← Ancient History →

History made by Greek word “Historia”, means knowledge acquired by investigation. History as a discipline deal
with the study of past. The famous Greek scholar Herodotus is recognised as “Father of History” born in
Turkey.

Issue of dates in History: National calendar of India is Saka Samvat (78AD) and Vikram Samvat (57BC).
International calendar is Gregorian calendar, which accepted the year of birth of Jesus Christ as base year.

Time-line: Before Christ (BC) ←------- Birth of Christ (base year) -------→ Anno Domini (AD). Two types of dates
taken in History- BC and AD. Century means 100 years. शताब्दी ईसा पू र्व (century BC) की गि न ती उल टा है, Ex- 4th century
BC will be counted 400BC to 300BC. शताब्दी ईस्वी (century AD) की गिनती आगे की तरफ की जाती है।, Ex- 4th century AD will
be counted 300AD to 400AD. Other time line also used now a days- CE (common era) and BCE (before common
era).

The resources to know our pasts: From Archaeology, and Written accounts or Literature. Based on the sources
used to know our pasts, the History can be classified into following three phases-

 Pre-historic age: History of such time period, which knowledge is based only on archaeological
sources, and no written records are available for that period, is called pre-historic age.
 Proto-historic age: Such time period of history, which knowledge is based on archaeology, however
script was known to human beings of that period, but it is not deciphered so far.
 Historic age: Such time period of past, which knowledge is based on both sources’ literature as well as
archaeology.

Archaeology: Archaeology is a science which helps us to reconstruct history or knowledge of past based on
physical remains or sources obtained from excavation of mounds. Old physical remains may be old tools, old
coins, inscriptions etc. Carbon dating is used to determine the age of remains found. The work of
archaeological excavation and research is done by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), established in 1861
(British period), founded by Alexander Cunningham. That time Governor General was Lord Canning. It was
again reconstituted during Governor-General Lord Curzon’s reign, under Sir John Marshall in 1902, and Sir John
Marshall was made Director General of ASI. At present, it is working under the Ministry of culture, Govt of
India. Headquarter in New Delhi.

# Important archaeological sources to study ancient Indian history :

 Inscriptions = Written accounts inscribed on any hard surface like stone pillars, iron pillars, or copper
sheet. The oldest inscriptions of India have been found on the Harrapan seals, but these inscriptions
are not deciphered so far. The oldest deciphered inscription of India is Mauryan emperor Ashokan
inscription. Mauryan emperor Ashokan inscription is mostly in Brahmi script, firstly deciphered by
James Princep (British antiquary) in 1837. Brahmi script is the mother script for most of the Indian
script. Language of Ashoka inscription- Prakrit (जन संपर्क भा षा ) and Sanskrit (विद्वानों की भाषा). Some
Ashokan inscription are inscribed in script other than Brahmi- Greek script, Aramaic script, Kharosthi
script (from Kandahar, Afghanistan). 1st discovered inscription of Ashoka from Delhi-Meerut
inscription, by Tefen Theler (1750AD). 1st deciphered Ashoka’s inscription by James Princep in 1837,
found in Ambala (Haryana) and Firoz Shah Tughlaq ordered it to take it to Delhi. Epigraphy is the
study of inscriptions. Palaeography is the study of dates of inscriptions. Ashok’s rock edict has been
found with 14 lengthiest accounts inscribed in these rock edicts. The 13th rock edict depicts about
Kaling war. Some other important inscription if ancient India-
 Prayag Prashasti- (achievements of Samudra Gupta- son of Chandragupta-I) written
by Harishen (Sandhivigrahik minister of Samudra Gupta & court poet Samudra
Gupta) in Sanskrit.
  Junagarh inscription- Junagarh is in Gujrat. Lengthiest inscription inscribed in pure
Sanskrit language. This inscription is associated with Rudra Daman (ruler of Saka
dynasty). It gives account about a dam built on Sudarshan Lake.
 Ehole inscription- Inscription of Pulkeshin-II of Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi, written
by Ravi Kirti (court poet of Pulkeshin-II). It gives account about Pulkeshin-II’s victory
over Harshavardhan.
 Nasik inscription- Gautmiputra Shatkarni, the greatest ruler of Satavahana. Wriiten
by Gautmi Balshri, the mother of Gautmiputra Shatkarni.
 Hathigumpha inscription-Udayagiri hills in Odisha, gives account about Kharvela,
king of Kalinga. Attack & victory over Kalinga by Mahapadamanand (King of
Magadh).
 Mehrauli Iron pillar inscription- Description of ruler Chandra, emperor of Gupta
dynasty, Chandra Gupta-II (Vikram Aditya). On iron pillar of 7.2m high.
 Eran inscription- I Madhya Pradesh. Bhanu Gupta (later Gupta’s). Oldest & first
epigraphical record of Sati custom in 510AD.
 Mandsaur inscription-
 Coins = Another important archaeological source to know about ancient Indian history. Study of coins
is called Numismatics. Use of coins started as a medium of exchange in trade. Oldest coins- in 6th & 5th
century BC, called as ‘Punch marked coins’ or ‘Karshapan’ (in literary sources), and mostly made of
silver metal. In ancient time, there were barter system of exchange in trade. Coins as a medium of
exchange were first used in 6th-5th century BC. Written or inscribed coins started by Indo-Greek rulers,
in post Mauryan age. In India, the coins made of gold were started by kushanas. Stater- gold made
coins, Rupyak- silver made coins, Kakini- bronze amde coins. Gold coins of Kushanas contain
maximum purity (124grains), by Roman gold. Maximum number of gold coins were issued during
reign of Gupta dynasty, and were called as Dinar. A coin minted with a figure of portrait of Samudra
Gupta showing him playing Veena.
 Monuments = Includes- Ancient buildings, Palaces, Temples etc. Ancient buildings and palaces were
mostly destroyed & ruined.
 Temple architecture = Started in Gupta age, in terms of cultural development, hence
called as classical age of ancient India. Important temples built in Gupta period→
Dash avatar temple (Devgarh, Jhansi, UP), Bheetargaon temple (Kanpur, UP),
Kandariya Mahadev temple (MP).
 Styles of temple architecture in India (image)=
 Nagar style- Temples with pointed top. Built in north India, eastern India
like UP, Bihar, Bengal Odisha, MP, Rajasthan, Gujrat. Ex- Jagannath temple
(Puri, Odisha), Linga raj temple (Odisha), Kan Dariya Mahadev temple (MP),
Khajuraho temple (MP) built by Chandela king, Dilwara jain temple (Mt
Abu, Rajasthan) was temple of first tirthankara Rishabhdev or Adinatha,
built by Vilamshah, minister of Bheemdev Solanki (Chalukya ruler of
Gujrat).
 Vesara style- Temples without pointed top, by cutting rocks or hills. Built in
Deccan (Maharashtra). Best example- Kailashnath temple of Ellora
(Maharashtra) also called as best rock architecture, built by Krishna-I of
Rashtrakuta dynasty.
 Dravidian style- Temples with high pointed tops, called Viman style, built
by Pallava dynasty rulers. Ex- Kailashnath temple (Kanchipuram, Tamil
Nadu) built by Narsingh Varman-II, Mahabalipuram Sea shore temple (Tamil
Nadu) built by Narsimha Varman-II.
 Stupa (image)= Stupa mean mound. Pradakhshina path is surrounded with railing
and entrance to path was through gateways. Sanchi Maha stupa (MP) and Sarnath
religious stupa (UP), both made by Maurya Samrat Ashoka.
 Chaitya = Prayer house as well as residential for Buddhist monks. Ex- Karley chaitya
(Maharashtra).
  Monasteries = Residence for Buddhist monk, and centre for their education. Ex-
Maha Vihar of Nalanda, Vikram Sheela Vihar.
 Paintings = Most ancient paintings- Bhimbetka cave painting. Is of pre-historic age (stone age). It is
considered under UNESCO world heritage site. Most famous painting of ancient India→ Ajanta caves
(discovered by James Alexander in 1819), which based on life of mahatma buddha (jataka stories);
Paintings of Bagh caves (Dhar district-Gwalior, MP) discovered by Dange field in 1818.
 Pottery =

# Literary sources of Ancient Indian history:

 Indigenous literature:
o Religious texts =
 Hindu religious texts =
o Vedic literature- 4 parts.
 Vedic Samhitas- 4 Vedas. Veda made from- ‘vid’, the root
word of Sanskrit. Divine knowledge. Also called
Aupuresheya means not man-made. Also called shruti
literature means written by listening. It will exist in all
eternity. The compilation of Vedas had been started 3500
years ago/before the present’s day, and firstly (oldest)
Rigveda was compiled. Maharshi Krishna Dwaipayan is
considered as compiler of Vedas or Rigveda, so called
“Veda Vyas”.
 Rigved: Oldest Veda. Mantras on prayer of Gods.
10580 mantras (1028 sukta/rhyme into 10
mandal). Gayatri mantra in 3rd mandal of
Rigveda (authored by Maharshi Vishwananda)
for worship of Sun. In 10th mandal, Purusukta
describes 4 varna (brahman, kshatriya, Vaishya,
Shudra). The mantras of Rigveda to be sung by
“Hotra Rishi”.
 Samaveda: Sam means singing, singing of
mantras. Samaveda deals with manner how to
sung mantras. Total 1549 mantras, mostly taken
from Rigveda (only 75 original). 7 vowels of
music (Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni). Samaveda
considered as original text on Indian music.
Purohit (priest) who sung mantras of Samaveda
called “Udgata”.
 Yajurveda: Also called Karma Kandia Veda,
means manner to perform sacrifices or yojana
like Vedic rituals. Consists of 40 chapters. Purohit
(priest) of Yajurveda were called “Adhvaryu”.
Written in both Prose & Poetry form. Divided in
2 parts- Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna
Yajurveda. Total 1990 mantras. Shukla Yajurveda
is called real Veda and Vajsanei Samhita.
 Athar Veda: Compiles in very last. Consists of
731 hymns, 6000 mantras, 20 chapters. It
contains black magic, ayurveda (medicine).
Purohit (priest) of Athar Veda were called
“Brahma”.
  Brahman texts- To explain meaning of Vedas, brahman
texts were written as prose (paragraphs) commentaries
on Vedas. Each of Vedas have their own brahman text.

Vedas Brahman texts

Rigveda Aitereya & Kaushitaki
Samaveda Tandya & Jaiminiya
Yajurveda Shukla Yajurveda में-
Shatpath & Krishna
Yajurveda में - Taitriya
Athar Veda Goptah
Oldest & lengthiest brahman text is Shatpath Brahman (of
Shukla Yajurveda). Tandya Brahman contains 25 chapters,
therefore is also called Panchvish brahman.
 Aranyaka- Aranya means forest, so called as forest texts.
Concluding portion of Brahmans. These books were
written for monies (मुनि) inhabitant of forest. It depicts 4
stages of life named “Ashram system” as- (i)
Brahmacharya till 25, (ii) Grihastha 25-50, (iii)
Vanaprastha 50-75, (iv) Sannyasa 75-100.
 Upanishads- It means near + sitting. It contains
knowledge attains by pupil through sitting near to their
teacher. Its last part of Vedas, so called as Vedanta. 108 in
number (authentic only 12). Satyamev Jayate is taken
from Mundaka Upanishad.

Vedic Literature
Karma Kanda segment Knowledge segment
4 Vedas and their Brahmans Aranyaka and Upanishads
texts
It has knowledge about life beyond mystery (soul, brahma, death,
salvation, re-birth etc). It is considered as fundamental of Indian
philosophy. Based on Upanishads, 6 schools of Indian philosophy
were originated, called Shad darshan. 6 schools of Indian
philosophy & their profounder-
◘ Philosophy of Samkhya- by Kapil Muni.
◘ Philosophy of Yoga- Maharshi Patanjali.
◘ Nyaya philosophy- Gautam Muni.
◘ Vaisheshika philosophy- Maharishi Kanad.
◘ Purva Mimansha- Jaimini.
◘ Uttar Mimansha- Badarayan.
o Non-Vedic literature-
 Vedanga- Written to understand Vedas in easy way. Total
6 in numbers. Considered as organs of Vedic structure (as
in human body).
 (i) Kalp- Hand of Vedas.
 (ii) shiksha- Node of Vedas.
 (iii) Vyakaran- Mount of Vedas. 3 Sanskrit
grammar-
o Ashtadhayayi written by Maharshi Panini.
o Mahabhashya written by Patanjali.
 o Vartik written by Katyayan.
 (iv) Nirukta- Ears of Vedas.
 (v) Chhand- Foot of Vedas.
 (vi) Jyotish- Eyes of Vedas.
 Up Veda-
 (i) Ayurveda- Rigveda का है.
 (ii) Gandharvadea- Samaveda का है.
 (iii) Dhanurveda- Yajurveda का है.
 (iv) Shilpveda- Athar Veda का है.
Veda-Trai (3 Vedas) = Rigveda + Samaveda + Yajurveda.
Some other fundamental texts of Hindu religion:
 Smritis- Ancient law texts of Hindu religion.
Called as law books of ancient society. Oldest
smriti is Manu smriti.
 Puranas- Talks about dynastic history of ancient
India. Total 18 in number. Written by Rishi
Lomaharashi & his son Ugrashrava. Somewhere
it is also mentioned to be written by Maharshi
Vedavyasa.
 Epics- 2 famous epic of Sanskrit- Ramayana
(written by Maharshi Valmiki) and Mahabharata
(written by Maharshi Veda Vyas). In Ramayana,
originally includes 6000 verses and finally
included 24000 verses in Gupta era. In
Mahabharata, originally 8800 verses (known as
Jai Samhita then), then compiled at 24000 verse
(Known as Bharata then) and finally compiled at
1lakh verses (known as Mahabharata now). It is
the largest & lengthiest epic of the world,
containing total 18 parva (chapters). Its 6th parva
is called Bhishma parva.
 Buddhist texts = Oldest Buddhist text is “Tripitak”. Three tripital written in Pali
language, which was language of common people.
 Suttapitak- It deals with the religious surmons of Mahatma Buddha.
Suttapitak was written by Ananda (pupil of Mahatma Budhha) in 1st
Buddhist council. It is the encyclopaedia of Buddhism. It consists of 5 parts
called as Nikaya. Important one is Anguttarnikaya, as it gives the name and
description of 16 Mahajan padas.
 Vinayapitak- It narrates the rules and regulations or code of conduct of
Buddhist monk. Its author is Upali (pupil of Mahatma Budhha) and
composed in 1st Buddhist council.
 Abhidhammapitak- It gives description about Buddhist philosophy.
Authored by Mogaliputtatissha.
Some other important texts written in Pali language-
 Jatak stories- More than 500 pre-birth stories of Mahatma Buddha.
 Milindapanho- Means questions of Milinda. Nagsen teaches Buddhism to
Minander (Indo-Greek).
 Deepvamsh & Mahavamsh- Propagation of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
Famous Buddhist texts written in Sanskrit:
 Buddhacharit- Biography of Mahatma Buddha. Considered as an epic. Its
author is Ashwagosh.
  Saundarananda- Considered an epic. Authored by Ashwagosh. It deals with
story of Saundaranand, step brother of Mahatma Buddha.
 Lalitvistar- A book “Light of Asia” written by Adwin Arnold, talks about life
of Buddha.
 Jain texts = All Jain text combinedly called “Agam”. Agam is Jain literature.
Collection of 12 Anga and 12 Upanga, written in Prakrit or Ardhagadhi language. Jai
text were compiled finally in 2nd Jain council (during 513 or 526AD in Vallabhi,
Gujrat).
 2 most important Jain text among 12 Angas:
o Acharang sutra- Conducts of Jain monks.
o Bhagvati sutra- Biography/life sketch of Mahavir swamy. Gives
account of 16 Mahajan padas.
o Non-religious texts = Known as secular works.
 Arthashashtra- Written by kautilya in Sanskrit language.
 Kautilya- Original name was Vishnu Gupta. Another name was Chanakya.
Also called Machiaveli of India. Professor in Taxila university. Describes for
politics, public administration, and state.
 Rajatarangani- Written by kalhan, a scholar of Kashmir, in 11 century AD. It deals
with history of Kashmir, in Sanskrit language.
 Mrichhakatikam- Written by Shudrak.
 Malvikagnimitram- Written byKalidas.
 Harshacharit- Written by Banabhatta.
 Kadambari- Written by Banabhatta.
 Devichandraguptam- Written by Vishakh Dutta.
 Mudrarakshas- Written by Banabhatta.
 Foreign text:
o Indica- Written by Megasthenes. He was ambassador of Greek ruler Selucus Nicator.
o Fo-Kyo-Ki- Written by Fahiyan, the 1st Chinese traveller who visited India (during reign of
Gupta king- Chandra Gupta-II).
o Si-yu-ki- Written by Huen Tsang/ Yuanchang, a Chinese traveller to India. He was also called
prince of piligrims. He came to collect Buddhist text and get education from Nalanda
university.

