NJAS: Impact in Agricultural and Life Sciences

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Management practices, reproductive

performances, and production constraints of
indigenous cattle in north-western parts of
Ethiopia

Andualem Tenagne, Mengistie Taye, Tadelle Dessie, Bekalu Muluneh,

Damitie Kebede & Getinet Mekuriaw Tarekegn

To cite this article: Andualem Tenagne, Mengistie Taye, Tadelle Dessie, Bekalu Muluneh,
Damitie Kebede & Getinet Mekuriaw Tarekegn (2023) Management practices, reproductive
performances, and production constraints of indigenous cattle in north-western
parts of Ethiopia, NJAS: Impact in Agricultural and Life Sciences, 95:1, 2211533, DOI:
10.1080/27685241.2023.2211533

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/27685241.2023.2211533

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa

UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis
Group.

Published online: 18 May 2023.

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NJAS: IMPACT IN AGRICULTURAL AND LIFE SCIENCES
2023, VOL. 95, NO. 1, 2211533
https://doi.org/10.1080/27685241.2023.2211533

Management practices, reproductive performances,

and production constraints of indigenous cattle in
north-western parts of Ethiopia
Andualem Tenagne a,b, Mengistie Taye a,c
, Tadelle Dessiea,d,
Bekalu Muluneh a,e, Damitie Kebede a,c
and Getinet Mekuriaw Tarekegn a,c,f
a
Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar
University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; bDepartment of Animal Science, Assosa University, Assosa,
Ethiopia; cInstitute of Biotechnology, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; dInternational
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; eDepartment of Animal and Range
Sciences, Wolaita Sodo University, Tarcha, Ethiopia; fAnimal and Veterinary Sciences,
Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC), Roslin Institute Building, University of Edinburgh,
Edinburgh, UK

ABSTRACT
Description of the production condition and level of performance is the first step in
improving production performance. The study described the indigenous cattle
reproductive performances, management practices and production limitations in
north-western Ethiopia. Multistage purposive and random sampling methods were
used to select the study sites/districts and households. A semi-structured ques­
tionnaire (320 interviewees), focus group discussions (12) and personal observa­
tions were used for data collection. Chi-square (χ2) test, the least squares mean and
the ranking indexes were the statistical methods employed for data analysis.
Livestock composition, reproductive performance and production constraints of
cattle showed significant differences (p < 0.001) between agro-ecological
zones. Cattle were the dominant livestock species, with mean numbers of 18.3 ±
9.9, 8.1 ± 3.2 and 5.4 ± 2.5 heads in the lowland, midland and highland agro-
ecological zones, respectively. The mean ages at first mating of bulls, first service
of heifers, first calving and calving interval of cows were best in the highlands, while
the midland agro-ecology had the worst performance. Feed shortage (Index = 0.4)
and disease prevalence (Index = 0.25) were the main cattle production problems.
Natural pasture was the main feed source for cattle in the study areas. The study
revealed a significant effect agro-ecology on landholding, cattle management
practices, species composition; cattle herd structure, reproductive performances
and cattle production constraints. This implies that the socioeconomic character­
istics, management-level constraints for production and performance level of the
livestock stock are important for developing improvement strategies for small­
holder livestock production in different agro-ecological zones.

CONTACT Andualem Tenagne [email protected]; Mengistie Taye

[email protected]
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the
Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 A. TENAGNE ET AL.

ARTICLE HISTORY Received 24 November 2022; Accepted 3 May 2023

KEYWORD Agro-ecology; cattle management practice; indigenous cattle; reproductive performance;

smallholder production system

1. Introduction
Cattle are the most important livestock species that play a vital role for the
livelihoods of millions of farmers, serving as a source of draft power for rural
people and as a supplier of cattle products such as milk, meat, manure and
cash income (Endalew & Ayalew, 2016). Cattle contribute almost all the
traction power for crop production at the smallholder level in Ethiopia
(Melaku, 2011). Ethiopia is home to a vast genetic resource of cattle with an
estimated population of 70 million, making it the most populous country in
Africa and the fifth largest in the world (CSA, 2021). Indigenous cattle are
considered the backbone of relevant and sustainable livestock production
(Okomo-Adhiambo, 2002), accounting for 97.4% of the total and being kept
extensively, while crossbreds and exotic breeds account for only 2.3% and
0.31%, respectively, in Ethiopia (CSA, 2021). The reason for the high propor­
tion of indigenous cattle is that they have various adaptive mechanisms that
enable them to survive and reproduce under harsh environmental conditions
and resist diseases (Hagos, 2016). Despite their vast resources and unique
adaptability to local environmental conditions, cattle are not productive in
most sub-Saharan African countries (Mwai et al., 2015; Renaudeau et al.,
2012). In the mixed crop-livestock production systems, feed is one of the
major constraints affecting smallholder cattle production (Njarui et al., 2021).
Due to its rain-dependent nature of production, feed availability and quality
vary with agro-ecological conditions and the season of the year (Kashongwe
et al., 2017a). Generally, feed is more abundant in the highland and during
the wet season, whereas it is scarce in the lowlands and during the dry season
(L. Mburu et al., 2018; Onyango et al., 2019). For instance, crop residues are
the most available during crop harvesting season (Anyango et al., 2018;
Gakige et al., 2020; Mwendia et al., 2017). Seasonal feed availability and
quality variations affect the production and reproduction performance of
livestock (Kashongwe et al., 2017a; Schwendel et al., 2015), and low avail­
ability and quality of feed lead to reduced feed intake and affected perfor­
mance when their nutritional requirements are higher than the nutrient
intake from feeds (Colmenero & Broderick, 2006; Imaizumi et al., 2010).
In an integrated livestock production system, evaluating economic impor­
tant traits related to reproductive efficiency and productivity is important for
improvement of the sector (Fernandes Júnior et al., 2019; Soares et al., 2015).
Among the reproduction traits, age at first calving (AFC) and calving interval (CI)
play an important role in cattle production system and are relevant factors in
 NJAS: IMPACT IN AGRICULTURAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 3

