BASIS OF PAYMENT

No separate payment is made for maintenance.

The Contract Schedule should be compiled from appropriate items worded in the following
manner:

ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT

I Subsoil drains installed at various depths

(i) 100 mm diameter pipe installed at depths

1.0 to 1.5 metres metres

(ii) 100 mm diameter pipe installed at depths

in excess of 1.5 metres metres

(iii) 150 mm diameter pipe installed at depths

1 to 1.5 metres metres

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APPENDIX 1
TYPICAL SECTIONS OF SUBSOIL DRAIN INSTALLATIONS

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APPENDIX 2
Example of Granular Filter Design

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