← Pre-historic culture of India →

Way of living, food habits, dressing, customs, belief of life etc. No any written records are available. Source of
knowledge from archaeological remains. The Indian pre-historic culture is known as Stone Age, because its
knowledge is based on stone tools and artifacts, made & used by early man of that period. No written records
are available for that period but large number of stone tools (handmade), and implements have been found
from various siter or places from the Indian sub-continents. Origin of human being around 3millions years ago
from present day. No fossil of early humans (pre-historic men) has been found in the entire Indian sub-
continent, but their presence is indicated by stone tools made and used by early man.

Credit to discover pre-historic culture of India is goes to Dr Primrose, an Englishmen. He was the 1st person who
discovered stone tools firstly in 1834 at a place called Lingsugur in Raichur district (Karnataka). Another
person who enriched our knowledge about Indian pre-history was Robert Bruce Foote. He discovered pre-
historic stone tools in 1863-64AD at Pallavaram (Chennai).

Presence of early humans in India: Around 20lakh years ago (most accepted data) from present day because
of evidence from Bori (Maharashtra).

# Classification of Stone Age culture:

Based on stone tools: Techniques and traditions of making these stone tools.

 Palaeolithic age: Also called old stone age. 1st or early stage of human life. Time period between
20lakhBC to 10000BC. This is the longest period in human history. Mainly hunting & food gathering
life. It can be divided into 3 stages. It is the 99% of story of human beings.
o Lower Palaeolithic age- It covers greater part of Ice age. People used to eat fruits, bird, raw
animal flesh etc. Tools made of hard rocks.
o Middle Palaeolithic age- Tools shape changed, made of stones or bones.
o Upper Palaeolithic age- People lived as nomadic hunter gatherers.
 Mesolithic age: Also called intermediate (middle) stone age. Next stage of human life. Time period
between 10000BC to 6000BC. It was transition phase between palaeolithic age and neolithic age. It
involved animal raring and primitive cultivation. 1st pet animal was dog. Most ancient remains or
evidence of animal raring found in Adamgarh (MP) and Bagore (Rajasthan).
 Neolithic age: Also called as new stone age. Time period between 6000BC to 3000BC. This was most
remarkable period of human development. Beginning of agriculture. Most ancient evidence regarding
agriculture found in Mehargarh (wheat cultivation) in Pakistan, and Lahuradev (rice cultivation) in UP.
Clay parts (pottery) started, result in invention of wheel. Discovery of fire in palaeolithic age, but use
of fire on large scale in cooking food started in neolithic age.
 Chalcolithic age: Chalco means copper and Lith means stone. It defines age of copper and stone used
by human beings. 1st metal to be used by human being was copper. It was next stage of neolithic age.
Time period around 3000BC. Started rural settlement. Evidence found from Jorve (Maharashtra), Sothi
and Banas (Rajasthan), Eran (MP).
 Megalithic age: Mainly in south Indian culture. Cemeteries.

# Harrapan civilization:
Discovery of Harrapan civilization: At present in Montgomery (now Sahiwal) of Punjab in Pakistan. Some
mounds (टीला) had been reported by Charles Mashon in 1826 from Harappa. Mounds are elevated portion of
land surface, have possibility of archaeological remains or physical materials inside this portion. In 1861,
establishment of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the director general Alexander Cunningham proposed to
study this civilization, but was not became in effect. ASI was reconstituted in 1902 under new director general
Sir John Marshall, during which excavation of Harappa started, under the supervision of Daya Ram Sahni.
Finally, Harappa was discovered by DR Sahni in 1921. Next year, in 1922, another site Mohenjo-Daro was
discovered, excavated by RD Banerjee. Discovery of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro resulted into a discovery of
most ancient urban civilization of Indian sub-continent. In London, Sir John Marshall revealed that it had been
proved that in India, there was an ancient urban civilization, and he named it Indus valley civilization. Indus
civilization was discovered in 1921-22AD.

Naming of this civilization:

 Indus valley civilization = Name given by Sir John Marshall. Earliest sites to be discovered-
o Harappa = On the bank of river Ravi.
o Mohenjo-Daro = On the bank of river Indus.
o Chanhu-Daro = On the bank of river Indus.
 Harappa civilization = The present time naming. Its name from Indus to Harappa was changed due
the reason, over 1500+ sites discovered, of which more than 1000 sites were outside Indus valley. So,
its name Indus valley civilization was changed to Harappa civilization, because Harappa the 1st site to
be discovered.
 First urban civilization = This was the 1st urbanisation in Indian sub-continent.
 Bronze age civilization = Since, 1st metal to be used by humans was copper. People, then time, mixed
copper + tin to get new metal called bronze. That’s why this civilization was called bronze age
civilization.
  Proto age civilization = Proto means early or first.

Time period of Indus civilization: Since, its script is not deciphered so far, therefore its knowledge is based on
archaeological remains. But different phase of development using carbon dating (C14) technique. About 4700
years ago (2700BC-1750BC) from present day.

i. Pre-Harappan phase =
ii. Mature Harappan phase = Between 2200BC to 2000BC.
iii. Post Harappan phase =

Geographical extent of Harappan civilization (image): Entire area was around 13lakh km2. Extended area was
in triangular shape. The Harappa civilization was developed in north-western region of Indian sub-continent on
the background of Chalcolithic culture. From here, it expanded towards south and east. Central part- Punjab
(Pakistan).

 Northern extreme = Manda, J&K. On the bank of Chenab River.

 Southern extreme = Bhagat Rao, Gujrat, near Narmada River. Also, in Daimabad, Maharashtra, Pravara
(tributary of Godavari River).
 Western extreme = Sutkagan Dor, Makran coast (Gwadar, Karanchi). Near Dask river.
 Eastern extreme = Hulas, Alamgarh (Meerut, UP). Near Hindon river.

So far, sites of this civilization have been found from India and Pakistan. Two sites have been found from
Afghanistan.

 Sites found from India = Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujrat, Maharashtra, J&K, UP.
 Sites found from Pakistan = Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan.
 Sites found from Afghanistan = Shortugai, Mundigak.

Major towns of Harappa: Although, around 2000 sites have been discovered regarding this civilization so far,
yet only 7 are recognised as town. Harappan civilization was an urban civilization.

 Harappa:
o Location = Montgomery district, present Sahiwal, Punjab (Pakistan). At the left bank of Ravi
River.
o Excavation = Excavated by DR Sahni in 1921. 1st site of this civilization to be excavated.
o 2nd largest town of this civilization.
o Remains found = Grainery, Cemetery (‘R-37’ and ‘H’). Houses made of baked bricks. Seals
were found. Fortification (Forts).
 Mohenjo-Daro: Literal meaning in Sindhi language is ‘Mound of Dead’s’.
o Location = Larkana district, Sind (Pakistan). Situated on the right bank of Indus.
o Excavation = Excavated by RD Banerjee in 1922.
o The largest city of Indus civilization in terms of area. Perhaps, it was the capital city of
Harappa civilization.
o Stuart Piggott named Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro as Twins capital.
o Remains = Great bath. Sir John Marshall says about it the most wonderful creation of the
contemporary world. Citadel town (fortified town, forts) for security reasons of the town.
Picture of Tri Mukhi God on Seals. Sir John Marshall refers it as proto form of Lord Shiva, also
called as seal of Pashupati Shiva. Grainery was largest building of Mohenjo-Daro. Credit for
cotton cultivation, as piece of cotton were found during excavation.
 ChanhuDaro:
o Location = Sind province (Pakistan). Situated on the left bank of Indus.
o Excavation = Excavated by MG Majumdar in 1931. Existence of Pre-Harappan culture found,
called as ‘Jhukar-Jhangar culture’ (Chalcolithic culture). Beads making shop. Only city without
citadel.
 Lothal:
 o Location = Ahmadabad district, Gujrat. On the bank of Bhogva river.
o Excavation = Excavated by SR Rao in 1954.
o Remains = Dockyard (Ship building area) to use of sea route for trade, thus called as port city
of Indus civilization. Evidence of rice cultivation, in the form of ‘husk of paddy’. Also, fire
alters, tusks of elephant, and pair burial were found. Terracotta figures of horses.
 Kali Banga: Means black bangles
o Location = Hanuman Nagar (Ganganagar), Rajasthan.
o Excavation = Excavated by Kamla Nand Ghosh.
o Remains = Ploughed land were found. Fire alters found.
 Banawali:
o Location = Hisar district of Haryana.
o Excavation = excavated by RS Bisht in 1974.
o Remains = Toys made from clay have been found here. It includes a model of plough. Use of
wooden plough to cultivate land. Barley of high quality have been found. The drainage
system of Banawali was improper. Near Ghaghar-Hakra belt (Saraswati River). Fire alters have
been found.
 Dholavira: Dhaula means white, and Veera means wells.
o Location = Kutch district of Gujrat. Khadir bet Island.
o Excavation = Mounds of Dhaulaveera have been discovered in 1967-68 by JP Joshi. Excavated
on large scale have been made by RS Bisht in 1990.
o Remains = Wells have been found from Dholavira. Generally, the town planning of Harappan
towns were uniform or similar and it was oftenly divided into two parts- Citadel town and
lower town, but Dhaulaveera town planning was different and it was divided into three parts.
Stadium have been found from here. Remains of horses. Sign board containing Harappan
script.

Salient features of Indus valley civilization:

 Urban civilization or town civilization. Harappa or Mohenjo-Daro were capital towns, also called
“Twin’s capital” by Stuart Piggott.
 Towns were properly planned. Houses made in single storey to double storey from stairs.
 Baked bricks were used to build houses. In contemporary civilization like Nile River valley civilization
and Sumerian civilization shows use of sun-dried bricks.
 The roads were made broader & crossed on right angle to each other.
 The drainage system of Harappa was most significant feature in the contemporary world. Metallic
drainage was constructed.
 Indus society was perhaps matriarchal society (female dominance), because of many mother goddess
Idols have been found.
 Some scholars had accepted that it was priest governing civilization. No evidence of temple has been
found regarding this civilization.
 Food habit was both veg and non-veg. Wheat was main cereal crop. Rice husk found from Rangpur
(Lothal).
 Both men and women wear ornaments. Gold, Bronze, but Iron was not known. Necklaces, bracelets,
armlets, ear rings have been found as evidence.
 Garments- Both cotton & woollen. Use of shawl and embroidery. Customs of wearing turbans by men.
 Economy- Main occupation was agriculture and animal raring. Evidence of wheat, barley, rice, pea,
gram etc found. Based on surplus production. Trade was quite developed (Import & Export). Trade
partner were Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Afghanistan. Both domestic and foreign level trade were done. Trade
was based on exchange of goods (Barter system). Copper was mined or excavated from the Khetri
copper mining field in Rajasthan.
 Knowledge of script, weight, and measure in multiplier of 16. Script in pictographic. 1st line written
from right to left, next line written from left to right, and was called “Boustrophedon style”.
Religious conditions: Worshiped lord Shiva as Pashupati Shiva. Evidence of Shivalinga seals found from
Mohenjo-Daro. Mostly worshiped mother goddess. Also, Bull worship, Pigeon worship, snake worship, fire/Agni
worship. Worship of Papal tree, Banyan tree, Neem, Tulsi etc. Worship of water at great bath of Mohenjo-Daro.
Last ritual (दाह संस्कार) was burial (like Muslims these days), Partial burial (like Parsi these days), burnt (like
Hindus these days).

Downfall of Indus valley civilization:

 Indus civilization was destroyed by attack of Aryans. This theory given by Mortimer Wheeler & Garden
child.
 It decayed due to flood. This theory given by Sir John Marshall & Ernest Mackey.
 It was destroyed due to earthquake. This theory given by Dales.

# Vedic age civilization & culture:

After the decline of Indus civilization, a new civilization & culture came into existence in the history of India.
Since, its knowledge is based on Vedic sources or Vedic texts, therefore, it is known as Vedic civilization &
culture. Vedic age means time period of compilation of Vedas, between 1500BC to 600BC. Based on
composition period of Vedas, the entire Vedic age has been divided into two following phases:

 Rigvedic age or Early Vedic age: 1500BC to 1000BC. In this phase, only Rigveda (oldest Veda) was
composed.
 Later Vedic age: 1000BC to 600BC. Other Vedic texts including three Vedas- Samaveda, Yajurveda and
Athar Veda were compiled in this period.

Rigvedic age or Early Vedic age:

Vedic civilization was also called Aryan civilization, because the makers of this civilization were ’Aryans’. Aryans
was not any race or caste identity. Aryan is a Sanskrit word which literal meaning is excellent or superior.
Aryans were excellent and cultural race. The term ‘Arya’ indicates about a linguistic group who speak Sanskrit
language, which means the term ‘Aryan’ is used for their linguistic identity. Perhaps, the Aryans came to India
around 1500BC. The Aryans might have migrated to India in different stages (image).

Original home of Aryans: Scholars differs about original home of Aryans. There is various opinion regarding the
original homeland of Aryans. Some of the important opinions are as follows→

Homeland of Aryans Scholar

Tibet Swamy Dayananda Saraswati
Arctic region Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(North pole) (Book = The original home of Aryans)
Central Asia Prof. Maxmuller
(Bactria)
India Dr Avinash Chandra and Sampoorna Nanda
(Sapt Sindhu region)
(Sindh river & its tributary)
Kashmir and Himalayan region Dr LD Kalla
Southern Siberia Prof. Nehring
(Steppies region)
Plains of Hungary Dr P Giles
(Europe)
Germany Ranke
Earliest settlement of Aryans in India: The name of 31 rivers in total are mentioned in Vedic Samhitas. Rigveda
contains name of 25 rivers. Rigveda’s Nadi Sukta gave the name of 21 rivers.

Rigveda gives account about the four rivers of Afghanistan → (i) Kubha (at present Kabul River), (ii) Krumu
(present name Kurram), (iii) Gomati (present day Gomal), (iv) Suvastu (present day Swat). Similarly, Rigveda
gives account about Sapta-Sindhu, the land of 7 rivers (Indus & its tributaries).

Rivers in Rigveda Present’s day name

Vitasta Jhelum
Ashkini Chenab
Paurishni Ravi
Shatudri Sutlej
Vipasha Beas
Most prominent river of Aryan is Indus River. In Rigveda, the river Saraswati (holy river) is named as Nadimata.
In this way, the region includes Afghanistan & Punjab was the earliest settlement of Aryans in Indian sub-
continent. In Rigveda, the term ‘Sapt-Sindhu’ means land of 7 rivers.

 Regarding the original home of Aryans, the view given by Maxmuller is most accepted view.
 In Rigveda, the river Ganga is mentioned only once and Yamuna thrice. This indicate that the Aryans
not landed in the Gangetic region, in the early Vedic age.

Society or social condition: Family is the fundamental unit of society. Big size family was considered basis of
prosperity. Society was male dominating, because a term was used ‘Kulap’ in Rigveda means head of the
family. In Rigveda, ‘Nript’ word means relatives, Kinship was the basis for social structure. Same gotra people
were of same relative group. There were 4 varnas of society:

 Brahmins- Priest class who responsible for performing religious rituals & ceremonies.
 Kshatriya- Warrior class who responsible for protecting society & maintaining law and order.
 Vaishya- Business class who responsible for trade & commerce.
 Shudra- Labour class who responsible for manual labour & service.