the economic viability of the herd (Berry et al., 2014). Females calving early and
regularly in their life tend to produce a larger amount of calves in a shorter time,
increasing the females’ reproductive life (Åby et al., 2012). To improve the
productivity of indigenous cattle, the government of Ethiopia has been imple­
menting cross-breeding of local cattle with commercial dairy cattle breeds for
about six decades (Chebo & Alemayehu, 2012). The effort, however, is not
visible in terms of the composition of crossbred animals at smallholder level
and is leading to the erosion of indigenous genetic resources through poorly
planned crossbreeding (Effa et al., 2011; Hagos, 2016). To properly plan sustain­
able breeding programmes, adequate information on the production and
reproductive performance and production constraints of cattle are of para­
mount importance (Hagos, 2016; Haile, 2011; Mezgebe et al., 2017). Despite
scattered efforts to characterize the cattle management system in various parts
of Ethiopia, the detailed information required for planning a breeding pro­
gramme is lacking and must be updated on a regular basis because animal
populations and management styles will change with time. The results of this
study will contribute to the literature on production system, reproductive
performance and production constraints. Hence, literature is currently limited,
particularly in the case of smallholder livestock production systems in Ethiopia
and countries with similar production systems and agro-ecological zones.
Understanding the production system, production constraints and stock per­
formance in smallholder production systems can enable the design of
a production improvement programme.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Study sites
The study was conducted in six selected districts: Jawi, Enebsie Sarmidr,
South Achefer, Mecha, Banja and Senan districts of north-west Ethiopia
(Figure 1). Table 1 presents a description of the cattle populations, geogra­
phical locations, mean annual temperature, rainfall and altitude ranges of the
study areas. Preliminary research and discussions with regional and zonal
experts from livestock development offices on the potential and distribution
of indigenous cattle in the study areas were conducted during site selection.

2.2. Cattle management system and livestock composition

The production system in the study sites is a mixed crop and livestock
production system. Crop types grown in lowland areas include sorghum,
finger millet, maize, rice, gobe and groundnut. In the midland, the common
crops grown include wheat, maize, barley, finger millet and teff. In highland
areas, wheat, maize, barley, oats and teff were the major crops grown in the
4 A. TENAGNE ET AL.

Figure 1. Map of Ethiopia (a), Amhara region (b) and six study districts (c) of
Northwestern, Ethiopia.

Table 1. Summary of cattle population, annual temperature, rainfall, coordinate points

and elevations of study districts in Ethiopia.
Altitude Annual Annual Cattle
District/site kebele Latitude Longitude (m a s l) temp./ºC RF/mm population
Jawi 1 11º57’18“N 36º24’48“E 995 12–40 1250 252,121
2 11º25’38“N 36º37’06“E 1365
3 11º33’40“N 36º31’50“E 1171
Enebsie 1 10º41’35“N 38º30’35“E 1431 10–36 900–1200 67,791
2 10º41’41“N 38º30’40“E 1207
3 10º42’03“N 38º30’40“E 1271
Achefer 1 11º31’17“N 36º56’19“E 2052 15–23 1450–1594 337,467
2 11º16’36“N 36º57’52“E 2000
Mecha 1 11º19’28“N 37º14’05“E 2194 23–27 1500–2200 409,502
2 11º22’26“N 37º04’32“E 1963
Banja 1 10º54’39“N 36º58’04“E 2409 7–25 2200–2560 69,156
2 10º56’48“N 36º52’08“E 2337
3 10º58’36“N 37º00’55“E 3028
Senan 1 10º38’27“N 37º47’53“E 3192 0–15 900–1500 37,501
2 10º35’03“N 37º49’43“E 3081
3 10º38’04“N 37º49’03“E 3214
Source: Districts agricultural office, 2021; m a s l. = metre above sea level, Annual temp = the mean
minimum and mean maximum annual temperature in Degree Celsius; and RF= mean annual rainfall in
millimetres.
 NJAS: IMPACT IN AGRICULTURAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 5

area. Cattle, sheep, goats, equines and chickens are the common livestock
species in the study areas, and the main feed resources for livestock were
natural pasture, crop residues, stubble grazing, private grazing land and
conserved forage (CSA, 2021).

2.3. Sampling method and procedures

Preliminary studies and discussions were held with experts from the livestock
development offices in the region and districts to know the husbandry
systems, reproductive performances and major constraints of the indigenous
cattle production in the study areas. Accordingly, a multi-stage sampling
method was used. First, study areas where there is dearth of information
were deliberately chosen and divided into three strata based on agro-ecology
(lowland, midland and highland). In the second stage, two sites from each
stratum (Jawi and Enebssie SarMidr from the lowlands; South Achefer and
Mecha from the midland; and Banja and Sinan from the highlands) were
selected based on cattle population potential and agro-ecological diversifica­
tion. Finally, 320 cattle owners keeping more than two indigenous adult
cattle were randomly selected for the household questionnaire survey. The
sample size of the households was determined using the formula:
N
n ¼ 1þNε 2 , where: N = population size >1000000, ε = the degree of accuracy

expressed as a proportion = 0.05; ρ = the number of standard deviations that

would include all possible values in the range = 2; t = t-value for the selected
alpha level or confidence level at 95% = 1.96. The minimum sample size is 267
households (Adam, 2021).

2.4. Data collection

A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect information from the
selected households on the socio-economic characteristics, management sys­
tems, production constraints, major feed sources and reproductive performance
of indigenous cattle. The questionnaire was tested prior to the actual survey to
ensure that all questions were sufficiently clear to respondents. The data were
collected during the study period from February 2020 to March 2021 to obtain
additional information and validate the data from the individual farmer inter­
views. In addition, two focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted at each
site (a total of 12 FGD in the study), involving elders, knowledgeable farmers,
livestock experts and veterinarians, each FGD with a group of 12 participants.

