Chapter 3.

4
Conveniently Defined
Flow Parameters
Conveniently Defined Flow Parameters
• Consider point A in an arbitrary flowfield, as sketched in the figure
• At this point a fluid element is traveling at some Mach number M,
velocity V, with a static pressure and temperature p and T,
respectively
• Imagine that we take this fluid element and adiabatically slow it
down (if M > 1) or speed it up (if M < 1) until its Mach number at
point A is 1
• Common sense tells us that the temperature will change. When the
fluid element arrives at M = 1 from its initial state at M and T, the
new temperature (that it has in our imagination at Mach 1) is
defined as T*
• We now define the speed of sound at this hypothetical Mach 1
condition as a*, where

Infinitesimal fluid element approach

• Therefore, for any given flow with a given M and T at some point A,
we can associate it with values of T* and a* at the same point

27
Conveniently Defined Flow Parameters
• In the same spirit, consider again our fluid element at point A with velocity, temperature, and
pressure equal to V, T, and p, respectively.
• Imagine that we isentropically slow this fluid element to zero velocity, i.e., let us stagnate the
fluid element.
• The pressure and temperature which the fluid element achieves when V = 0 are defined as
total pressure po and total temperature To, respectively. (“stagnation” or “total” stagnation
pressure and temperature)
• Both po and To are properties associated with the fluid element while it is in actuality moving
at velocity V with an actual pressure and temperature equal to p and T, respectively.
• The actual p and T are called static pressure and static temperature, respectively.

28
Chapter 3.5
Alternative Forms of
Energy Equation
Alternative Forms of Energy Equation

Assuming no heat addition

Specializing further to a calorically perfect gas, where h = cpT

30
Alternative Forms of Energy Equation

31
Alternative Forms of Energy Equation

• Since the equation was for no heat addition, it holds for an adiabatic flow.
• Let point 1 in these equations correspond to point A in the previous figure, and let point 2 in these
equations correspond to our imagined conditions where the fluid element is brought adiabatically to
Mach 1 at point A.
• The actual speed of sound and velocity at point A are a and u, respectively.
• At the imagined condition of Mach 1 (point 2 in the above equations), the speed of sound is a* and the
flow velocity is sonic, hence u2 (= a*). Thus, it yields

32
Alternative Forms of Energy Equation

• The equation provides a formula from which the defined quantity a* can be calculated for the given actual
conditions of a and u at any given point in a general flowfield.
• The actual flowfield itself does not have to be adiabatic from one point to the next (say from point A to
point B)
• The adiabatic process is just in our minds as part of the definition of a*.
• The equation gives us the value of a* that is associated with point A. Denote this value as a*A
• Similarly, applied at point B, it gives us the value of a* that is associated with point B, namely, a*B.
• If the actual flowfield is nonadiabatic from A to B, then a*A ≠ a*B.
• If the general flowfield is adiabatic throughout, then a* is a constant value at every point in the flow.
• Since many practical aerodynamic flows are reasonably adiabatic, this is an important point to remember.

33
Alternative Forms of Energy Equation

• Let point 1 correspond to point A, and let point 2 correspond to our imagined conditions where the
fluid element is brought to rest isentropically at point A.
• If T and u are the actual values of static temperature and velocity, respectively, at point A, then T1 = T
and u1 = u. Also, by definition of total conditions, u2 = 0 and T2 = To. Hence, it becomes

• The equation provides a formula from which the defined total temperature, To, can be calculated for
the given actual conditions of T and u at any point in a general flowfield.

34
Alternative Forms of Energy Equation
Several very useful equations for total conditions are obtained

It gives the ratio of total to static temperature at a point in a flow as a function of the
Mach number M at that point.
35
Alternative Forms of Energy Equation
For an isentropic process

We can also find

The equations give the ratios of total to static pressure and density, respectively,
at a point in the flow as a function of Mach number M at that point.

36
Alternative Forms of Energy Equation

• It should be emphasized again that the equations provide formulas from which the defined quantities
To, po, and ρo can be calculated from the actual conditions of M, u, T, p, and ρ at a given point in a
general flowfield.
• The actual flowfield itself does not have to be adiabatic or isentropic from one point to the next.
• In the equations, the isentropic process is just in our minds as part of the definition of total conditions
at a point.
• The equations give us the values of To, po, and ρo associated with point A. Similarly, applied at point B,
the earlier equations give us the values of To, po, and ρo associated with point B.
• If the actual flow between A and B is nonadiabatic and irreversible, then ToA and ToB are different as
well as pressure and densities.
• If the general flowfield is isentropic throughout, then To, po, and ρo are constant values at every point
in the flow.
• The idea of constant total conditions in an isentropic flow will be very useful in various practical
applications in compressible flow.