The origin of all 4 above varnas are mentioned in 10th mandal of Rigveda called ‘Purusha Sukta’. Determination
of varnas were based on Karma.

Conditions of women:

 Female child has the right to education.

 Name of lady scholars, composed Vedic hymns- Lopamudra, Ghosha, Sikta, Vishwara, Apala. They
were commonly called as ‘Vidushi’.
 Child marriage was not in tradition.
 Freedom to choose their groom. Inter caste marriage was also allowed. 2 types of inter caste marriage
was there- Anulom marriage (when female from lower caste & male from upper caste) and Pratilom
marriage (when female from upper caste & male from lower caste). Gift to Bride & groom in marriage
called ‘Vahatu’, possibly a dowry.
 Window re-marriage was acceptable, called ‘Niyog custom’.
 There was no Sati paratha.
 Women can participate in public meetings, i.e., political assemblies.
 Female does not have property rights, but women in society have quite respectable position.

Food habits:

 Both vegetarian and non-vegetarian.

 Beef was ban; cow was not be killed (Aghanya) mentioned in Rigveda.
 Only one grain ‘Yav’ is mentioned in Rigveda which is barley.
 Milk product was used. Kheerpakodan (milk + barley) were made.
 Favourite beverage ‘Somras’ from tree, also criticised to drink alcohol.
Aryans were divided in 5 tribal groups, called ‘Panchjanya’. Most important tribal group was ‘Bharat’. Group of
Kulp called ‘Gram (village)’. Chief of Gram called Gramni. Group of villages called ‘Vish’, and chief was called
Vishpati. Group of Vish called ‘Jan’ and chief was called Rajan. In early Vedic age, the Aryans were divided into
many Jana’s, and there was separate chief for every Jana’s. The chief Jana protect people of tribal society and
he was called ‘Janasya Gopa’ in Rigveda, which means protector of Jana’s. Name of some Jana’s mentioned in
Rigveda were- Yadu Jana, Puru Jana, Turvasa Jana, Bharata Jana. The Rigvedic Jana were indulged in wars with
each other, due to stolen of cows.

Later Vedic age:

 Family became large enough, called joint family with 3 or 4 generations living together, because rows
of hearths discovered at AtranjiKhera and Ahichchhtra (both in west UP) for communal feeding or
cooking.
 The institution of gotra were developed in this period. This means एक ही गोत्र वाले लोग एक ही पूर्वज के वंशज हैं. So, no
marriage could take place between people of same gotra.
 Some restrictions on women appeared in this period. महिलाओं को पाँसा और शराब के रूप में गिना जाता था. Daughter was
counted as source of sorrows. Participation of women at public places was restricted.
 Rise & growth of social differentiation in form of Varna system.
o Brahmanas became more powerful in conducting rituals at different stages of agricultural
operations.
o Kshatriyas became the ruler (social hierarchy).
o Vaishyas engaged in agricultural as well as in trade & homemade activities. Brahmanas and
Kshatriyas became dependent in Vaishyas for gifts & taxes.
o Shudra were considered bottom of the social hierarchy, and were appointed for the service of
three upper varnas. They were not entitled to the rituals of Upanayana Samskara, while
upper three varnas were entitled, and hence they were called ‘Dvijas’.
 Another institution began to take shape called “Ashrama” (different stages of life) = Brahmacharya
(student life), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (hermitage), Sannyasa. This combinedly called
Varna-Ashrama dharma.

Changes in political conditions (Polity)

Early Vedic age Later Vedic age
Jana, and their chief was Rajan Monarchy
(No hereditary system) (Hereditary system)
Tribal assemblies Decline in position
(Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha, Gana)
Bureaucracy not fully developed Bureaucracy developed
(Ratna system)

# Ancient India in the age of 6th century BC: Rise of Mahajan Padas. Rise of Magadha empire. Foreign
invasion on Ancient India. Emergence of Buddhism and Jainism.

Rise of Mahajan Padas: Arrival of Aryans from central Asia, were divided into many Jana’s, in early Vedic
period. Merger of many Jans, in later Vedic age, formed Jan Padas (residing place of Jana). In early Vedic age,
main occupation of Aryans was animal raring and secondary occupation was agriculture.

But in later Vedic age, cutting of forest on large scale possible due to use of iron, resulted in development of
new arable land, expansion of Aryans culture towards east and were settled in Gangetic plains (doab of Ganga-
Yamuna, Khadar plain made of most fertile new alluvium). It resulted in development of a new Agri based
economy in northern India (east UP and west Bihar). In 6th century BC, the use of iron was increased in the
region of Gangetic plain especially in east UP and west Bihar. There were two technological progresses have
been seen in the field of agriculture- Use of iron plough in cultivation and crop plantation. As a result, there
were a remarkable progress started in the field of economy, due to agricultural progress. The food production
reached in surplus, which promoted trade & commerce. It makes possible environment for the urbanisation in
Indian sub-continent, and termed as phase of second urbanisation.

Earliest Buddhist texts gives account of major town of the age of mahatma Buddha i.e., 6th century BC→

I. Champa = Presently Bhagalpur and Munger region of Bihar.

II. Rajrih = Present Rajgir in Bihar.
III. Shravashti = Presently a district in eastern UP.
IV. Saket = Presently Ayodhya in UP.
V. Kaushambi = Presently near to Prayag Raj in UP.
VI. Varanasi/Kashi = Presently in UP.

Use of metal coins as a medium of exchange in trade. In literary sources, these metal coins were called
Karshapan. While in 6th century BC, these metal coins were called Punch marked coins.

Now the Jana Padas of later Vedic age converted into big territorial states and monarchical states. These
monarchical states became more powerful with the course of time. These powerful and big territorial states
were called Mahajan Padas. About all 16 Mahajan Padas in mentioned in Anguttar Nikaya (Buddhist text) and
in Bhagavati Sutra (Jain text). Among these Mahajan Padas, most of states were monarch (hereditary), but
some of them were Gan Sangha (Federation of states or republic). List of all 16 Mahajan Padas is given below
(image)→

Sl. No. Mahajan Padas Capital Modern location

1 Anga Champa Munger and Bhagalpur
2 Magadh Girivraj/Rajagir Gaya and Patna
3 Kasi Kasi Banaras
4 Vatsa Kausambi Allahabad
5 Koshal Sravasti Eastern UP
6 Saurasena Mathura Mathura
7 Panchala Ahichchatra and Kampilya Western UP
8 Kuru Indraprastha Meerut and south-eastern
Haryana
9 Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur
10 Chedi Sothivati/Banda Bundelkhand
11 Avanti Ujjain/Mahismati MP and Malwa
12 Gandhar Taxila Rawalpindi
13 Kamboj Poocha Rajori and Hajra (Kashmir)
14 Asmaka Pratisthan/Paithan Bank of Godavari
15 Vajji Vaishali Vaishali
16 Malla Kusinara Deoria and UP

Powerful monarchs →

 Magadh (image)= Patna + Gaya + Shahabad district of present Bihar. Earliest capital was Rajgrih
(Girivraj). Prominent rulers were Bimbisara & Ajatshatru.
 Koshal = Ayodhya + Faizabad + Gonda + Bah Raich + Shravasti (present eastern UP). Two capitals-
Shravasti and Ayodhya. Prominent rulers were Prasenjit.
 Avanti = Presently in Malwa region (MP). Two capitals- Ujjaini and Mahishmati. Most prominent ruler
was Chandra Pradyot.
 Vatsa = Presently in UP, near Prayagraj district. It capital was Kaushambi. 1st prominent ruler of Vatsa
was Udayan.

In 6th century BC or in the age of Mahatma Buddha, republic of Lichhavi of Vaishali was most powerful and
largest republican state. It was a federation of 8 states including Sakya of Kapilvastu.
Powerful Federation (Gan Sangha) →

 Vajj = These federation of 8 states was called Vajji Sangh. Largest & powerful republic. Most powerful
ruler of Vajji Gan Sangh was Chetak. Among these territorial states i.e., Mahajan Padas, the Magadha
was rises as an empire.

Cause of rise of Magadh empire:

 Geographical location of Magadh = Located towards south of Ganga. Fertile land. Forest of Assam
towards east (easy access to wood, elephant, warriors). Access to iron mines, for shield, weapons
making.
 Capable ruler = Powerful warriors from Bimbi Sara → Ajatashatru → Udayin → Shishunaga →
MahapadmaNanda.

# Magadh Empire:
Magadha empire was emerged during the reign of Haryanka dynasty, founded by Bimbi sara.

Dynasties of Magadh: From Haryank to Nand, 544BC to 323BC.

 Haryank dynasty: Between 544BC to 412BC. Earliest capital was Rajgrih (Girivraj). Founder was Bimbi
Sara. In jain text, the name of Bimbi Sara is given as Shronik. Bimbi Sara played a vital role in
strengthening Magadh by making matrimonial relations with powerful states. 3 wives were-
o Married with Chelnana, daughter of Licchavi king Chetak.
o Another wife was Mahakoshala devi, sister of Koshal king Prasenjit.
o Another wife was Kshema, princes of Madra.
He sent Jeevaka to royal court of Avanti king Chandra Pradyut at Ujjain, to cure Jaundice. Jeevaka was
court doctor of Bimbi Sara. Bimbi Sara acquired Anga by defeating bramhadutta, king of Anga and
placed it under the viceroyalty of his son Ajatashatru. Champa was capital city of Anga. Bimbi Sara was
patron of both Buddhism and Jainism, and he was contemporary of Mahatma Budhha and Mahavir
Jain. Ajatashatru was very ambitious person who captured the throne of Magadha by killing his father
Bimbi Sara. Ruling period of Bimbi Sara was in between 544BC to 492BC. Ruling period of Ajatashatru
was in between 492BC to 460BC. Childhood name of Ajatashatru was Kunik. Ajatashatru annexed
Kashi state by defeating his mama, Prasenjit. Ajatashatru was an imperialistic ruler and he conquered
Vaishali by defeating Licchavis with the help of his minister Vassakara. Mahatma Buddha attains Maha
Parinirvana (was died) in the reign of Ajatashatru and the first Buddhist council was held at capital
Rajgrih in the patron of Afghanistan. Ajatashatru was killed by his son Uday Bhadra, therefore the
Hariyanka dynasty was known as “Father killer dynasty”. Ruling period of Uday Bhadra in between
460BC to 444BC. He was the founder of Patli Putra, on the confluence of Ganga & Son River, and made
capital of Magadh, (later named Patna by Sher Shah Suri). Successors of Uday Bhadra (his three sons)
were-
o Aniruddha
o Mundaka
o Nagadashaka or Darshaka.
They were last rulers of Haryank dynasty. Shishunaga founded a new dynasty in Magadh by
de-throning Nagadashaka.
 Shishunaga dynasty: Between 412BC to 344BC. Founder was Shishunag, the last ruler of Haryank
dynasty. Two prominent rulers were Shishunag and Kakavarna. Most important victory over Avanti.
Shifted his Magadha’s capital from Patliputra to Vaishali. Ruling period of Shishunag was from 412BC
to 394BC.
 Kalashoka/KakVarna: Between 394BC to 366BC. 2nd Buddhist council held in Vaishali, and again
changed capital from Vaishali to Patliputra.
 Nanda dynasty: Between 344BC to 324BC. Founder was Maha Padmanand. He was Shudra from
caste. Victory over Kalinga, as accounted in Hathigumpha inscription. The great Sanskrit scholar
‘Panini’ was his friend & advisor. Out of 8 sons of Maha Padmanand, ‘Dhana Nand’ succeeded his
 father. In Greek text, Dhana Nand was termed ‘Agrameese’. Alexander invasion to India in 326BC in his
period. Follower of Jainism, and was last ruler of Nand dynasty.

# Foreign invasions on Ancient India: First invaders were Persian rulers from Persia who invaded
Ancient India. Persia is the old name of Iran from Persian empire. In 6th century BC, rule Hakhamani dynasty
was ruling. Cyrus-II started attack on India. He was a Hakhamani king. Successor of Cyrus II was Darius-I. Darius-
I or Dara-I conquered the north western region of India in 516BC. And annexed it into Persian empire. It is
accounted Herodotus, a Greek Historian.

Persian empire = Divided into 22 provinces. The Provincial administrator were called as ‘Kshatrap’. The north
western part of India was 20th province, mentioned under 20th Kshatrap.

Impact of Persian Invasions: New script ‘Kharosthi script’ and Persian coins were coming in use. Gold coins
was caked ‘Darik’ and silver coins was called ‘Sigloi’.

Greek’s invasions after Persians, led by Alexander. Greek state Macedonian king Alexander (Son of Philp).
Started on world victory mission. In 326BC, he crossed the Indus River. At that time, the king of Taxila ‘Ambhi’,
assisted Alexander. On the bank of river Jhelum, the King Porus denied to surrender against Alexander, which
results the Battle of Hydespize (Battle of Vitasta).

# 6th century BC- Religious reform movement → Rise of new religion- Jains and Buddhism:
Religion → Vedic religion or Brahmin religion. Vedic religion starts to lose religious purity due to rituals like bull
sacrifice. Brahmin were considered superior. Now verna were converted into caste, and Brahmin were
accepted as upper caste, while the Shudras were treated as lowest caste. Sequence order of priority→ Brahmin
– Kshatriya – Vaishya – Shudra. Discarded the progress in new agrarian based economy. Reaction against the
Vedic religion in Upanishads, which criticized the rituals like sacrifices. The 6th century BC was called as age of
enlightenment, Confucius in China, Zarathustra in Iran, Pythagoras in Greek, Jain & Buddhism in India.

Buddhist council
Sl No. Time Place Patron Chairman
st
1 council 483BC Rajgrih Ajatashatru Mahakasyapa
2nd council 383BC Vaishali Kalashok Sarva kamini
3rd council 251BC Patliputra Ashoka Mogaliputta
Tissa
4th council 1st century Kundalvana Kanishka Vasumitra
AD (Kashmir)

# Maurya Dynasty: Ruling period in between 322BC to 185BC (image).

Sources to know about Mauryan history:

 Archaeological sources = Ashokan inscriptions. Junagarh inscription of Rudra Daman. Mauryan art &
architecture (Stupa’s; stone pillars; caves in Barabar hills in Gaya, Bihar).
 Literary sources = Artha Shastra of Kautilya. Mudrarakshash of Vishakhadutta. VrihatKathamanjari
written by Kshemendra. Kathasaritsagar written by Somadeva. Buddhist & Jain text.
 Foreign text = Greek and Roman’s account in Indica by Megasthenese. Some Greeks’ philosophers like
Plutarch, Justin, Strabo.

Chandragupta Maurya: The founder of Maurya dynasty. Another name of Chanakya was Vishnu Gupta or
Kautilya. Chandra Gupta occupied Magadha throne in 322BC by killing Dhana Nanda, with the help of Kautilya
or Chanakya (his mentor). Treaty of Babylon in 323BC, also includes some Indian territory (Punjab region).
Coronation (राज्याभिषेक) of Chandragupta in 322BC or 321BC. Treaty of Tryprandis in 321BC, not including
Indian territory (After becoming king, Chandragupta snatched the Indian territory from Greeks). Name of
Chandragupta in Greek accounts ‘Sandrokottus’ depicted in 1793 by Sir William Johns. There is very less
information available regarding early life or childhood of Chandragupta Maurya.

Birth → Regarding birth of Chandragupta Maurya- some says he was son of Dhana Nanda’s
housekeeper lady; some says son of a lady named Mura; some says son of leader of peacock keepers.
Caste → Accounted lower caste in Mudrarakshash; Kshatriya in Buddhist & Jain text. In Buddhist text
Mahabodhivamsha, Chandragupta with the help of army constituted Chanakya, attacked on Magadh
but failed to conquer. Chandragupta conquered Punjab firstly, followed by Sindh then Magadh.
Parvatak and Bhaddasala helped Chandragupta in his conquer. Parvatak was ruler of small state lie in
Himalayan region who helped Chandragupta in victory campaign over Magadh. Bhaddasala was
commander in-chief of Dhana Nanda who was defeated by Chandragupta.