2.5. Data management and statistical analysis

Data collected from the sites were coded and entered into MS Excel for
further analysis. Quantitative data, such as cattle reproductive performance
6 A. TENAGNE ET AL.

traits, and livestock composition and herd structure were analysed using the
general linear model procedures of the statistical analysis system (PROC GLM
of SAS version 9.4) using the model:
Yij = μ+ Ai + ɛij; where Yij = the value of the respective variables; μ = overall
mean of the respective variables; Ai = effect of the ith agro-ecology (I = 3,
highland, midland and lowland) on the respective variables; Ɛij = residual
error term.
SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) version 26 was also used for the
chi-square (χ2) statistic to test the independence of categories from livestock
trends and to assess the association between farmer demographic character­
istics and cattle management practices. Finally, for the frequency calculations,
we determined the respondents’ percentages of demographic characteristics,
overall management system, milking frequency and farmer milk utilization.
Ranking indices were calculated to determine the ranking of key cattle feed
resources and production constraints using the formula (Kosgey, 2004).
P
½ð3 � rank1Þ þ ð2 � rank2Þ þ ð1 � rank3Þ�individual variable
Index ¼ P
½ð3 � rank1Þ þ ð2 � rank2Þ þ ð1 � rank3Þ�overall variables

3. Result and discussions

3.1. Demographic characteristics of the respondents
Table 2 shows the socio-economic characteristics of cattle-owning house­
holds in the study areas. The majority of the respondents were males (97.2%).
It is a common trend in Africa that large animals such as cattle are difficult to
be handled by females (Duguma, 2020; Nguyen et al., 2021; O. Mapiye et al.,
2018). From the sample households, 45.4% of them were within the range of
46–64 years old, followed by 31–45 years old (45.3%). This shows that the
proportion of youth in the study area was very rare from the total cattle
owners, which has been repeatedly reported in most African countries
(Mazimpaka et al., 2017; Taruvinga et al., 2022). The possible reason for the
lower participation of youth in cattle production is that they have relatively
small plots of land and less capital available for cattle production compared
to older households. However, such distribution could slow down the adop­
tion and application of new agricultural technologies. In terms of education
level, most of the farmers (95.9%) had no regular education, and only 4.2% of
them had completed 10th grade. This low level of education may negatively
affect the rate of adoption for new technologies and the use of veterinary
services. Therefore, education plays an important role in introducing tech­
nologies and shaping the demographics, health status and socioeconomic
status of the family (Kassahun, 2004). The overall mean landholding per
household was 2.86 hectares, and 71.5% of farmers owned <2.0 hectares of
 NJAS: IMPACT IN AGRICULTURAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 7

Table 2. Household’s characteristics of cattle owners and management practice in the

three agro-ecology zones of north western Ethiopia.
Agro-ecological zones (%)

Lowland, Highland, Overall,

Household characteristics % Midland, % % %
Sex of respondent X2 = 285.0***
Male 95 97.5 99.2 97.2
Female 5 2.5 0.9 2.8
2
Age of respondent X = 193.8***
≤30 years 4.2 2.5 0 2.2
31–45 years 49.2 37.5 49.15 45.3
46–64 years 44.2 51.3 40.9 45.4
>64 years 2.5 8.8 10 7.1
Marital status of respondent Ns
Single 1.7 0.0 0.8 0.8
Married 94.2 95.0 99.2 96.1
Widowed 1.7 1.3 0.0 1.0
Divorced 2.5 3.8 0.0 2.1
Religion of respondent X2 = 193.8***
Orthodox Christian 100 100 100 100.0
Muslim 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Protestant 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Others 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Education level of respondent X2 = 136.8***
Illiterate 60 15 35.9 37.0
Read and write 35 81.2 60.9 59.0
10th or 12th complete 5 3.8 3.4 4.0
Land owned classes X2 = 250.7***
≤1 hectare 15.9 26.3 59 33.7
1.1–2 hectares 14.2 60 39.4 37.8
2.1–3 hectares 6.7 12.5 1.7 6.9
3.1–4 hectares 5.6 1.3 0 2.4
>4 hectares 57.5 0 0 19.2
Grazing land 1 ≤ 0.5 hectare 80.9 96.3 95 90.1
Cattle management system X2 = 166.5***
Extensive 85.1 26.4 50 53.8
Semi extensive 14.1 73.7 50 45.9
Intensive 0.9 0 0 0.3
Grazing land ownership X2 = 222.6***
Communal only 75 6.3 0 27.1
Private only 0 1.3 2.5 1.3
Both 25 92.5 97.5 71.4
Grazing system X2 = 35.1***
Free 96.7 27.5 62.5 62.2
Control 3.4 72.5 37.5 37.8
Milking frequency X2 = 277.5***
Once per day 58.3 0 0 19.4
Twice per day 41.7 100 100 80.6
2
Milk utilization X = 132.6***
Family consumption only 24.2 20.8 20.8 16.7
Both family consumption and income 75.8 79.2 79.2 83.3
sources
Key: *** = p < 0.00 and Ns is not significant.

land, even though in lowland agro-ecology, 57.5% of farmers have >4 hec­
tares of land (Table 2). The overall mean landholding per household was
comparable to Y. Alemayehu et al. (2016). The relatively larger land area in the
8 A. TENAGNE ET AL.