37
Alternative Forms of Energy Equation

where ao is the stagnation speed of sound

Solving it for a*∕ao

38
Alternative Forms of Energy Equation

Recalling that p* and ρ* are defined for conditions at Mach 1

Condition of M = 1 lead to

39
Alternative Forms of Energy Equation

Dividing the equation by u2

The equation provides a direct relation between the actual

Mach number M and the characteristic Mach number M*
40
Alternative Forms of Energy Equation

Note from the equation that

M* acts in the same fashion as M, except when M goes to infinity. M* will be a

useful parameter because it approaches a finite number as M approaches infinity.

41
Chapter 3.6
Normal Shock Relations
Normal Shock Relations

• By definition, a normal shock wave is perpendicular to the flow

• The shock is a very thin region (the shock thickness is usually on the order of a few molecular mean
free paths, typically 10−7 m (0.1mm) for air at standard conditions)
• The flow is supersonic ahead of the wave, and subsonic behind it
• The static pressure, temperature, and density increase across the shock, whereas the velocity
decreases
• Nature establishes shock waves in a supersonic flow as a solution to a perplexing problem having to do
with the propagation of disturbances in the flow
43
Normal Shock Relations
• Consider a flat-faced cylinder mounted in a flow
• The flow consists of individual molecules, some
of which impact on the face of the cylinder
• There is a change in molecular energy and
momentum due to impact with the cylinder,
which is seen as an obstruction by the molecules.
• T h e ra n d o m m o t i o n o f t h e m o l e c u le s
communicates this change in energy and
momentum to other regions of the flow.
• The presence of the body tries to be propagated
everywhere, including directly upstream, by
sound waves.
• In the figure(a), the incoming stream is subsonic,
and the sound waves can work their way
upstream and forewarn the flow about the
presence of the body. In this fashion, the flow
Comparison between subsonic and supersonic streamlines for streamlines begin to change and the flow
flow over a flat-faced cylinder or slab properties begin to compensate for the body far
upstream
44
Normal Shock Relations

• In contrast, if the flow is supersonic, then and

the sound waves can no longer propagate
upstream.
• Instead, they tend to coalesce a short distance
ahead of the body. Their coalescence forms a
thin shock wave.
• Ahead of the shock wave, the flow has no idea
of the presence of the body.
• Immediately behind the normal shock, however,
the flow is subsonic, and hence the streamlines
quickly compensate for the obstruction.

Comparison between subsonic and supersonic streamlines for

flow over a flat-faced cylinder or slab

45
Normal Shock Relations
• To begin a quantitative analysis of changes across a normal shock wave, consider the figure.
• The normal shock is assumed to be a discontinuity across which the flow properties suddenly change.
• For purposes of discussion, assume that all conditions are known ahead of the shock (region 1), and
that we want to solve for all conditions behind the shock (region 2).
• There is no heat added or taken away from the flow as it traverses the shock wave. Hence, the flow
across the shock wave is adiabatic. Therefore, the basic normal shock equations are obtained directly
from the equations below (with q = 0) as

46
Normal Shock Relations

• The equations in general apply no matter what type of gas is being considered
• For a calorically perfect gas, we can immediately add the thermodynamic relations

• The equations constitute five equations with five unknowns: ρ2, u2, p2, h2, and T2
• Hence, they can be solved algebraically

47
Normal Shock Relations

First, divide momentum equation by mass conservation equation

Recalling that

The equation is a combination of the continuity and momentum equations.

48
Normal Shock Relations
The energy Equation can be utilized in one of its alternative forms which yields

Since the flow is adiabatic across the shock wave, a* in these equations is the same constant value.
Substituting these to the previous equation, we obtain

49
Normal Shock Relations
Dividing by (u2 − u1),

Solving for a*, this gives

The equation is called the Prandtl relation, a useful intermediate relation for normal
shocks

50
Normal Shock Relations
From this simple equation we obtain

• Based on our previous physical discussion, the flow ahead of a shock wave must be supersonic,
i.e., M1 > 1. This implies M*1 > 1. Thus, from the equation, M*2 < 1 and thus M2 < 1.
• Hence, the Mach number behind the normal shock is always subsonic.
• This is a general result, not just limited to a calorically perfect gas.

51