War between Chandragupta and Seleucid: In between 305BC to 304BC. After the death of Alexander, Seleucus
became the ruler of Babylon. Seleucus conquered the region of Bactria in Afghanistan. Seleucus crossed the
Indus River and faced Chandragupta, and was defeated by Chandragupta, so forced to compromise with him.
Seleucus marries his daughter ‘Helena’ with Chandragupta and surrendered his 4 states/provinces to
Chandragupta in dowry. The 4 states were- Area (Herat); Arakoshia (Kandhar), Jedroshia (Makaran coast);
Peripanashdai (Kabul). Chandragupta gifted 500 elephants to Seleucus. Seleucus sent his ambassador
(Megasthenes) in the court of Chandragupta.

Chandragupta conquered entire India: After this treaty, Chandragupta started his victory march over entire
India and with a large army including 6lakh soldiers, he conquered Entire India.

Empire of Chandragupta: Extended over-

 In north-west = From Hindukush (Iran)

 In east = up to Bengal
 In north = From Kashmir
 In south = up to Mysore.

# Post Maurya age: From 185BC to 250AD. Chandragupta handed over his throne in favour of his son
Bindusara at the last phase of his life. Chandragupta adopted Jain religion. ‘Bhadra bahu’ taught Jainism to
Chandragupta. A Jain council was held in Patliputra (capital of Magadh), during reign of Chandragupta. Jain
religion was divided into two set:

 Shwetambar: Who wear white cloths. Teacher name was ‘Sthulabhadra’.

 Digambar: Assumes sky as his cloth. Teacher name was ‘Bhadra bahu’.

After handing over his throne of Magadh, Chandragupta departed to Mysore (Karnataka) with his teacher
Bhadra bahu, where he died by achieving salvation (fasting unto death) in around 298BC or 297BC

Bindusara: Ruling period from 298BC/297BC to 273BC. In Jain text, his name says Singhsena. According to Jain
text, Parishistparvan, he was son of ‘Dur Dhara’. Greek text tells him as Amitrochates (Slayer of enemies).
Mahabhasta of Patanjali says it as ‘Amitroghat’ (Killer of enemies). The two foreign diplomats visited in the
court of Bindusara-

 Dimecus = Sent by Syrian king Antiochus-I. Bindusara sent letter to Syria asking for three thing-
o Dried figs.
o Sweet wine.
o Philosopher.

Syria sent first two things denied to sent philosophers because of their policy.

 Dinosis = Egyptian king Ptolmy Philadelphus-II sent him.

Bindusara have healthy relation with Pingalvatsa, teacher of Aajeevaka sect.

Ashoka: Coronation (राज्याभिषेक) of Ashoka in 269BC, but the ruling period from 273BC to 232BC. It is
because war of successorship between son of Bindusara- Sushim and Ashoka, was broke out at the end of
Bindusara reign. In the war of successorship, Ashoka emerged victorious and he became the next Maurya
emperor. According to Buddhist texts like Mahavamsa, Ashoka killed his 99 brothers born from his step
mothers and captured the throne of Magadha. Ashoka was governor of Ujjain (Malwa) during his father
Bindusara’s reign. Two times rebellions create revolts against exploitation of Amatyas (ministers) in Taxila,
during the reign of Bindusara. To supress the rebellions, 1st time Ashoka was sent to Taxila, and next time
Sushima. Ashoka, attacked on Kalinga in 261BC i.e., after 8 years of his coronation or in 9th year of his reign and
conquered Kalinga.

Kalinga war: Located in the coastal region of Odisha. Mentioned in the 13th rock edict of Ashoka. At that time
ruler of Kalinga was Nanjraj. 1st time conquered by Mahapadmananda. Ashoka required victory over Kalinga
because of strategic location of Kalinga favourable for trade to south-east Asia. Ashoka was transformed into a
new version and his heart was converted from cruelty to non-violence Ashoka. Now he started ‘Dhamma
Vijaya’ instead of ‘Bherighosha’.

Successors of Ashoka: No clarity regarding the name of Ashoka’s successors, various sources describe some
names as follows-

 Kunal = son of Ashoka

 Samprati = Son of Ashoka
 Dashrath = Grandson of Ashoka
 Brihdrath = Last ruler of Maurya’s.

Brihdrath, the last Mauryan ruler was killed by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Sunga and it was end of
the Mauryan dynasty.

Salient features of Post Mauryan age:

 Political disintegration of India.

 Foreign invasions from central Asia.
 Two types of dynasty emerged in India-
o Indian or Indigenous dynasty
o Foreign dynasty
 Improvement in contact of India with central Asia.
 Progress in Trade & commerce.
 Remarkable development in the field of Art & Religion.

After the decline/disintegration of Mauryan empire, Indian history was divided into two parts. Foreigners from
central Asia invaded India and conquered a large part of India including north-western region and central India.
On the other hand, Sunga, Kanva, Satavahana, Vakataka and many more established their independent rule in
various parts of India. Both, these tendencies were developed in parallel to each other. They were called Post
Mauryan dynasties.

# Post Maurya dynasties:

 Indian or Indigenous dynasties:
 Shunga dynasty = From 185Bc to 75BC. Founder was Pushyamitra Shunga. Their ancestor was
resident of Ujjain and served Maurya’s. Pushyamitra Sunga, the founder of Shunga dynasty,
was commander-in-chief of Maurya army. Ayodhya inscription is an important source to
know about Pushyamitra Shunga.
 Inscription by the Governor Dhana deva’s inscription.
He performed 2 Ashvamedha Yajna (sacrifice) with the help of Maharishi Patanjali (great
scholar of Sanskrit grammar, who wrote a book ‘Mahabhashya’). Ondo-Greeks (known as
Yavanas) from Bactria (Balkh) invaded India during the reign of Pushyamitra. According to
Buddhist text, Pushyamitra was prosecutor of Buddhist, but this cannot be trusted because-
  He constructed two Stupas at Sanchi.
 Built stone railing of Ashoka’s Stupa.
 Constructed Bharahuta Stupa.
Agni Mitra, son of Pushyamitra, became the ruler after Pushyamitra. Play wrote by Kalidas-
Malvikagnimitram.
Kashi Putra Bhagabhadra:
 9th ruler of Sunga dynasty.
 1st capital of Sunga was Patliputra, and 2nd capital of Sunga was Vidisha (MP).
A Greek ambassador ‘Heliodorus’ visited in the court of Bhagabhadra. Heliodorus was
ambassador of Indo-Greek ruler Antialkidas from Taxila, erected Garuda-pillar in Besnagar. He
was follower of Bhagavata.
Devbhuti: The last ruler of Sunga dynasty. Vasudeva, secretary of Devbhuti founded Kanva
dynasty by killing Devbhuti.
 Kanva dynasty = From 75Bc to 30BC. Like Sunga’s, they were also brahmins. Only 4 rulers of
this dynasty-
 Vasudeva
 Bhumimitra
 Narayan
 Susharman = Murdered by Simuk, and established a new dynasty called Satavahana
dynasty.
 Satavahana dynasty = From 30Bc to 250AD. Founder was Simuk, and capital was Pratisthan
(Paithan), Maharashtra. Most important power in the deccan region was Satavahana in the
age of Post Mauryan dynasties. Inscriptional record mentioned him as Satavahana, while
Puranas (पुराण) tells him Andhra, that is why they are called Andhra Satavahana. It is to be
appear that, the Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, both were included in the Satavahana
kingdom.
Gautami Putra Shatakarni: Greatest or most powerful ruler was Gautami Putra Shatakarni,
source of information from Nasik inscription (by his mother Gautami Balshri). Ruling period
from 106BC to 130AD. Rulers of Satavahana uses their mother names (Matroynims). Gautami
Putra Shatakarni was also called ‘अद्वितीय ब्राह्मण’. He defeated Shaka ruler Nahpana and killed
him.
Vashisthi Putra Pulumovi: He was defeated two times by Shaka ruler Rudra Daman, but left
alive because his younger brother (Shiv shri Satakarni) was son-in-law of Rudra Daman.
Yagya Shri Satakarni: Pictures of ship found on its coins, which means trade was done from
Sea route.
1st prominent ruler of Satavahana:
 Shatakarni-Ist = Mentioned in Nanaghat inscription. Inscribed by Queen Naganika.
Shatakarni-Ist donated land to Buddhist and Brahmins, as mentioned in Nanaghat
inscription of Naganika. This was the first epigraphical record of religious land
donation.
 Hala = He was writer and author, who wrote a book ‘Gatha Saptashati’ in Prakrit
language (official language of Satavahana).
After decline of Satavahana dynasty, three important dynasties emerged-
 Aabhir dynasty = Prominent centre was Nasik. Founder was Ishwar Sen.
 Icchavaku dynasty = Prominent centre was Krishna-Guntur region (Nagarjunikonda).
Founder was Shrishantmool.
 Vakataka dynasty = Prominent centre was Nandi Vardhan (Nagpur). Founder was
Vindhya Shakti.
Chedi dynasty of Kalinga: Founder of this dynasty was Mahamedhavahan. Prominent ruler
was Kharvela.
 Foreign dynasties:
  Indo-Greek = After death of Alexander In 323BC, many Greeks came to settle on northern-
western border of India with Bactria as important centre, so called as Bactrian-Greek. One of
the ruler Demetrius came into conflict with Pushyamitra. Most celebrated Indo-Greek ruler
was Menander, whose empire includes southern Afghanistan and Gandhar, and the west
region of river Indus. In famous Buddhist text Milindapanho, Menander is identified as King
Milinda. Meander impressed with Nagasena and accepted Buddhism as his religion. His
ruling period was 155BC to 130BC.
 Shaka = Shaka is the Indian term used for people called Scythians (originally belonged to
central Asia). Defeated by their neighbours Yueh-Chis, and gradually settled in north-western
India around Taxila in 1st century. Their territories extended up-to Mathura and Gujrat. The
most famous of all Shaka rulers was Rudra Daman, who ruled in middle of 2nd century AD. His
empire spread over whole western India.
 Parthians = They were Iranian origin (Persian) because of strong cultural connection with the
Shakas, referred as Shaka-Pahlava. Most important Takht-i-Bahi inscription indicated
Parthians rule in north-western area of Pakistan, is recovered from Mardan (Peshawar). The
Parthian ruler was Gondophernes or Gondophares, who converted to Christianity with his
brother also.
 Kushanas =

# Gupta dynasty: From 250AD to 550AD. Founder was Sri Gupta. Ghatotkach was Son & successor of
Sri Gupta. 1st ruler mentioned in Gupta’s inscription was Chandragupta-Ist. After the decline of Maurya’s, many
small kingdoms were originated in northern India. These states were divided into monarchy and republic
system.

Monarchical state: Aabhir, Icchavaku, Naga dynasty (UP & MP), Gupta dynasty (UP & Bihar).

Republican state: Arjunayan (Agra & Jaipur), Yavodheya (Malwa), Licchavi (Muzaffarpur-Bihar).

During such period, in Magadh, the Guptas were rise. The Guptas were likely to be feudatories of Kushanas.
The Guptas were believed to be Vaishya in origin and ruled over or residents of eastern UP and western Bihar.
Sri Gupta was founder of Gupta dynasty. Perhaps, he was feudatory (Subordinate administrator) of Kushanas.
After decline of Kushanas power he acknowledged as independent ruler in Magadh and founded his
independent rule there. Sri Gupta, founder of Gupta dynasty, laid the foundation of his independent rule in
Magadh around 250AD and adopted title of ’Maharaj’. Ghatotkach Gupta, son of Sri Gupta, succeeded his
father and like his father adopted title ’Maharaj’. Gupta’s inscription gives account of Chandragupta-Ist as the
first ruler of Gupta dynasty, and according to this he laid the foundation of this dynasty and adopted title of
‘Maharaja Dhiraj’ (King of Kings).

Chronological order of rulers in Gupta dynasty: Sri Gupta → Ghatotkach Gupta → Chandragupta-I → Samudra
Gupta → Samudra Gupta-II → Kumar Gupta → Skanda Gupta.

Chandragupta-I: Ruling period from 319AD to 334AD. He was son & successor of Ghatotkach. Real founder of
Gupta dynasty. His empire included eastern UP, western Bihar and Bengal. His coronation was held in 319-
20AD and he started a new calendar ‘Gupta Samvat’ from here. His capital was Patliputra. He married to
‘Kumar devi’ (princess of Licchavi), and gave birth to his child, named Samudra Gupta. After Chandragupta-Ist,
Samudra Gupta ascended the throne.

Samudra Gupta: Ruling period from 335AD to 375AD. He was son & successor of Chandragupta-Ist. He was a
great conqueror, and Vincent Smith named him the ‘Napoleon of India’. Victory march of Samudra Gupta is
mentioned in ‘Prayag inscription’ in Sanskrit language of Champu style. Author of Prayag inscription-
Harisena (court poet). Victory march of Samudra Gupta includes-

 Victory over Aryavart = North India. Won 12 states (3 states in 1st campaign, 9 states in 2nd campaign).
  Victory over Dakshina path = South India. Won 12 states, but did not merge with his empire, rather
he initiated a law ‘Grahana Moksha Parigraha’ to accept him as their king, and then liberated (मुक्त)
them.
 Victory over Atvik states = Region of dense forest extended from Ghazipur (UP) to Jabalpur (MP).
 Victory over frontier states = 5 states located on northern & eastern frontier.
o Samtat- Present West Bengal and Bangladesh.
o Dawak- Situated in Navgaon of Assam.
o Kamrupa- Old name of Assam.
o Katrarpur- Kartarpur (Punjab, Pakistan).
o Nepal.

He loved music, as he depicted on his coins with playing Veena. Samudra Gupta was also called ‘King of poet ‘.

Samudra Gupta-IInd: Ruling period from 375AD to 415AD. Son & successor of Samudra Gupta. Another names-
Dev Gupta and Dev Raj. Title was ‘Vikram Aditya’. Mother’s name was Dutta devi. Greatest ruler of Gupta
dynasty. A famous play wrote by Vishaka Dutta ‘Devi Chandra Guptam’. His period refers to golden age of
ancient India. There were 2 capitals- Patliputra and Ujjain. He captured western India by defeating Shaka’s.
Expansion of empire through matrimonial relations→

 Married with Kubernaga, princess of Naga dynasty. Gave birth to daughter Prabhavati Gupta.
 His daughter got married into Vakataka dynasty.
 Also, with Kuntal state.

9 great scholars in his Ujjain court- Kalidas, Amarsimha, Dhanvantri, Harisena, Kahapanaka, Sanku,
Varahamihira, Vararuchi, Vetalbhatta. They all were called ‘Nav Ratna of Chandra Gupta’. 1st Chinese traveller
to India, at the time of Chandra Gupta-IInd, was Fa-Hien. Expansion of region from Chandragupta-I to Samudra
Gupta-II.

Kumar Gupta-I: Ruling period from 415AD to 455AD. Founded Nalanda University. Defeated the Huns invasion.

Skanda Gupta: Ruling period from 455AD to 467AD. Last ruler of Gupta dynasty.