lowland agro-ecological zone indicates its better potential for cattle produc­
tion with pasture cultivation and fodder development than other sites.
Surprisingly, more than 90% of the respondents in the study area had no or
less than 0.5 hectares of cultivated pasture land for their livestock grazing,
which indicates the low attention given for the allocation of land for livestock
feed production. Therefore, to improve cattle production and productivity in
the study areas, great attention should be paid to forage development and
grazing land management. The area’s main cattle production system was
a mixed crop-livestock production system. Households in the area often have
common grazing land and practice a free grazing system (Table 2). This is
a common practice in the smallholder livestock farming as reported in the
literature (Adane et al., 2021; Gillah et al., 2013; Mazimpaka et al., 2017) in
Ethiopia and elsewhere in Africa. Common salt (sodium chloride) was the only
mineral supplement given to cattle in the study areas, which is similar with
other areas (Duguma, 2020; Geleti et al., 2014).
The consumption pattern of milk and dairy products depends on the
quantity of milk, access to markets and fasting period in the year. Table 2
shows that 83.3% of the households use the milk produced both for family
consumption and as a source of income through the sale of milk and milk
products such as butter and yoghurt. Similarly, Tekle (2010) reported that
most households use their milk and milk products for both family consump­
tion and as a source of income. The importance of milk in the diet of
Ethiopians differs according to the farming system and socio-cultural envir­
onment (Bereda et al., 2014).

3.2. Associations of demographic information with management

practice and milk utilization
The associations between smallholder farmer demographic characteristics
and livestock management systems are presented in Table 3. The

Table 3. The association (p-values) between management practices and demographic

characteristics of cattle owners in the north western part of Ethiopia.
Demographic characteristics
Management Marital Education Amount of Grazing land
practices Age Sex status level land Religion owned
Management 0.45 0.43 0.24 0.08 0.005 0.001 0.020
system
Grazing land 0.009 0.34 0.88 0.006 0.000 0.011 0.540
ownership
Grazing system 0.30 0.99 0.99 0.000 0.000 0.990 0.150
Number of cattle 0.036 0.90 0.88 0.016 0.000 0.290 0.001
Milk utilization 0.27 0.49 0.047 0.93 0.03 0.090 0.240
Mineral 0.56 0.68 0.15 0.74 0.81 0.310 0.440
supplementation
 NJAS: IMPACT IN AGRICULTURAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 9

educational level of farmers was related to their livestock management

system, pasture landholding, grazing system and the number of cattle. The
result shows that farmers with better educational levels use private graz­
ing land, semi-intensive management system and improve productivity by
reducing the number of cattle (Malusi et al., 2021). Similarly, the result by
Herring et al. (2018) explains that farmers’ education is important in the
basic philosophy of animal husbandry. Therefore, educated farmers usually
keep fewer higher-productive livestock compared to less educated ones
(Kabubo-Mariara, 2007; Taruvinga et al., 2022). On the other hand, the
same author explained that as education increases, opportunities for alter­
native income generation also increase. The extent of land ownership of
farmers in the study areas also showed a strong relationship with the
management system, pasture landholding, grazing systems, number of
cattle holding and milk utilization. Accordingly, the education level of
livestock keepers plays a great role in smallholder production and produc­
tivity improvement. Farmers in the lowland agro-ecologies own relatively
larger land and are therefore located separately from farmers in the mid­
land and highland agro-ecologies. Consequently, they practise their live­
stock rearing activities differently than the croplands prevalent in the
midland and highland agro-ecologies depending on resource availability
(Table 2). As shared in the focus group discussion, farmers in lowland agro-
ecologies have access to a larger area of communal grazing land where
they can freely graze their livestock without restrictions.

3.3. Livestock compositions and cattle population trends

Cattle were the largest livestock species (10.6 ± 5.2), followed by sheep (4.3 ±
4.4), goats (3.6 ± 4.9) and equines (1.9 ± 1.4) in the study areas (Table 4).
Similar kinds of species compositions have been frequently reported in
different parts of Ethiopia (Bekele et al., 2016; Tadesse et al., 2014). Cattle
are raised for a variety of purposes including milk production, source of
power, cash income generation and socio-cultural significance (Bereda
et al., 2014). The mean number of cattle holding per household is higher
than that reported by Bekele et al. (2016) with a mean number of 9.67, and
Tamrat (2018), but lower than the report of Mekonnen et al. (2012) who
reported 12.2 heads of cattle, in different parts of Ethiopia. The mean number
of cattle was different between agro-ecologies. With the values of 18.3, 8.1
and 5.4 heads per household in the lowland, midland and highland agro-
ecologies, respectively, cattle herd size was significantly higher in the lowland
agro-ecological zones. Similar results were reported somewhere else in
Ethiopia (Abera et al., 2020; Tadesse et al., 2014). This is because farmers in
the lowlands operate an agro-pastoral production system and rely heavily on
cattle for their livelihoods (Gwaza et al., 2018).
10 A. TENAGNE ET AL.

Table 4. Major livestock species composition, cattle herd composition and population
trend for the last ten years in different agro-ecological zones of north western Ethiopia.
Agro-ecological zones
Lowland Midland Highland Overall
(n = 120) (n = 80) (n = 120) (n = 320)
Parameter Mean ±SD Mean ±SD Mean ±SD Mean ±SD Sig.
Livestock species
composition
Cattle 18.3 ± 9.9a 8.1 ± 3.2b 5.4 ± 2.5c 10.6 ± 5.2 P < 0.001
Sheep 3.0 ± 5.2b 4.3 ± 3.3ab 5.5 ± 4.7a 4.3 ± 4.4 P < 0.001
Goat 10.0 ± 12.1a 0.6 ± 1.9b 0.2 ± 0.8b 3.6 ± 4.9 P < 0.001
Equines 2.2 ± 2.2a 1.3 ± 0.8b 2.3 ± 1.2a 1.9 ± 1.4 P < 0.001
Herd composition
Cow 6.0 ± 3.8a 2.2 ± 1.0b 2.0 ± 1.0b 3.4 ± 1.9 P < 0.001
Bull 1.2 ± 0.6a 1.4 ± 0.7a 0.6 ± 0.7b 1.1 ± 0.7 P < 0.001
Heifer 2.4 ± 2.9a 1.1 ± 1.1b 1.1 ± 1.0b 1.5 ± 1.7 P < 0.001
Female calf 2.9 ± 2.1a 0.9 ± 0.8b 0.5 ± 0.6b 1.4 ± 1.2 P < 0.001
Male calf 3.2 ± 2.1a 1.2 ± 1.0b 0.5 ± 0.6c 1.6 ± 1.2 P < 0.001
Oxen 2.6 ± 1.4a 1.3 ± 1.2b 0.7 ± 1.4c 1.5 ± 1.3 P < 0.001
Total 18.3 ± 9.9a 8.1 ± 3.2b 5.4 ± 2.5c 10.6 ± 5.2 P < 0.001
Cattle trend X2 = 27.6***
Increasing 13.3 1.3 1.7 5.4
Decreasing 86.7 95.0 98.3 93.3
Stable 0 3.8 0 1.3
Sheep trend X2 = 16.3***
Increasing 11.7 18.8 4.2 11.6
Decreasing 77.5 78.8 90 82.1
Stable 10.8 2.5 5.8 6.4
2
Goat trend X = 74.1***
Increasing 18.3 1.3 0 6.5
Decreasing 70.8 88.8 57.5 72.4
Stable 10.8 10.0 42.5 21.1
Equines trend X2 = 90.2***
Increasing 2.5 56.3 18.3 25.7
Decreasing 79.2 30.0 74.2 61.1
Stable 18.3 13.8 7.5 13.2
n = number of animals per household.

Household observations on the trend of livestock species composition and

size over the last ten years in the study area are summarized in Table 4. The
number of animals per household showed a decreasing trend for cattle
(93.1%), sheep (82.5%), goats (70.3%) and equines (64.9%). In a similar case,
a gradually decreasing trend in cattle over time was reported by Benti et al.
(2021) in western Showa and Mekonnen et al. (2012) for Horro cattle. This is
mainly due to the expansion of cropland, which led to a shortage of grazing
land and a consequent shortage of forage. Frequent disease outbreaks,
inadequate veterinary care and water shortages have also been cited as
reasons for the declining trend (Dossa & Vanvanhossou, 2016; Duguma,
2020; Kassahun, 2004). However, the total number of cattle seems to be
following an increasing trend as the increase in human population leads to
increasing demand for livestock and livestock products, and the number of
people involved in livestock production increases (CSA, 2021). To meet the
 NJAS: IMPACT IN AGRICULTURAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 11

alarmingly increasing demand for livestock products and by-products in

Ethiopia and other developing countries, increasing productivity by improv­
ing management is an important solution.

3.4. Major feed resource

The main feed sources for cattle in the study areas were ranked by season and
agro-ecological zone (Table 5). Overall, the most important feed resources for
cattle in all seasons and agro-ecologies were natural pasture (0.31), crop
residues (0.18), stubble grazing (0.18), private grazing land (0.14) and con­
served forage (0.12). In general, the major cattle feed resources in this study
were similar to previous studies (Bereda et al., 2014; Tamrat, 2018; Tsadkan,
2012). However, the availability and contribution of feed sources varied by
season and agro-ecological zones (Benti et al., 2021). Farmers combined
different feed resources based on availability (Bereda et al., 2014).
The overall result of the study is similar with the reports by DMG Njarui et al.
(2011), Mutua et al. (2012) and L. M. Mburu (2015) in smallholder cattle farming
systems studies that were conducted in eastern African countries. Consistent
with this result, Benti et al. (2021) and Teklay (2008) also reported that natural
pasture was predominant in the lowland agro-ecology, but crop residues were
more dominant in the midland agro-ecology than in the lowland. One possible
reason for this statement was that in the midlands, pasture was declining due
to conversion to cropland, so a crop-dominated production system was prac­
tised in this area. However, the main problem for farmers’ dependence on
natural pasture, especially in lowland agro-ecology, was seasonal dependence
on quality and quantity, leading to low productivity and increased suscept­
ibility to disease (Okello & Sabiiti, 2006). The seasons also showed variations in
the availability and use of feed resources; in the rainy season, natural pasture
and private grazing land were the most important forage resources, while in
the dry season, crop residues and stubble grazing were most important
(Table 5). Our results are consistent with other reports (M. Alemayehu, 2004;
Ma’alin et al., 2021; Teshome et al., 2010) that natural pasture is the main source
of feed for livestock in the rainy season. On the other hand, crop residues were
the main feed source in the dry season, as reported by Duguma (2020) and
Mekonnen et al. (2012). In terms of feed value and digestibility, crop residues
are of poorer quality compared to other feeds (Scarpa et al., 2003). Similar to
our result, poor-quality major feed resources are a common problem in studies
in Kenya and Uganda (Möller, 2018). To ensure consistent availability and
quality of feed throughout the year, using low-cost alternatives like crop
residue treatment and forage development using irrigation systems could be
a better solution for the problem.
 12

Table 5. Ranking of major feed resources of cattle of study areas in different seasons of the year and agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia.
Agro-ecological zones
Lowland Midland Highland
Rank Rank Rank
A. TENAGNE ET AL.