# Post Gupta age: India in the age of Harshvardhan. After decline of Gupta empire in the mid of 6th
century AD, northern India splintered into several small states. The period from 600AD to 750AD was
dominated by following ruling dynasties in north and south India→

 Maitrak dynasty in Vallabha (Gujrat) = Founder Bhattark. Prominent ruler was Dhruv Sen-I and Dhruv
Sen-II. Dhruv Sen-II was contemporary and son-in-law of Harshvardhan. Most ancient university in
Indian sub-continent was Taxila university. Most famous university of ancient India was Nalanda
university. Vallabha university was famous for producing administrators in good number.
 Maukhari dynasty in Kannauj (UP) = Founder was Hari Varma in 510AD. Another name of Kannauj
was Kanyakubja or Mahodaya Nagar. Maukhari, perhaps feudars (सामंतों) of Guptas and originally
resident of Gaya (Bihar). Prominent Maukhari ruler were Hari Verma, Aditya Verma, Ishan Verma,
Sarva Verma, Avanti Verma, Grih Verma. Grih Verma was son & successor of Avanti Verma, and was
married with Harshavardhan’s sister ‘Rajya Shri’.
 Pushyabhuti dynasty in Thanesar (Haryana) = Sources to know about this dynasty were-
o Harshacharit- Biography of Harshvardhan written by his court poet Ban Bhatta.
o Kadambari- A play written by Ban Bhatta.
o Aryamanjushrimulakalpa- A book of Mahayana Buddhism.
o Priyadarshika, Ratnavali, Nagananda- These three plays written by Harshvardhan himself.
o Banshkhera inscription-
o Si-Yu-Ki- Travel book of Hiuen Tsang.
 Chandra dynasty of Gaud (Bengal) = Prominent ruler was Shashank. He was follower of Shaivism.
Prosecutor of Buddhist. He cut down Bodhvriksh (Papal tree) and threw it in Ganga.
  Aulikar dynasty of Malwa (MP) = Founder & most prominent ruler was Yashodharman. He defeated
Guptas and conquered central India. He also defeated Huns of Punjab. It gives account about him in
Manda Saur inscription. Manda Saur inscription composed by Vats Bhatti (court poet of
Yashodharman).
 Later Guptas and Post Guptas of Magadh (Bihar) = They were different from earlier Guptas. Founder
was Krishna Gupta. Prominent ruler were Dev Gupta and Aditya Sen.
 Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi (Karnataka).
 Pallav dynasty of Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu).
 Huns of Punjab = They were a barbarous race, who came to India from central Asia. They established
their supremacy over Punjab, Kashmir, and north-western part of India. Huns first invaded under the
leadership of Khushnawaj during Skanda Gupta’s reign. Next Huns invasion was done under the
leadership of Toramana and captured Punjab. Prominent Huns ruler was Mihirakula.

Gupta empire was declined and disintegrated due to repeatedly attack of Huns from central Asia. With the
decline of Gupta empire, Patliputra had lost its political importance. Now a political centre of northern India
arises named Kannauj. At Kannauj, Maukhari dynasty established their rule. At the same time, Pushyabhuti
dynasty was established in Thanesar and in the mid of 6th century AD, Prabhakar Vardhan was the ruler of
Thanesar. He had two sons-Rajya Vardhan and Harshavardhan, and a daughter Rajyashri. Rajyashri was married
with Grih Verma of Maukhari dynasty.

# Harshvardhan: Ruling period from 606AD to 647AD. Became ruler of Kannauj in 606AD. He successfully
made Kannauj, a central power in northern India. His childhood name was Shiladitya. After conquering
northern India, he marched towards south, but he was stopped on the bank of Narmada River by Pulkeshin-IInd
of Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi, mentioned in Ehole inscription by Ravi Kirti. Hiuen Tsang visited India for study
in Nalanda university during the reign of Harshvardhan. Harshvardhan conducted two religious parliament,
called ‘Mahamokshaparishad’- one at Prayag and another at Kannauj. There were decline in economic
conditions or in terms of trade & commerce during the reign of Harshvardhan. Harshvardhan died in 647AD.
After his death, centre Kannauj came under the hand of weak ruler of Ayudh dynasty and feudatories declared
his independency from Kannauj. As a resultant there were many regional and independent state arises in the
beginning of 8th century AD. Another development in Post Harshvardhan period was rise of feudalism
(सामंतवाद).

← Medieval History →
# Pre-Medieval India: North and South India. From 700AD to 1200AD. Political disintegration of India. Rise
of feudalism and regional states. Political conditions of north India and south India. After death of
Harshvardhan (in 647AD), India was again sub-divided into several states which were warring each other for
their dominance. In the northern part of India and deccan, few dynasties came into existence. Important ones
were Pratyahara’s, Pala’s, Parmar’s, Chauhan’s, Gahadwal, Tomar, Chalukya, Rashtrakutas, Cholas etc. After
Harshvardhan death, many independent states sprang up in northern India and the rulers of these independent
states were Rajput, who rules over 500 years from 7th century AD to 12th century AD, therefore this period in
the history of northern India is called “Age of Rajputas”.

# Origin of Rajput: Rajput were the son of King/Ruler. They were a warrior class of Kshatriya Varna. Origin
place of Rajput’s was Rajasthan. Various scholars have different theories regarding the origin of Rajput’s.
Among them some important are as follows→

 Gauri Shankar Ojha believed the Rajput’s were originated from ancient Kshatriya clan.
 Colonel Tod, Bhandarkar and Ishwari Prasad accepted that Rajput’s were originated from foreigners
like Kushanas, Huns etc.
 VA Smith believed that the Rajput’s were of mixed race or mixed breed of ancient Kshatriya and tribes
of here, including foreigners like Shaka-Kushanas.
 The theory ‘Rajput’s origin from Agni Kund (fire alters)’ based on an epic “Prithvirajraso” written by
Chandrabardai, court poet of Prithvi Raj-III (Chahman dynasty), a great Rajput king of 12th century AD.
Rajput’s of Agni Kul were-
o Gurjara-Pratihara = Among the Agni Kul Rajput’s, Gurjara-Pratihara were most powerful and
important. They were related to one Gurjar clan and hence called Gurjar-Pratihar. Gurjar
caste appear first time in Ahole inscription of Pulkeshin-II. Prominent Pratihara ruler were-
Nag Bhatt-I, Vats raj, Mihir Bhoj, Raj Shekhar, Mahendra Pal-I.
 Vats raj was real founder of Pratihara empire. Victory over Kannauj.
 Most prominent ruler was Mihir Bhoj.
o Paramaras = Rise of Parmar power in Malwa with the beginning of 10th century AD. 1st
independent ruler was Siyak or Sri Harsha. Earliest capital was Ujjain, but later was Dhara.
Most powerful and famous ruler were Vakapati Munja and King Bhoj.
o Chalukya’s = Also called ‘Solanki’. Capital was Anihalwad (Gujrat). 1st independent ruler was
Moolraja-Ist. At the time of Bhim-Ist, Md Ghaznavid attacked on Gujrat and destroyed
Somnath temple. Prominent ruler was- Jaising Sidhharaja, Bhim-I, Kumar Pal, Ajay pal,
Moolraja-II, Bhim-II.
o Chahman/Chauhan’s = Original place was Shakambari, near Ajmer. Founded in 7th century
AD in Shakambari by Vasudeva. First prominent ruler was Vakpatiraj-Ist. Other names are
Sidhharaj, Prithviraj-I, Ajayraj. Ajayraj founded Ajmer city. Most powerful Chahman king was
Vigrah Raj-IV (Veeshaldev). Sanskrit play ‘Hari Khel’ accounts the expansion up-to Delhi.
 In 12th century AD, Prithivi Raj-III was most powerful king amongst Rajput rulers of
northern India, he was as famous as Prithivi Raj Chauhan. His other name was
Raipithaura. His empire was extended from Ajmer to Delhi. His enemy was Jai
Chand of Kannauj. He defeated Parmardidev of Chandel of Bundelkhand in Battle of
Mahoba fought in 1182AD. Chandrabardai (court poet of Prithvi Raj Chauhan),
author of ‘Prithvirajraso’ written in ‘Apbhransh’ language.
o Gahadwal dynasty = Rise in Kannauj. Original residents of Vindhyachal. Founder was Chandra
dev (1080-1085AD). Madan pal and Govind Chand were successors. Last prominent ruler was
Jai Chand. Expansion of state from Kannauj to Banaras.
o Chandel dynasty = Founded in the region of Bundelkhand (present day), frontier region of UP
& MP in 10th century AD. They were feudatories of Pratihara, but after decline of Pratihara,
they declared themselves independent. Founder was Nunnuk. Capital was Khajuraho. 1st
prominent ruler was Jai Singh (grandson of Nunnuk). Another name of Nunnuk was ‘Jeja’.
Chandel’s kingdom was called ‘Jejakbhukti’. Other important rulers- Dhangdev, Gand dev,
Vidhya Dhar, Parmardidev (Parmal).
o Tomar’s of Delhi = Historically, Anangpal Tomar is regarded as founder of Delhi. Later,
Gahadwal made Tomar’s their sub-ordinates, but in 11th or 12th century AD, Chauhan’s got
possession on Delhi.
o Pala & Sen dynasty of Bengal = After the death of Shashank, in the mid of 8th century AD,
Pala dynasty rises. Founded by Gopal (750-770AD), followed by Dharam Pal, Dev Pal, Mahi
Pal as successors. Dharam Pal founded Vikramshila university.
 After Pala, Sen established their rule in Bengal. Founder was Samant Sen. Prominent
ruler of Sen dynasty were- Vijaya Sen, Ballal Sen, Laxman Sen. Vijaya Sen conquered
Nepal & Mithila (Bihar), founded two cities as his capital- Vijay Puri and Vikrampur.
Ballal Sen was greatest ruler of Sen dynasty, his title was ‘Gaudeshwar’. A temple
‘Dhakeshwari temple’ was built in Dhaka. Mohammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji invaded
Bengal during reign of Laxman Sen.
o Shahi dynasty = Another name ‘Hindu Shahi’. Territory- Kabul valley and Gandhar region.
Founded by Kallar in later half of 9th century AD. Prominent ruler were- Jaipal and Anand pal.
 Capital was Udbhandpur. Mahmud Ghaznavid (Persian) invaded Hindu Shahi kingdom during
Jaipal’s reign.
o Dynasty of Kashmir = Sources to know about Hindu kingdom of Kashmir was ‘Rajatarangani’,
written by Kalhan. The dynasties who ruled over Kashmir were-
 Karkot dynasty
 Utpal dynasty
 Lohar dynasty
In 7th century AD, a person named ‘Durlabh Vardhan’ founded Karkot dynasty in Kashmir.
Lalitaditya Muktapeed was the greatest ruler of Karkot dynasty. He built a famous sun
temple named ‘Martand temple’ at Kashmir.
 Avanti Varman founded Utpal dynasty in 9th century AD, after Karkot’s rule.
Successors of Avanti Varman were- Shankar Varman and Kshemendra Gupta.
Shankar Varman was cruel ruler of Kashmir, who imposed heavy tax burden on
public. During the reign of Kshemendra Gupta, the real power was in the hand of
Queen Didda (wife of Kshemendra Gupta, princess of Lohar dynasty). She ruled
Kashmir over 50 years.

# History of South India:

Megalithic Age: After the stone age in the south India, a new phase of cultures has been developed which
knowledge is based on graveyards covered with big stone builders called Megalith. This culture refers to burial
came with iron age around 1000BC. Agriculture and animal raring were main occupation of megalithic people.
Due to production surplus in agriculture, 3 kingdoms were rise in the deep south. They were- Chola, Chera,
Pandya.

Three different kinds of people living in most villages of southern part of sub-continent. In Tamil region- large
land-owners were known as Vellalar, Ordinary plough-men were known as Uzhavar, Landless labourers,
including slaves were known as Kadaisiyar and Adimai.

In northern part of India, village headman was known as ‘Grama Bhojaka’ (largest land-owners).

Sangam Age: Sangam means meeting. It refers to- (i) meeting of Tamil poets, (ii) confluence of north and
south culture. The term Sangam used in Tamil literature for meetings of Tamil poets. The Aryan culture
expanded towards south India during later Vedic age, and its credit goes to Rishi Agastya. Sangam was
conferences of Tamil poets, held in Tamilkam region (present Tamil Nadu) in the patron of Pandya rulers and it
was conducted during hundreds of years.

Three Sangam’s
Sl No. Location Chairperson Patron
1st Madurai Agastya Rishi Pandya
2nd Kapatpuram Tolakappiyar Pandya
3rd North Madurai Nakkirar Pandya
Literatures, compiled or composed in these conferences were called Sangam literature, and the knowledge of
south India history based on these sources are called ‘Sangam age history’. In 8th century AD, description of
Sangam was firstly mentioned by Tamil poet ‘Irrainar Agguporal’. Sangam literature can be classified into two
categories→

 Ahoom: Deals with ‘Love’ matters.

 Puram: Deals with ‘War’ matters.

Some prominent Sangam literatures are-

 Shilpadikaram = Great epic of Sangam literature, whose author is Ilangoadigal.

 Manimekhala = another great epic of Sangam literature, whose author is Shitalai Shattainar.
 Tolakappiyam = Grammar text of Tamil, whose author is Tolakappiyar.
  Jeevak Chintamani = Author is Thirutakkadevar.
 Kural = Bhagavat Geeta of Tamils, whose author is Saint Thiruvalluvar.

Sangam literature gives account about 3 dynasties of south India (image)-

 Chera dynasty = At Malabar coast (Kerala). Capital was Marandai & Vanji. Uraiyur city, famous for
cotton trade, was also made capital. Prominent rulers were-
o Udyan Jeral
o Nedunjeral Adan
o Shenaguttuvan = Greatest ruler of entire Chera dynasty. He was also called ‘Lal Cher‘.
 Chola dynasty = Founder was Vijayalaya. Capital was Thanjavur (Cauvery delta, Tamil Nadu).
Prominent rulers were-
o Elara = Victory over Sri Lanka.
o Karikal = Greatest ruler of entire Chola dynasty.
o Kocchenganan
 Pandya dynasty = Capital was Madurai. Prominent rulers were-
o Neduyon
o Palsalai Mudukudumi
o Nedunjelian

Meeting place of these three dynasties was ‘Thirukamppuliyyar’.