Season of the year Feed resources 1st 2nd 3rd Index 1st 2nd 3rd Index 1st 2nd 3rd Index Overall index
Dry season Natural pasture 83 13 15 0.42 11 1 17 0.11 46 21 8 0.26 0.26
Stubble grazing 0 22 15 0.09 0 10 0 0.04 11 18 17 0.11 0.08
Private grazing land 2 35 3 0.12 1 1 39 0.09 4 39 22 0.15 0.12
Crop residue 15 25 21 0.17 38 9 21 0.32 23 29 9 0.19 0.23
Conserved feed 7 9 55 0.13 21 46 3 0.33 22 8 41 0.17 0.21
Concentrate 12 3 10 0.07 9 13 0 0.11 17 4 24 0.12 0.1
Wet season Natural pasture 93 18 4 0.49 23 37 0 0.29 79 30 2 0.43 0.4
Stubble grazing 0 0 18 0.03 0 9 22 0.08 10 19 10 0.11 0.07
Private grazing land 11 45 8 0.2 57 12 9 0.42 2 35 22 0.14 0.26
Crop residue 3 10 14 0.07 0 20 27 0.13 17 23 16 0.16 0.12
Conserved feed 4 6 26 0.08 0 0 20 0.08 3 12 45 0.11 0.09
Concentrate 8 29 4 0.13 0 2 1 0.01 1 3 24 0.05 0.06
Year round Natural pasture 79 18 10 0.41 12 27 14 0.22 49 27 11 0.30 0.31
Stubble grazing 3 27 15 0.11 14 10 7 0.14 22 20 8 0.16 0.14
Private grazing land 11 33 10 0.16 29 4 17 0.23 10 25 28 0.15 0.18
Crop residue 14 18 26 0.15 18 19 27 0.24 17 20 17 0.15 0.18
Conserved feed 6 9 29 0.09 5 14 13 0.13 13 18 31 0.15 0.12
Concentrate 7 12 12 0.08 2 6 3 0.05 9 10 22 0.10 0.08
Index = sum of [(3 * number for rank 1) + (2 * number for rank 2) +(1 * number for rank 3)] given for an individual reason divided by the sum of
[(3 * number for rank 1) + (2 * number for rank 2) + (1 * number for rank 3)] for overall reason.
 NJAS: IMPACT IN AGRICULTURAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 13

Table 6. Reproductive performances of indigenous cattle in different agro-ecological

zones of north western Ethiopia.
Agro-ecological zones
Lowland Midland Highland Overall
Reproductive parameters LSM±SD LSM ±SD LSM ±SD LSM ±SD P-value
Age at first service of bull (month) 45.1 ± 5.1b 49.1 ± 11.3a 37.8 ± 5.3c 43.4 ± 8.6 <0.001
Age at first service of heifer (month) 41.2 ± 5.9b 44.6 ± 9.1a 37.1 ± 3.7c 40.5 ± 6.9 <0.001
Age at first calving (month) 52.3 ± 5.9b 55.8 ± 8.9a 50.6 ± 5.0b 52.5 ± 6.8 <0.001
Calving interval (month) 16.7 ± 6.0c 24.8 ± 4.9a 21.2 ± 4.6b 20.4 ± 6.1 <0.001
abc
Means in a row with different superscripts are significantly different at P<0.001

3.5. Reproduction performance of indigenous cattle

The reproductive performance traits such as age at first mating of bulls (AFS),
age at first service of heifers (AFS), age at first calving (AFC) and calving
interval (CI) for indigenous cattle are presented in Table 6.

3.5.1. Age at first service (AFS) of a bull

Age at first service is the age at which the breeding bull or heifer mates for the first
time. The effectiveness of animal rearing can be evaluated if puberty comes as early
as possible (Belay, 2016). The overall mean age of bulls at first service in the study
area was 43.4 ± 8.6 months, with values of 45.1 ± 5.1, 49.1 ± 11.3 and 37.8 ± 5.3
months for the lowland, midland and highland agro-ecologies, respectively
(Table 6). The overall result of the present study on AFS of bulls was comparable
to the reported values of 43.20 months for Mursi cattle (Terefe et al., 2015) and less
than 46.80 months for Malle cattle (Masama et al., 2003), and 55.20 months for
Boran cattle (Takele, 2014). On the other hand, the values are longer than 36
months for Gamo Gofa cattle (H. Kebede et al., 2017) and 40.2 months for Arsi cattle,
as previously reported. These differences in indigenous cattle in Ethiopia could be
due to breed and management differences (Getaneh et al., 2019; Hidosa et al.,
2017). The AFS for bulls in this study was lower for the highland agro-ecology than
for the midland and lowland agro-ecologies, which contradicts the report of Adane
et al. (2021) who recorded a lower value for the lowland agro-ecology.

3.5.2. Age at first service (AFS) of heifers

The mean age at first service of indigenous heifers in this study was 40.5 ± 6.9
months, with 41.2 ± 5.9, 44.6 ± 9.1 and 37.1 ± 3.7 months in the lowland,
midland and highland agro-ecologies, respectively (Table 6). The overall
mean AFS of heifers in this study was earlier than previous results of indigen­
ous heifers reported by Benti et al. (2021) at 44.45 ± 0.167 months, Ftiwi and
Tamir (2015) at 45.3 ± 0.5 months, Benti et al. (2021) at 43.7 ± 0.47 months,
Kebamo et al. (2019) at 42.52 months and Hundie et al. (2013) at 48.9 months
for Horro. However, the current study’s result (40.5 ± 6.9 months) was longer
than the results of Altaye et al. (2014) at 37.03 ± 6.5 months, Tadele & Nibret
14 A. TENAGNE ET AL.

(2014) at 30.8 ± 5.6 months, and W. Ayalew and Feyisa (2017) at 33.51 ± 0.70
months. The variation in AFS value in different studies on indigenous
Ethiopian heifers was due to breed or management differences (Terefe
et al., 2015); therefore, management factors, especially nutrition, determine
pre-pubertal growth and reproductive development of the heifer
(Masama et al., 2003).

3.5.3. Age at first calving (AFC)

In the current study, the overall mean AFC of indigenous heifers was 52.5
± 6.8 months. The values for the lowland (52.3 ± 5.9 months), midland (55.8
± 8.9 months) and highland (50.6 ± 5.0 months) agro-ecologies were signifi­
cantly (p < 0.001) different (Table 6). The overall mean AFC of indigenous
heifers obtained was earlier than previous studies on indigenous heifers in
Ethiopia reported by Terefe et al. (2015) at 55.20 months; Getaneh et al.
(2019) at 58.78 months; Adane et al. (2021) at 54.5 ± 0.2 months; and Yifat
et al. (2012) at 1729.9 ± 58.2 days. However, the AFC value of our result
was higher than previous reports by W. Ayalew and Feyisa (2017) at 42.85
± 0.70 months; Ma’alin et al. (2021) at 4 years; Tadele and Nibret (2014) at
39.8 ± 5.6 months; M. Ayalew and Asefa (2013) at 47.16 ± 8.7 months; and
Altaye et al. (2014) at 46.06 ± 13.99 months. The variation in the AFC of
heifers across different studies may be due to breed and agro-ecological
differences.

3.5.4. Calving interval (CI)

CI is the time interval between two consecutive calvings and is very
important in terms of the cow’s lifetime productivity. This is because
a cow with a longer CI has fewer lactations and calves in her lifetime
than a cow with a shorter calving interval (Ayeneshet et al., 2018). The
overall mean CI of the indigenous cows in this study was 20.4 ± 6.12
months, which was significantly affected by agro-ecology (Table 6). The
overall CI of the current study was comparable to the report of 20.9 ± 0.2
months by A. Kebede (2009), 21.36 ± 3.84 months by Duguma et al. (2012)
and 622.6 ± 15.3 days in Boran cows by Yifat et al. (2012). However, the CI
obtained is longer than 16.8 months reported by Takele (2014), 431.08 ±
78.03 days by Kumar et al. (2014) and 15.96 months by Tegegne et al.
(2013) for indigenous cows in Ethiopia. On the other hand, our result was
lower than the reported CI of 26.64 ± 0.6 months (Ayeneshet et al., 2018)
and 24.9 months (M. Ayalew & Asefa, 2013). These differences between
time intervals in the study could be explained mainly by differences in
management, as diet can either positively or negatively affect concentra­
tions of hormones and metabolites in cows (Benti et al., 2021).
 NJAS: IMPACT IN AGRICULTURAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 15

3.5.5. Reproductive performance of cattle in different agro-ecologies

Reproductive performance of cow/heifer is the term used to describe
an individual’s production of offspring per breeding event or lifetime,
and it can be evaluated using AFS, AFC, CI and life-time calf production.
The reproductive performance of indigenous cattle in the current study
showed a significant difference (p < 0.001) between agro-ecological
zones. A better performance was found in the highland agro-
ecological zone, but a lower performance was found in the midland
agro-ecological zone than in the lowland and highland agro-ecological
zones. Focus group discussion revealed that the reason for better
reproductive performance in the highland agro-ecological zone of our
study was that farmers bred their cattle for milk production and cash
income from fattening and therefore conducted drought activities with
their horses. Consequently, farmers applied better management to their
cattle. The main reason for the relatively poor reproductive perfor­
mance of indigenous cattle in the midland agro-ecology, as revealed
by the group discussion, is that farmers in this area raise their cattle to
support their crop production for the purpose of drought power rather
than for the production of cattle products and by-products (Duguma &
Janssens, 2016). As a result, during a severe forage shortage, farmers
used special management to raise bulls or oxen rather than heifers or
cows. Gakige et al. (2020) reported that the food-feed production
dilemma affected the improvement of mixed crop-livestock production
performance in east Africa. Therefore, strong extension work is required
so that the farmers understand the benefit of livestock feed production.
On the other hand, the reason for the relatively better reproductive
performance of cattle in the lowlands compared to the midlands could
be due to the better availability of pasture and the higher ambient
temperature. In support of the result of this study, Hussein (2018)
reported that cows reared in lowland agro-ecology reach first calving
earlier than cows reared in midland and highland agro-ecology.
According to Ayeneshet et al. (2018), it was explained that poor man­
agement practices greatly affect the reproductive performance of cows.
In general, the reproductive performance of indigenous cattle was
mediocre. To satisfy the alarming increase in the need for animal
products and by-products, the performance of indigenous cattle still
needs improvement. Therefore, improving management and applying
controlled crossbreeding with high-performing breeds are important
measures that should be taken by all stakeholders to improve the
overall productivity of smallholder cattle production and the livelihood
of the farmer in sub-Saharan Africa countries and east African regions
that mostly practise this production system.
16 A. TENAGNE ET AL.

Table 7. Ranking of the major constraints of indigenous cattle production in the north
western parts of Ethiopia. Index = sum of [(3 * number for rank 1) + (2 * number for rank
2) + (1 * number for rank 3)] given for an individual reason divided by the sum of [(3 *
number for rank 1) + (2 * number for rank 2) + (1 * number for rank 3)] for overall
reason.
Agro-ecological zones
Lowland Midland Highland
Rank Rank Rank Overall
Production constraints 1st 2nd 3rd Index 1st 2nd 3rd Index 1st 2nd 3rd Index index
Feed shortage 58 39 12 0.37 51 12 9 0.39 64 37 3 0.46 0.40
Genotype 11 23 35 0.16 9 30 10 0.2 29 10 44 0.21 0.19
Diseases 43 49 19 0.34 7 27 18 0.21 26 42 17 0.25 0.25
Drought 0 9 23 0.06 0 3 6 0.03 0 22 21 0.09 0.06
Water shortage 5 0 23 0.05 8 7 1 0.08 2 6 16 0.05 0.05
Market problem 3 0 8 0.02 2 4 34 0.1 0 5 17 0.03 0.05