Pre-Medieval dynasties:
 Chalukya of Vatapi: From mid-6th century AD to mid-8th century AD. Capital was Vatapi (now Badami,
Karnataka). Founder was Jai Singh. 1st prominent ruler was Kirti Varman-Ist. Greatest ruler was
Pulakeshin-II (from Ahole inscription, by Ravi Kirti). He defeated Harshvardhan.
 Pallava of Kanchipuram: Founder & greatest ruler was Mahendra Varman-I. He wrote a book
‘Mattavilash Prahasan’. Narsingh Varman-Ist owned title ‘Mamalla’, and was also known as
‘Vatapikonda’ because he defeated Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin-II. Narsingh Varman-II built a ‘shore
temple’ in Mahabalipuram and Kailashnath temple in Kanchipuram in Dravidian style, whose entry
gate was called ‘Gopuram’.
 Rashtrakuta: They were contemporary of Pala of Bengal and Pratihara of western India. Also,
feudatories of Chalukya of Vatapi. In the mid of 8th century (752AD), Rashtrakuta dynasty was founded
in Deccan by Dantidurga. He defeated Chalukya of Vatapi and made Manyakheta as his capital.
Prominent rulers of Rashtrakuta dynasty were-
o Krishna-I = He made Kailashnath temple of Ellora.
o Amoghavarsha = He wrote a book ‘Kaviraj Marg’ in Kannada language.
o Indra-III
o Krishna-III
o Govind-II
o Dhruv = Participated in war being fought for Kannauj (north politics).
Golden era for Kannada literature during reign of Rashtrakuta dynasty. Three Ratna of Kannada
literature-
o Pamp
o Ponna
o Ranna
 Chalukya of Kalyani: After the decline of Rashtrakuta, Chalukya of Kalyani were emerged in Deccan.
Founder was Tailap-II. In 974-75AD, Tailap-II defeated Kark-II of Rashtrakuta (last king of Rashtrakuta),
and founded Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani. Tailap-II invaded many times on Malwa but every time
defeated by Parmar king Vakpati Munj of Malwa. Tailap-II was succeeded to escape from battle field
after defeat but during 7th campaign, he was victorious and killed Vakpati Munj. Prominent rulers of
Chalukya of Kalyani were→
 o Someshwar-I = He was successor of Tailap-II. He made his capital Kalyani, and shifted
Chalukya’s capital from Manyakhet to Kalyani. There was a long conflict between Chola’s and
Someshwar-I. Two famous battles were fought between Someshwar-I and Chola king
(Rajendra-II)- Battle of Koppam and Battle of KudalSangamam, in which he was defeated
both the time and committed suicide after defeat.
o Vikram Aditya-VI: Coronation in 1076AD. At this time, he started a calendar ‘Chalukya
Vikram Samvat’.
 Shaka calendar- In 78AD, by Kanishka. It is national calendar of India.
 Vikram Samvat- In 57BC, by Vikram Aditya (Malwa king).
 Gupta Samvat- In 319-20AD, by Chandragupta-I.
His reign (ruling period) was referred as peace time. He patronised scholars in his court-
 Vilhan- Wrote a book ‘Vikramankdevcharitam’.
 Vigyaneshwar- Wrote a book ‘Mitakshara’.
 Chola dynasty: Although Chola empire was emerged as a great political power in southern India in
mid-10th century AD, but the Chola kingdom was founded by Vijayalaya in later half of 9th century AD.
o Sangam age Chola→ Two prominent rulers-
 Karikal
 Kocchengana
o Pre-Medieval Chola→ Two prominent rulers-
 Rajraja-I
 Rajendra-I
Prominent rulers-
(i) Vijayalaya- Ruling period 850-887AD. Founder of Chola dynasty. He captured ‘Tanjore’, and
hold title of ‘Nar Kesari’. He was feudarator of Pallava.
(ii) Aditya-I- Ruling period 880-907AD. Credit to make Chola complete independent. Defeated
Pallava, and hold title of ‘Kodandaram’.
(iii) Parantak-I- Ruling period 907-953AD. Founder of Chola dominance in the Dravin region
(south India). He defeated Pandya of Madurai, and hold title of ‘Madurai Konda’. In Battle of
Vellura (915AD), Parantak defeated allies of Pandya and Sri Lanka. Battle of Tok Kolam
(949AD) fought between Krishna-III vs Parantak-I, in which Parantak-I (Chola) was badly
defeated, and their northern part was conquered by Krishna-III (Rashtrakuta).
(iv) Rajraja-I- Ruling period 985-1014AD. Glorious period in Chola history. He holds a title
‘Arimol Varman’. Defeated Chera in Kandchur, defeated Pandya in Madurai, defeated Gang
dynasty in Mysore, defeated king Mahind-V in Sri Lanka, won Maldives, won provinces of
south-east Asia. Rajraja-I captured northern part of Sri Lanka, and named it
‘Mumdichalamandalam’. Capital of northern part of Sri Lanka was ‘Anuradhapur’. He also
transferred capital from Anuradhapur to Polannarua, and named it as ‘Jainathmandalam’. He
built Brihadeshwar temple of Tanjaur.
(v) Rajendra-I- Ruling period 1012-1044AD. Son & successor of Rajraja-I. Imperialistic ruler
like his father. King Mahind-V (of Sri Lanka) declared independence from Chola’s when
Rajraja-I fall ill, but Rajendra-I, on becoming ruler, annexed entire Sri Lanka and arrested
Mahind-V under his custody. At that time, Sri Lanka was known as ‘Cylone’. He conquered
Malaya peninsula (Malaysia, Vietnam) including Andaman & Nicobar. Victory over Kadaram
was also an important achievement. He defeated Sangram kulottunga Varman of Sri Vijaya
empire. Victory over many Islands of Bay of Bengal. Other prominent Chola kings-
 Rajadhiraj-I
 Rajendra-II = Battle of Koppam and Battle of Kudalsangamam.
 Kulottunga-I = Last prominent ruler of Chola dynasty.
Sources to know about Chola administration→ Uttarmerur inscription.
Administrative division of Chola empire→ Descending order-
i. State
ii. Mandalam
 iii. Valanadu
iv. Nadu
v. Kurram or Kottam (city or village)
Chola administration was local self-government. Three tier system→
a. Ura
b. Sabha or Mahasabha
c. Nagaram
Each village or city was divided into 30 wards. 1 member was selected from each ward through lottery
system, and a 30 such member committee was formed called ‘Variyam’.
 Shailendra dynasty: Ruler was Sri Vijayotunga Varman. Present Indonesia.

# Triparties struggle (image): War between Gurjar-Pratihara, Rashrakuta and Palas for Kannauj. Downfall of
Gupta empire results loss of political importance of Patliputra. In post-Gupta age, Kannauj became more
important as new political centre of northern India. Kannauj emerged as a great power of northern India,
during Harshvardhan reign (606-647AD). After death of Harshvardhan in 647AD, a weak dynasty (Ayudh
dynasty) or power established their rule in Kannauj. Ruler of Ayudh dynasty was Vajrayudh. Successor of
Vajrayudh were- Indrayudh and Chakrayudh, between which dispute for successorship arises for the throne of
Kannauj.

Entry of Vats raj (Pratihara), Dharma pal (Pala) and Dhruv dharvarsh (Rashrakuta) for Kannauj. At last, Pratihara
won the war, after 200 years of conflict. This also results in downfall of Rajputana rules in India due to heavy
loss.

# Muslim era: Sources to know about Medieval history of Islam→

 Chachnama = Originally written in Arabic language. Its author is unknown. Translated in Persian
language by Abu Bakra Al Kufi in 13th century AD. It gives account about the Arab’s invasion on Sindh.
 Tahqik-i-Hind or Kitab-Ul-Hind = Written by Al Baruni (resident of Khwarizm). Al Baruni was court
writer of Mahmud Ghaznavid. It’s an important source to know about Mahmud’s invasion on India.
 Taj-Ul-Masir = Written by Muhammad Hasan Nizami. It mentioned about Victory march of
Muhammad Ghori.
 Tabkat-i-Nashiri = Written by Minhaz-Us-Shiraz. It describes about incidents from Muhammad Ghori’s
victory up-to the reign of Nasiruddin Muhammad (son of Iltutmish). This book is dedicated to
Nasiruddin Muhammad, Sultan of Delhi, which refers Nasiruddin Muhammad as Ideal Sultan.
 Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi = Also known as Fatva-i-Jahandari. Written by Ziauddin Barni. It gives account of
Delhi’s Sultan, from Bulban to Firoz shah Tughlaq (1239-1359AD).
 Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi = Written by Shamsh-i-Siraj-Afif. It gives information about Taimur’s invasion on
India in 1398.
 Futuh-Us-Salatin = Written by Isami. It tells history of Bahmani kingdom.
 Tarikh-i-Yamini = written by Utbi (court historian of Mahmud Ghaznavid). It tells history of
Muhammad Ghaznavid, Sultan of Yamini dynasty.
 Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi = Written by Yahia Ahmad Sarhindi. It tells history of Saiyyad dynasty.
 Rehla = Written by Ibnbatuta. He came to court of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq from Morrocco. Accounts
the incidents of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq reign.
 Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi = Autobiography of Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

Amir Khushro: Greatest writer & poet of Medieval India. He holds title of ‘Tuti-i-Hind’ means parrot of Hind.
He was born in 1253AD, at Patiyali (Etah district, UP). Amir Khushro was witnessed 8 Sultans of Delhi. Amir
Khushro was pupil of Nizamuddin Aulia, a great Sufi saint of Delhi. He gave Amir Khushro, title of ‘Turkallah’.
Famous works of Amir Khushro→

a) Khajain-Ul-Futuh: Victories of Allaudin Khilji.

 b) Nooh-Sipehar
c) Kiran-Us-Saden
d) Miftah-Ul-Futuh

Died in 1325AD, on the second day of death of his guru Nizamuddin Auli.

# Rise of Islam: Rise in Mecca (Arab) in 7th century AD. Profounder of Islam religion was ‘Muhammad
Sahab’, also called ‘Prophet’. Muhammad Sahab was born in 6th century (570AD) at Mecca. He belonged to
Quraishi tribes. His father Abdullah was died earlier to his birth, and mother Amina also died after few days of
his birth. His early childhood was cared by his uncle Abu Talib. Muhammad Sahab married with Khatiza (a rich
lady) of 40 years in the age of 25 years. At the age of 40 years, Muhammad Sahab met with Zibraiel, and
received message of God through him. Muhammad Sahab came to know that he is a ‘Navi’, who was sent on
earth to preach message of Allah. He opposed the ancient beliefs of superstition & Idol worship (that time) in
Arab, and supported ‘monotheism’ (belief in one God). People of Qureshi tribes opposed the religious teaching
of Muhammad Sahab, because their main income was from Idol worship. In 619AD, both Abu Talib (head of
tribe) and Khatiza died, so new head of tribe stopped giving protection to Muhammad Sahab, and Muhammad
Sahab was socially boycotted. In 622AD, Muhammad Sahab left Meccan and went to Medina, this is called
‘Hijrat’ or ‘Hajj’ in Islam. That time an Islamic calendar started known as ‘Hijri Samvat’. The holy book of
Muslims ‘Quran’ was composed in Medina, which accounts teaching of Muhammad Sahab. Muhammad Sahab
announced that Allah in one, he is the prophet of Allah. Meaning of Islam was- devotion to Allah.

The followers of Islam had to follow these 5 rules→

i. Reading lines of Quran (Kalma).

ii. Praying (Namaz) 5 times a day.
iii. Fasting (Roza).
iv. Hajj.
v. Pay Zakat (religious duty in Islam to pay %age of one’s wealth for development to poor & needy).

Three types of taxes were imposed/collected from Muslims (that time) →

i. Sadka = It was a voluntary tax (paid by wish).

ii. Zakat = Religious duty in Islam to pay %age of one’s wealth for development to poor & needy
1
iii. Ushra = Up-to th part of agricultural produced.
10
Muhammad Sahab established the 1st Islamic state in Medina, and himself became its ruler. Quran was made
basis of governance, in which punishment was granted against rules violator’s known as ‘Fatwa’. Qureshi’s of
Mecca attacked on Medina, and 3 battles were fought→

i. Battle of Badr = 624AD.

ii. Battle of Uhud = 625AD
iii. Battle of Trench (Ditch) = 627AD.

Muhammad Sahab was victorious in all the three battles, and Qureshi also came under him. Prophet
Muhammad Sahab died in 632AD. He did not nominated/appointed anyone, as his successor. After
Muhammad Sahab, his successor was called as ‘Khalifa (Caliph)’, and power/authority of Islam came into
Khalif’s hand. It was believed that, Khalifa (Caliph) means representative of Allah (God) on the earth. Four
prominent Caliph in Islam (after Muhammad Sahab) →

1) Abu Bakra = From 632-634AD.

2) Umar = From 634-644AD.
3) Ushman = From 644-656AD.
4) Ali = From 656-661AD.

After that, there were 2 important dynasties of Caliph→

  Umaiyya dynasty = From 661-750AD.
 Abbasi dynasty = from 750-842AD.

Islam religion originated from Arab, its first followers were Arab’s, who became an important political force in
Asia during 7th-8th century AD. They started campaign, to conquest all over the world, to propagate their new
religion, and Arab emerged as a great empire. The vast empire of Arab was extended (image) from the coast of
Atlantic Ocean (west) to banks of Sindh River (east), and from Caspian Sea (north) to Nile River valley (south)
(image). That time, Sindh was also a powerful empire, spread from Multan to Deval port, on the cost of Arabian
Sea. Fertile region of Indus valley was under this state, ruled by Brahman’s and ruler was ‘Chach’. After Chach
death, his brother ‘Chandra’ was ruler and successor was ‘Daher’ (Chandra’s son). The invasion of Arabs in
India started at the end of 7th century AD. Arabs were the 1st Muslim invaders to attack India, accounted in
‘Chachnama’ book written in Arabian language by unknown author. At the of Caliph Umar, in 636AD, the 1st
expedition (अभियान) of Arabs came to conquer Thana (near Bombay), but were unsuccessful. During this
campaign, people of India came in contact with Islam for the first time. After this, many Arab traders settled on
the coast of Malabar (Kerala), and from here Islam came to India. In 644AD, the Arabs made 2nd campaign
under the leadership of Abdullah bin Umar. In 708AD, a ship of Arabs was looted by dacoits of Sindh at Deval
(on coast of Indus River), when it was on route to Iraq from Singhal (Sri Lanka) to Caliph Walid of south and his
Iraqi’s governor Hajjaj. At that time, king of Sindh was Daher. Hajjaj sent a message to Daher to punish the
dacoits, but Daher refused. Hajjaj sent an expedition to Sindh, under leadership of Abdullah in 711AD, but
Arabs were defeated and Abdullah was killed. 2nd campaign was sent under leadership of Budail, but again
defeated and was killed. After both failures, Hajjaj in 712AD, sent 3rd expedition under the leadership of his son-
in-law Muhammad Bin Qasim, and succeeded in winning Sindh.

# Muslim invasions on India:

 Arab’s invasion: Attack on Sindh under the leadership of Muhammad Bin Qasim, 712AD. A war was
fought between Daher and Muhammad Bin Qasim in 712AD, known as ‘Battle of Ravar’. Daher was
defeated in battle of Ravar and Sindh was captured by Arabians. Muhammad Bin Qasim imposes
Jaziah tax (tax collected from non-Muslims) on residents of Sindh. The Arabs, no doubt conquered
Sindh, but this conquest did not prove permanent. Neither they could retain their hold on Sindh for
long period nor could they take any practical step towards the permanent conquest to India.
Effect of Arabs invasion: A city named ‘Mahfuza’ was settled down in Sindh, on the bank of river
Indus in 731AD. Arabs had started cultivation of dates and domestication of camels. Arabs launched
‘Dirham’ named Arabian coins. Arabians learned philosophy, medicine, astronomy, mathematics etc
from Indians. Sanskrit text like ‘Panchatantra’ written by Vishnu Sharma was translated in Arabic and
Persian language. ‘Kalila-Va-Dimna’ was in Arabic translation, whereas ‘Anvar-i-Suhaili’ was in Persian
version. The Arabs victory over Sindh is mentioned in two important Sources→
 Kitab-Futul-Al Baldan = Written by an Arabic writer Biladuri in 9th century AD.
 Chachnama = Translated in Persian language in 1216AD.
After Arabs, Turks were invaded India. Towards the close of 9th century AD, the vast empire of Arab
broke-up and the Turks who got the upper hand over Caliph of Baghdad, established their
independent principalities of their own. At the same time, in 933AD, Alaptgheen founded Yamini
dynasty in Afghanistan and made Ghazni as his capital. Alaptgheen ruled almost 30years (933-963AD)
over Ghazni, but after him, taking advantage of the incapacity of his son, one of his slaves
Subuktgheen established their control over Ghazni, and declared himself as successor of Alaptgheen.
After conquering various territories, Subuktgheen paid his attention towards India.
 Turk’s invasion: In two phases-
 1st phase: Attack of Sultan’s of Ghazni → Subuktgheen and his son Mahmud Ghaznavi’s
invasion, in 10th-11th century AD. Subuktgheen was 1st Turk ruler who attacked India. In those
days Punjab and Gandhar region was under the rule of Jaipal of Hindu Shahi dynasty (a clan
of Rajput). After death of Subuktgheen in 997AD, his son Mahmud Ghaznavi became the
ruler of Ghazni.
  Mahmud Ghaznavi = Invaded 17 times in-between 1001-1027AD. Main objective of
Mahmud to invade India was- (i) robbery of money, (ii) propagation of Islam. Court
historian ‘Utbi’ says it ‘Jehad’ (religious war). Most prominent invasions-
 On Somnath temple (lord Shiva) in 1025AD, located on coast of Gujrat. That
time ruler was Bhimdev-Ist of Chalukya dynasty.
Mahmud Ghaznavi was given title ‘Butshikan’ means destroyer of idols (मूर्तियों). He
also formed an army in India, and made a Hindu ‘Tilak’ as army commander.
Ghaznavid empire divided slowly after death of Mahmud Ghaznavi. After 150years,
Ghor empire rises from north-western Afghanistan. Initially, Ghor were under
Ghaznavi, but in later half of 12th century AD, Ghor’s take over on Ghaznavi empire.
In 1173AD, Shahabuddin Ghori was sitting on the throne of Ghor empire, at the
same time, the rulers of Khwarazm had considerable influence in central Asian
politics. So, Ghori could not expand his kingdom to Iran or central Asia. In such
situation, Muhammad Ghori decided to invade towards India. He 1st invaded Multan
in 1175AD. That time, Multan was ruled by ‘Karmathi’ Muslims. Ghori defeated
Karmathi Muslims and took over Multan. In 1178AD, Ghori attacked Gujrat. At that
time, ruler was Moolraja-IInd of Chalukya dynasty. He defeated Ghori in the battle
fought on foothills of Abu mountains. Ghori tried 2nd time, but again defeated by
Bhimdev-IInd in the battle of Kaya Dara fought at Sirohi (Rajasthan). Now Ghori
decided to proceed through Punjab route. That time Punjab was ruled by Khushrav
Shah of Ghazni dynasty. In 1186AD, Ghori imprisoned Khushrav Shah by false, and
took over Punjab. That time, most powerful ruler of north India was Prithviraj-IIIrd
(popularly known as Raipithora). Empire of Prithvi Raj Chauhan was extended from
Ajmer to Delhi, and he also was expanding territory towards Punjab simultaneously.
Ghori and Prithvi Raj Chauhan face-to-face regarding state expansion, result in
beginning of war started between them→
 1st battle of Tarain (1191AD) = Ghori was defeated by successfully saved
his life from battle. Next year, in 1192AD, Ghori again reached Tarain with
full preparation.
 2nd battle of Tarain (1192AD) = Ghori won. It was deciding victory, because
this result in foundation of Turk’s rule in north India. Prithvi Raj Chauhan
was imprisoned, and killed few days later, but his son Govind Raj was forced
to leave Turk’s territory.
 2nd phase: Muhammad Ghori invasion → Turkish victory over India and establishment of
Turk’s rule in India. After victory in 2nd battle of Tarain (1192AD), Ghori stated expansion of his
empire towards east from Delhi, and reached Kannauj. This results a war between Jai Chand
(of Kannauj) and Ghori→
 Battle of Chandavar (1194AD) = Jai Chand was defeated and killed by Ghori. As a
result of this victory, Turk’s got victory over entire north India.
Gori’s beloved slave Qutbuddin Aibak played important role in victory of Ghori over entire
India. Ghori appointed him viceroy of north India region, and returned to homeland (Ghazni).
In 1206AD, Karmathi Muslims attacked the camp of Ghori (while returning) and killed him.
Before his death, Ghori had appointed Tajuddin Yaldauj Ghor as successor of Ghori & ruled in
Ghazni, while Nasiruddin Kuchba ruled in Sindh & Multan, Qutbuddin Aibak took over Lahore.
In this way Turk’s rule started in India.

# The Delhi Sultanate: From 1206-1526AD, the Muslim rulers who ruled over north India, holder title
‘Sultan’ made Delhi as capital. Their ruled territory was called Sultanate, that is why, in history, it is called Delhi-
Sultanate. For a short time, capital was outside Delhi→

 In 1325AD, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq made ‘Devgiri’ (Maharashtra) its capital, and changed its name
to ‘Daultabad’. But his plan to change capital failed, and Delhi became capital again. Similarly,
Sikandar Lodhi established a new city ‘Agra’ in 1504AD and made it capital in 1506AD. After this, Agra
 remained the capital for a long time. In this way, except Agra & Daultabad, Delhi remained capital for
around 300 years. Due to this, it is known as Delhi-Sultanate.

Dynasties of Delhi-Sultanate:

1) The Slave dynasty: From 1206-1290AD. In this dynasty, all three important rulers Qutbuddin Aibak,
Iltutmish and Ghiyasuddin Balban were slaves of someone or other. So, the dynasty established by
them was called Slave dynasty. Qutbuddin Aibak was Slave of Muhammad Ghori. Iltutmish was Slave
of Qutbuddin Aibak. Balban was Slave of Iltutmish. Slaves also had tradition of keeping Slaves. There
were total 11 Sultans in this dynasty, in which there was no other Slave, except the above three. These
3 Slaves belonged from different dynasties-
i. Qutbuddin Aibak belonged from Qutubi dynasty.
ii. Iltutmish belonged from Shamshi dynasty.
iii. Balban belonged from Balbani dynasty.
Historian ‘Ajeez Ahmad’ has called these rulers as ‘Earliest Turk’s ruler of Delhi’. Historian
‘Habibullah’ called these ruler as ‘Mamluk Sultan’. Mamluk means ‘Slaves born from free parents.
Earliest Turk rulers of Delhi (Mamluk Sultan) →
a. Qutbuddin Aibak (1206-1210AD): Popularly known as ‘Quran Khwan’. He had raised to high
rank in Muhammad Ghori’s army. He ascended the throne with title of ‘Malik’ and ‘Sipah
Salar’ to pay attribute to his commander Ghori. He made Lahore his capital. Donated to lakhs
of people, so titled with ‘Lakh Baksh’. The successor of Ghori recognized him as ‘Sultan’.
Aibak also called 1st Turk ruler of Delhi, and founder of Delhi Sultanate.
b. Aram Shah (1210-1211AD): Son and successor of Qutbuddin Aibak. Ruled for few months
only. He was dethroned by Iltutmish.
c. Iltutmish (1211-1236AD): He defeated Yaldauj in 3rd battle of Tarain in 1215AD for the throne
of Ghazni. Believed as real founder of Delhi Sultanate. Started ‘Iqta system’ of land revenue
and military administration. He formed ‘Turkan-i-Chihalgani’, a council of 40 Turkic Slaves.
Launched Tinka (silver coins) and Jital (copper coins). Protected Turkish empire from
Mongols. During his victory march over Gwalior, he made his daughter ‘Razia’ administrator
of Delhi, and by pleased with this, he minted her name on Tanka.
d. Rukunuddin Firoz (1236AD): Ruled for few months only. His mother’s name was Shah Turkan,
she had actual power. This was opposed by Razia, and Razia got support from Delhi public.
e. Razia (1236-1240AD): She was only lady ruler of Delhi Sultanate. Dressup like men, and wear
‘kuba’ and ‘Kulah’. She appointed non-Turks as officers, like- Jalaluddin Yakut (African
Muslim) appointed as ‘Amir-i-Akhur’ (घुरसाल मास्टर). A revolt against Razia initiated by noble
Turks, under leadership of Aitgheen. Aitgheen enthroned Bahram Shah (Razia’s brother) as
new Sultan. Razia and her husband opened march to throne, but was killed in Kaithal
(Haryana).
f. Muizuddin Bahram Shah (1240-1242AD): He created a new post of ‘Nayab’ means Deputy. He
was a ruler of name only; real power was vested in the hand of Nayab.
g. Allaudin Masood Shah (1242-1246AD): He was a ruler of name only; real power was vested in
the hand of Nayab.
h. Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246-1265AD): He was a ruler of name only; real power was vested in
the hand of Nayab.
i. Ghiyasuddin Balban (1265-1287AD): Became ‘Nayab’ in the period of Nasiruddin Mahmud.
He worked as ‘Wazir’ for 20 years and ruled as ‘Sultan’ for next 20 years. He was titled with
‘Ulug Khan’ by Nasiruddin, and titled as ‘Ghiyasuddin’ at the time of his coronation. He also
titled himself ‘Jille-Ilahi’ means representative of God. Holded title of ‘Niyabat-i-Khudai’. He
was ‘Ilbari Turk’ from caste. He associated himself with ‘Afrashiyab dynasty’ mentioned in
book ‘Shahnama’ written by Firdausi. He regained the prestigious position of Sultan (lost by
previous rulers). He followed non-Muslim customs in his court like ‘Sijda’, ‘Pabos’, ‘Navroj
festival’. His policy was called ‘Blood & Iron policy’. He formed a royal military department
called ‘Diwan-i-Arj’ to face Mongol invasion. He abolished ‘Turkan-i-Chihalgani’, a council of
 40 Turkic Slaves. His elder son ‘Shazada Mohammad’ killed by Mongol invaders. He
supressed revolt of Bengal and cruel punishment to Tughril Khan; and appointed his son
Bugra Khan as governor of Bengal. Balban abolished the post of Nayab. In his last time, he
appointed Kaiqubad as his successor, and Balban died in 1287AD.
j. Kaiqubad (1287-1290AD): Became ruler at the age of 17-18 years. He was pleasure loving
ruler. His power was being controlled by Nizamuddin. His son Shamsuddin Quemars was
made ruler after paralysis attack of Kaiqubad.
k. Shamsuddin Quemars (1290AD- March-June): Kaiqubad & Quemars were killed by Jalaluddin
Firoz Khilji, and this ends the Slave dynasty.
2) Khilji dynasty: From 1290-1320AD. Ruled for 30years. They were originally residents of Khalj village in
Afghanistan, but by clan they were also Turks, not Afghans. The establishment of Khilji’s rule were
called ‘Khilji revolution’, and Turk’s monopoly in administration were ended. Khilji’s started a tradition
to appoint Indians as higher authorities in Sultanate administration. Selection process was based on
talent, rather than nobility. Four prominent rulers in this dynasty were→
i. Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji: From 1290-1296AD. Founder Khilji dynasty. He was given title of
‘Shaishta Khan’ by Sultan Kaiqubad. It’s ancestors (पूर्वज) visited India from Afghanistan in the
reign of Iltutmish. He was deployed in army during Balban. Political rise during Kaiqubad.
Kaiqubad appointed him as ‘Ariz-i-Mumalik’ and gave him title Shaishta Khan. Coronation of
Jalaluddin on 13th June 1290 in the palace of Kilokhari or Kulagarhi, built by Sultan Kaiqubad.
He married his daughter with Allaudin, and made him governor of Kara-Manikpur.
 Sidi maula incident = A saint came to India from Iran. He was follower of Sufi saint
Sheikh Farid Uddin Gaze Shankar. He settled in Delhi at the time of Balban. He
used to run a Langar, and feed thousands of hungry people every day. He became
a political topic for noble Turk’s. Allegations against Sidi maula being levelled that
he wants to topple Sultan throne with Hindu’s help. He was arrested and killed to
death by elephant’s feet.
 Mongol’s invasion = Mongols attacked India during Jalaluddin reign. 1st campaign
in the leadership of Abdullah Khan, and 2nd campaign in leadership of Ulug Khan;
but were defeated and prisoned. Later, there was treaty between Mongol’s and
Khilji, and they adopted Islam, then called ‘New Muslims’. Jalaluddin Gave place
for settlement for Mongol’s and the place was called ‘Mongol Puri’.
First Muslim invasion of South India took place at the time of Jalaluddin-
 On Ram Chandra dev (ruler of Devgiri) in 1296AD, in the leadership of Allaudin Khilji.
He was the 1st (among Turk’s) which won south India, got huge money from Devgiri.
ii. Allaudin Khilji: From 1296-1316AD. Original name was ‘Ali Gurshashp’. Another name was
‘Altmash Begh’. His titles were ‘Sikandar-i-Sani‘ (2nd Sikandar), ‘Amir-Mumanin‘ (Nayab
caliph). Amir Khushro says him ‘Sultan of World’ in his book ‘Khajain-ul-Futuh’. He was son of
younger brother of Jalaluddin Khilji. He annexed throne of Delhi by killing his uncle Jalaluddin
in 1296AD. There were 4 major revolts during Allaudin reign-
 Revolt of new Muslims
 Revolt of Akat Khan
 Revolt of Mangu Khan
 Revolt of Haji maula
Allaudin passed 4 ordinances to control over these revolts-
 Ceased properties of rich Turk’s.
 Formed department of spy & intelligence.
 Liquor ban in Delhi.
 Prohibition of social relationships of Turk’s nobles, and ban on matrimonial relations.
Allaudin Khilji’s north India’s victory march = Policy of expansion. He captured the conquered
states. Also annexed the Delhi Sultanate. 2 commanders of Allaudin, who played important
role in victory over north India were- Ulug Khan and Nusrat Khan.
Order of invasions & expansion of Allaudin on north India→
  Gujrat in 1297-98AD = That time ruler was Raikarna-IInd (Baghel Rajput). From Gulf
of Khambhat (coastal area), Allaudin got a transgender named Malik Kafur. Gujrat
was merged with Delhi Sultanate.
 Ranthambore in 1301AD = Yaddapi Aibak and Iltutmish won it, but later Rajput’s
established independent power here, and ruler was Hamir Dev from Chauhan
dynasty.
 Chittoor in 1303AD = Capital of Chittoor was Mewar. Ruler was Rana Ratan Singh
from Guhilaut dynasty (Rajput). In 1540AD, a book written ‘Padmavat’ by Malik
Muhammad Jaisi. Allaudin won Chittoor and made his son Khizr Khan governor.
 Malwa in 1305AD = Ruler was Mahlik dev. His commander was Harnand. In 1305AD,
Allaudin sent his subedar ‘Ain-Ul-Mulk’ (of Multan) on the Malwa victory campaign,
and assigned as governor of Malwa.
 Sewan in 1308AD = An Rajputana state. Ruler was Shital dev. In 1308AD, victory over
Sewan by Allaudin.
 Jalaur in 1311AD = Its ruler was Kanha dev (Krishna dev IIIrd) from Chauhan dynasty.
This was last victory state of Allaudin in North India.
Allaudin’s victory over south India→
 Allaudin Khilji was 1st Muslim ruler & 1st Sultan of Delhi Sultanate, to conquer south
India.
 In 1296AD, Allaudin’s firstly invaded south India in the reign of Jalaluddin, on Devgiri.
 His main objective to invade south India was to get money, not for territorial
expansion. After winning southern states, states were returned after taking huge
money from them.
 Allaudin gave leadership to Malik Kafur, for south India invasion campaign. So, the
credit for victory in south India goes to Malik Kafur.
There were 4 main states during the reign of Allaudin→
 Yadav’s of Devgiri (modern Daultabad) = Including Maharashtra in south-west of
Vindhyachal, there was kingdom of Yadav’s. It was quite prosperous and its ruler was
Ramchandra Dev. In 1307-08AD, Malik Kafur defeated Ramchandra Dev.
o Again, Malik Kafur re-conquered Devgiri in 1312AD, during Shankar Dev
(son of Ramchandra Dev) reign. This was Malik Kafur’s last campaign.
 Telangana state in south-east = A Rajput kingdom of Kakatiya dynasty. Its ruler was
Pratap Chandra Dev, and capital was Warangal. In 1309-10AD, Malik Kafur defeated
him. Malik Kafur gifted huge money (including Kohinoor diamond) to Allaudin. It
was most shining diamond of that time, came out of Golkonda mine.
 Hoysal state in the south of Devgiri & in the south-west of Telangana = Its capital
was Dwarsamudra, and ruler was Veer Ballal III. Malik Kafur defeated him in 1311AD.
 Pandya state in deep south = Muslim historians have called it Maber state. Its ruler
was Kul Shekhar. He had 2 sons- Sunder Pandya and Veer Pandya. Sunder Pandya
killed his father and captured the throne, resulting both brothers fought for power.
In 1311AD, Malik Kafur defeated Pandya’s.
iii. Kutubuddin Mubarak Shah Khilji: From 1316-1320AD.
iv. Nasiruddin Khushrav Shah: In 1320AD.
3) Tughlaq dynasty: From 1320-1414AD. Total 8 rulers, and 94 years of rule. Founder was Ghazi Malik
(Ghiyasuddin Bin Tughlaq). Longest ruling period among dynasties of Delhi Sultanate. 3 prominent &
important rulers were→
i. Ghiyasuddin Bin Tughlaq: From 1320-1325AD. He was the founder of Tughlaq dynasty.
Ghiyasuddin rose to an important position (political rise) in the reign of Allaudin Khilji.
Expansion of Delhi Sultanate. First time the southern states were conquered & brought under
direct control of Delhi Sultanate. 1st state brought under direct control was Warangal. He had
liberal policy called ‘Rashmemiyan’. Canal’s development and improves mailing system. He
had disputes with Nizamuddin Aulia (chisti saint).
  After Allaudin, dispute of successorship started in Delhi due to malik Kafur.
Southern states (won by Allaudin) stop paying taxes & tributes, and were
proclaiming independent status. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (being a prince), led an
early expedition against Rai Rudra Dev, who was defeated after prolonged conflict,
resulting Warangal annexed and came under direct control of Delhi Sultanate.
Ma’bar was also defeated. Now whole region of Telangana was divided into
administrative units and made part of Delhi Sultanate.
 Bhanudev II, the ruler of Jajnagar (Orissa) helped Rai Rudra Dev of Warangal in his
battle against Delhi Sultanate. Bhanudev II was defeated by Ulug Khan in 1324AD,
and his territory was annexed. In Bengal there was a discontent (असंतोष) of nobles
against their Sultan, which invited the Tughlaq prince to invade their ruler. The
army of Bengal was defeated, and noble Nasiruddin was installed on the throne.
ii. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq: From 1325-1351AD. Son of Ghiyasuddin Bin Tughlaq. During reign
of Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, victory over Warangal, Jajnagar and Bengal.
Plans of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq which failed-
 To convert capital from Delhi to Devgiri.
 Token currency (copper coins due to scarcity of silver).
 Raised taxes in Doab’s.
 Qarachil victory
 Khurasan victory
iii. Firoz shah Tughlaq: From 1351-1388AD. Maximum canals made in his reign. Several
departments like- Diwan-i-Bandgan (Slave department), Diwan-i-Ishthak (pension
department), Diwan-i-khairat (donation department), Rojgar-daftar (employment
department), Darul-safa (free hospital). He imposed ‘Jazia tax’ on Brahmans. He wrote
autobiography named ‘Futuhat-i-Firozshahi’. Gave irrigation facility, and imposed irrigation
tax (Shursh). Developed public work department.
iv. Nasiruddin Mahmud: Last ruler of Tughlaq dynasty. In his reign, in 1398AD, Taimoor’s
invasion on India. From here, disintegration of Delhi Sultanate started. Disintegration of Delhi
Sultanate already begun during Muhammad Bin Tughlaq reign. In 1398AD, invasion of
Taimoor’s on India fastened the process of disintegration.
 Taimoor = He was a great Turk ruler of central Asia. His empire was Samarkand
(Uzbekistan). He invaded India for loot of wealth, not for political rule. Khizr Khan
(India Muslim) assisted Taimoor in invading India. In 1399AD, Taimoor returned to
his native land from India. Before returning, he appointed Khizr Khan as governor
of Lahore, Multan and Depalpur. As soon as, Taimoor went back, dispute started
for Delhi’s throne. Nasiruddin Tughlaq had succeeded to retain his power in Delhi,
with Mallu Iqbal (Wazir of Nasiruddin) help. Khizr khan defeated & killed Mallu
Iqbal. Nasiruddin appointed Daulat khan as administrator after murder of Mallu
Iqbal. Tughlaq dynasty ended after murder of Nasiruddin Mahmud in 1412AD.
After this, the Turk sardar’s declared Daulat khan Lodhi as Sultan.
4) Saiyyad dynasty: From 1414-1451AD. Ruled for almost 37 years. Founder was Khizr khan. He sat on
throne with the name of ‘Raiyat-e-ala’ instead of Sultan. During the reign of Saiyyad dynasty, the
territorial extension of Delhi Sultanate was shrunk (सिकु ड़ गया) around Delhi up-to 200miles
(disintegration of Delhi Sultanate). After death of Khizr khan, Delhi’s throne was taken over by
Mubarak shah (1421-34AD) then Muhammad shah (1434-45AD). In 1445AD, Allaudin Alam shah
became ruler but totally failed. Alam shah’s wazir Hamid khan invited Bahlul khan Lodhi to take
charge of army, but realizing difficulty to continue as Sultan, Alam shah left for Badaun. There was
total 4 rulers in Saiyyad dynasty-
 Khizr khan = Ruled from 1414-21AD.
 Mubarak shah = Ruled from 1421-34AD.
 Muhammad shah = Ruled from 1434-45AD.
  Allaudin Alam shah = Ruled from 1445-51AD. He was the last ruler of Saiyyad
dynasty.
Allaudin Alam shah, last ruler of Saiyyad dynasty, vacated his throne for Bahlul, and Bahlul Lodhi
ascended the throne of Delhi. In this way Saiyyad dynasty ended and Bahlul Lodhi founded 1st Afghan
dynasty in 1451AD.
5) Lodhi dynasty: from 1451-1526AD. Ruled for 75 years. The last dynasty of Delhi Sultanate. 1st Afghan
dynasty. Three prominent rulers were→
i. Bahlul Khan Lodhi = From 1451-89AD. He was the founder of Lodhi dynasty. His great
achievements were the victory over Sharki rulers of Jaunpur.
ii. Sikandar Lodhi = From 1489-1517AD. Founder of Agra city in 1504AD. He made Agra as
capital of Delhi Sultanate in 1506AD. He developed a scale for land measurement called ‘Gaj-
i-Sikandari-scale’. He used to write poem in Persian language named ‘Gulrukhi’.
iii. Ibrahim Lodhi = From 1517-26AD. Last ruler of Lodhi dynasty. 2 important battles were
fought during his reign-
 Battle of Ghatoli- Fought in 1517-18AD between Ibrahim Lodhi vs Rana Sanga (of
Mewar).
 1st battle of Panipat- Fought in 1526AD between Ibrahim Lodhi vs Babur. This
battle results in victory of Babur, and from here establishment of Mughal
rule/empire begun.