3.6. Constraints of cattle production

Prioritization of constraints is the most important action for any livestock
improvement and productivity programme (Bekele et al., 2016). Based on the
respondents’ rankings, the most important livestock production constraints
were indexed (Table 7). Accordingly, overall, feed shortage (index = 0.40),
disease prevalence (index = 0.25) and less efficient genotypes of indigenous
cattle (index = 0.19) were the first three most important constraints to cattle
production in the study areas (Table 7). As previous studies reported, feed
shortages, diseases and the poor genetic endowment of indigenous animals
were responsible for lower productivity (Chala & Ulfina, 2013). Bekele et al.
(2016) reported that feed shortage, disease prevalence, lack of improved
breeds, lack of market access and lack of water during the dry season were
among the challenges in cattle production. According to Terefe et al. (2015),
seasonal feed shortages, diseases and drought are the major problems of
cattle production in southwest Ethiopia. Duguma (2013) also found that feed
shortage due to lack of pasture and a high population are the major limiting
factors for cattle production in eastern Ethiopia. This is similar to our study
results, which revealed that feed shortage in the dry season is a major
challenge for smallholder dairy production systems in different parts of
Kenya (Kashongwe et al., 2017b; Nyokabi et al., 2022) and in South Africa (C.
Mapiye et al., 2009; O. Mapiye et al., 2018). Several factors may contribute to
the feed shortage; according to the report of Mutibvu et al. (2012), rain-fed
natural pasture is used as the main source of smallholder cattle production,
and both the quality and quantity of available pasture decrease when rainfall
decreases, as findings from Masikati (2011) and Svotwa et al. (2007) show in
different parts of Zimbabwe. The use of grazing lands for crop cultivation due
to population growth and an increase in livestock are other reasons
 NJAS: IMPACT IN AGRICULTURAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 17

40
35 37
30
25 % Housholds
20 25
23
15
10 15
5
0

Major diseas

Figure 2. List of the most important cattle diseases in different agro-ecological zones of
Ethiopia.

contributing to the feed shortage in Ethiopia (Bekele et al., 2016; Benti et al.,
2021). On the other hand, in Uganda, Kiggundu et al. (2014) reported that the
extreme dependence of farmers on grazing land with limited strategies for
fodder conservation and supplementation is a factor in feed shortages. Even
though feed shortages are a major issue throughout the year, they became
particularly severe from March to May in all agro-ecological zones. Therefore,
intensive advice on forage development, forage conservation and the reduc­
tion of herd size is an important solution to this problem in smallholder cattle
production in different parts of the world that have similar agro-ecologies.
Diseases and parasites were the second most common limitation of cattle
production, and the most frequently reported diseases were anthrax (37%),
internal and external parasites (25%), trypanosomosis (23%) and lumpy skin
disease (LSD, 15%) (Figure 2). Similar to our results, because trypanosomosis
was more common in lowland agro-ecology than in midland and highland
agro-ecologies, the problem was severe in lowland agro-ecology (Bereda
et al., 2014). The overall result is consistent with previous studies on cattle
diseases reported (Asmare et al., 2017; Tedla et al., 2018; Welay et al., 2018) in
different parts of Ethiopia. Although the reported frequency of occurrence
varies, diseases and parasites are the main challenges of smallholder produc­
tion (O. Mapiye et al., 2018) and are responsible for increased morbidity and
mortality of cattle (Agholor, 2013; Chaudhary et al., 2013) in different parts of
the world. This is due to factors such as changing climatic conditions (Estrada-
Peña & Salman, 2013), a poor management system (Chaudhary et al., 2013)
and farmers’ level of education or understanding. According to the finding of
O. Mapiye et al. (2018), less educated farmers tend to have low income and
might face a lack of money to purchase veterinary drugs for their animals.
Indigenous cattle breeds have been naturally selected for adaptive traits,
and their genetic makeup is adapted to feed and water scarcity, disease and
18 A. TENAGNE ET AL.

harsh climates (Ahmed et al., 2003; Effa et al., 2011). They are suitable for
keeping multipurpose animals on a small scale. However, they are character­
ized by low production and reproductive performance (Tegegne et al., 2013).
Accordingly, farmers in the studied areas reported that they were limited in
improving cattle production and reproduction. Controlled crossbreeding with
high-performing exotic breeds can improve the production performance and
their adaptability to the local environment in smallholder cattle production.
Frequent droughts, marketing problems and water scarcity were also cited
as constraints in improving cattle production in the study areas with lower
index scores. These constraints were also reported by Onono et al. (2013) in
Kenya and by Misganaw et al. (2017) in Ethiopia.
In general, the above constraints were interrelated that lack of forage
combined with the increase in cultivated land and changing rainfall patterns
contributed to disease outbreaks (Zoma-Traoré et al., 2020). Increasing popu­
lation growth also reduced the land available for pasture development
(Koutou et al., 2016; Zoma-Traoré et al., 2020).

4. Conclusions
This research contributes to the literature and data on smallholder cattle
production constraints and the performance level of livestock. The study
demonstrated that feed shortages in the dry season and diseases and
parasites were major challenges that affected the performance of small­
holder cattle production. Feed resource availability and quality are
dependent on season, which could lead to low productivity and
increased susceptibility to disease during feed scarcity. The reproductive
performance of indigenous cattle in this study was mediocre compared
to other indigenous breeds in Ethiopia. Agro-ecology is a determinant
factor for a number of livestock management activities and performances.
Even if dry season feed scarcity is a common challenge for the small­
holder livestock production, specific local context solutions are required.
Improving the education status of smallholder cattle keepers could bring
a significant impact on the production performance and advancement of
the sector.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Federal Ministry of Education of Ethiopia for
supporting this study. We are grateful for smallholder farmers who provided us with
their valuable time and information. The staffs of the government extension offices in
the study districts and the PAs are also greatly acknowledged.
 NJAS: IMPACT IN AGRICULTURAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 19

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
The study was supported by the Federal Ministry of Education of Ethiopia on behalf of
Bahir Dar University with grant number 1/1201/1-1-3.

ORCID
Andualem Tenagne http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6246-7576
Mengistie Taye http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6795-9943
Bekalu Muluneh http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0338-7445
Damitie Kebede http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5494-9906
Getinet Mekuriaw Tarekegn http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7221-2473

Statement of ethics
The research project was presented to the Department of Animal Production and
Technology (AnPt), College of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Bahir Dar
University, and accepted and approved with a support letter (Ref. 1/1199/1-1-3
dated 24 February 2020).

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