NOTE: The Slave dynasty, Khilji dynasty and Tughlaq dynasty were called Turk’s clan. Saiyyad dynasty and Lodhi
dynasty were called Indian Muslims. Lodhi dynasty was called 1st Afghan dynasty. Two dynasties in Delhi
Sultanate who ruled for least period- Khilji dynasty (30 years), Saiyyad dynasty (37 years).

# Mughal dynasty: From 1526-1707AD. Or we can say from Babur to Aurangzeb. Mughal is Greek word
means ‘Mong’ whose literal meaning is brave. Founder of Mughal dynasty was Zahiruddin Mohammad Babur.

 The Great Mughals: From 1526-1707AD.

 The Later Mughals: From 1707-1858AD.

Babur was mixed blood- Turk (Chagtai Turk) from father side and Mongol from mother side. Babur was
belonged to both Turk & Mongol blood. Babur was born on 14th February 1483AD at Andijan, Ferghana (Trans
Axiana) presently in Uzbekistan. Babur’s father name was Umar Shiekh Mirza (Turk). Babur was 5th generation
of Timurid family from his father side. Babur’s mother name was Kutlug Nigar Khan. Babur was 14th generation
of Genghis Khan (Mongol warrior) from his mother side. Genghis Khan died in 1227AD.

After Taimoor’s death, his central Asian kingdom was destroyed & disintegrated. Ahmad Mirza (uncle of Babur)
established his rule over central part i.e., Samarkand, and Umar Shiekh Mirza (Babur’s father) ascended the
throne of Ferghana (a small state). In 1494AD, after his father death, Babur ascended the throne of Ferghana at
the age of 11 years only. Babur was an ambitious person, willing to establish his own rule over Samarkand. But
Babur faced three main challenges/threat→

 Ahmad Mirza = Babur’s uncle was ruler of Samarkand that time.

 Mahmud Khan = Babur’s mama.
 Shaibani Khan = Uzbek commander.

As per NCERT, Babur proud himself of being heirs of Taimoor, so captured Delhi in 1398AD.
 Sultan muhammad
Taimoor Miran Shah Abu Sed
Mirza

Sources to know about Mughal history-

 Literary source:
o Tujuk-i-Baburi = Its an autobiography of Babur. Written in Turkish language. It is also called
Babur-Nama, translated in Persian language by Abdurrahim Khan-e-Khana.
o Tarikh-i-Rashidi = Written by Mohammad Haider in Persian language. It accounts incidents
related to Babur and Humayun.
o Humayun-Nama = Written by Gul badan Begum (daughter of Babur or sister of Humayun).
On the request of Akbar, she wrote this book. It accounts incidents during Humayun reign.
o Tajkirat-Ul-Vakiyat = Written by Jauhar Aftab Chi, in Persian language. It accounts incidents
during Humayun reign.
o Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi = Written by Abbas Khan Sherwani in Persian language. It accounts
victory of Sher Shah Suri.
o Akbar-Nama (Ain-i-Akbari) = Written Abul Fazal in Persian language. It is divided into three
parts, whose 3rd part is called Ain-i-Akbari. Most important source of Mughal history. Its 1st
part accounts from Taimoor to Humayun. Its 2nd & 3rd part accounts about Akbar.
o Tabkat-i-Akbari = Written by Nizamuddin Ahmad. It accounts incidents during Akbar reign.
o Tarikh-i-Badayuni = Written by Abul Qadir Badayuni (opponent of Akbar), and was Imam
(religious teacher) in court of Akbar. He had translated many books into Persian language.
This book accounts from Subuktgheen to Akbar.
o Tujuk-i-Jahangiri = An autobiography of Jahangir. Accounts up-to 17th year of his reign, but
later incidents written by Mutmid Khan up-to 19th year, because of Jahangir death (1627AD).

The prominent & important rulers in Mughal empire were→

1) Babur: Ruling period from 1526-30AD. Babur was 1st Mughal ruler to hold title of ‘Pad Shah’ or
“Badshah’. ‘Mirza’ was paternal title of Babur, but after conquering Kabul in 1504AD, he adopted ‘Pad
Shah’ title unlike other Taimoor rulers. Babur had 4 sons- Humayun, Kamran Mirza, Askari Mirza, Hind-
al Mirza. He also hold title of ‘Kalandar‘ given by residents of Kabul due to his kindness, as he donated
silver coins to residents of Kabul after conquering battle of Panipat. He launched silver coins named
‘Shahrukh’ in Kabul, while coins in Kandhar named ‘Babari’. ‘Diwan’ was collection of poems in Turkish
language composed by Babur. In 1494AD, after his father death, Babur ascended the throne of
Ferghana at the age of 11 years only. To take advantage of Babur’s minor age, Ahmad Mirza (Babur’s
uncle) and Mahmud Khan (Babur’s mama) made alliance & attacked Ferghana 2 times, but Babur was
succeeded to save his empire both the times. In 1496AD, Babur’s 1st campaign to capture Samarkand
(Babur’s uncle ruler that time), but failed to do. Again, in 1497AD, his 2nd campaign to attack
Samarkand made him victory. During Babur’s victory march to Samarkand, in absence of Babur in
Ferghana, his opponents take advantage and put Babur’s step brother (Jahangir Mirza) on the throne
of Ferghana to replace Babur as king. Babur, to save Ferghana, marched from Samarkand to Ferghana,
but before his leaving, Shaibani khan attacked Samarkand which results battle of Sar-i-Pul fought
between Shaibani Khan vs Babur in 1502AD. Shaibani Khan was victorious in this war. Babur lost both
Samarkand and Ferghana from his hand in lust of both. After that, Babur moved towards India to try
his luck. He conquered Kabul in 1504AD. That time, Ibrahim Lodhi (Lodhi dynasty) was ruler. Daulat
Khan Lodhi (governor of Punjab) and Alam Khan Lodhi (Sultan’s uncle) were opponent of Ibrahim
Lodhi. They both invited Babur to attack India. Before 1st battle of Panipat, Babur already attacked
India 4 times. His first attack was on Bajaur (Punjab), in which Babur firstly used gunpowder &
 cannons in India to destroy ‘Fort of Bhera’. Babur, in his autobiography, mentioned 7 states of
contemporary India out of which 5 were Muslims states (Delhi, Malwa, Gujrat, Bengal, Bahmani
kingdom) and 2 were Hindu states (Mewar-Rana Sangram Sing, Vijayanagar- Krishna Dev Rai).
According to Babur-Nama, Krishna Dev Rai (Vijayanagar empire) was most powerful ruler of
contemporary India.
Victory of Babur and establishment of Mughal rule over India→
 1st battle of Panipat = Fought between Ibrahim Lodhi vs Babur in 21st April 1526AD. It
resulted victory of Mughal over Delhi and Agra.
 Battle of Khanwa = Fought between Rana Sangram Singh (Rana Sanga) vs Babur in 16th
March 1527AD. It resulted Mughal’s victory over Rajputana. Babur first time gave slogan of
‘Jihad’, and hold title of ‘Ghazi’, and beheaded thousands of Rajput’s.
 Battle of Chanderi = Fought between Medini Rai vs Babur in 29th January 1528AD. It resulted
Mughal’s victory over Malwa.
 Battle of Ghaghra = Fought between Afghan & Sultan of Bengal Nusrat Shah vs Babur in 5th
May 1529AD. It resulted Mughal’s victory over Bihar & Bengal. Ghaghra is a tributary of
Ganga.
After conquering all these four battles, Babur was succeeded to capture northern India, and founded
Mughal empire. Babur died in Agra in 1530AD, but buried in Arambagh (Kabul-Afghanistan), as per
his wish.
2) Humayun: His original name was ‘Nasiruddin Mohammad’, birth on 6th March 1508 at Kabul. His
mother’s name was ‘Maham Begum’. Coronation on 30th Dec 1530 (after 4 days of Babur death). He
partitioned Mughal empire according to his father (Babur) wish, which becomes main reason for
Humayun’s failure. Humayun was only Mughal ruler who partitioned his empire. Partition of Mughal
empire by Humayun →
 Power of India (including Delhi & Agra) = Humayun.
 Kabul and Kandahar = Kamran Mirza.
 Alwar = Hind-al Mirza.
 Sambhal = Askari Mirza.
 Enemies of Humayun →
 Afghan = Farid, also known as Sher Khan or Sher Shah.
 Gujrat = Bahadur Shah.
i. st
1 ruling period from 1530-40AD:
i. In 1531AD = At kalinjar. It was first military campaign of Humayun. That time ruler of
kalinjar was Pratap Rudra. A treaty was made between Pratap Rudra and Humayun.
ii. In 1532AD = Battle of Dohariya, 1st war with Afghans during his reign. Opponent was
Mahmud Lodhi. Near Jaunpur on the bank of river Gomati at Dohariya. It results
Humayun was victorious.
iii. In 1535-36AD = War with Bahadur Shah of Gujrat. Bahadur Shah invaded Chittoor
for expansion of his empire. Humayun forced Bahadur Shah to retreat.
iv. In 1537-38 = It was Humayun’s war with Sher Shah Suri. In 1537-38AD, Sher Shah
captured Bihar & Bengal. Two important battles were fought-
1. Battle of Chausa = On 26th June 1539, near Buxar on the bank of river
Karmnasha. This war results victory of Sher khan, and hold title of ‘Sher
Shah’.
2. Battle of Kannauj or Bilgram = On 17th May 1540AD. This war results
victory of Sher Shah, and captured Delhi & Agra. In this way, Sher Shah
founded/established 2nd Afghan empire, which was called ‘Sur Empire’, and
leads to Humayun’s exile.
ii. Exile period from 1540-55AD: After defeat in Kannauj, he was in exile. For some time, Hind-al
gave him shelter. Humayun got married to Hamida Bano Begum (Hind-al’s religious teacher
Meer Ali’s daughter). Humayun was then forced to leave Hind-al shelter (due to Kamran
mirza) and went to Sindh (under Rana Veer Saal, Rajput). He gave birth a son ‘Akbar’. Again,
 Humayun was forced to leave Sindh, but he leaved his son Akbar under guidance of Askari
(Humayun’s brother). Humayun got help from Ruler of Iran, and met with Bairam Khan.
Humayun initiated campaign to return India under leadership of Bairam Khan. In 1545AD,
Humayun got victory over Kabul & Kandahar. Then battle of Sirhind and battle of Machhiwara
returned Humayun his power and Delhi throne in 1555AD.
iii. 2nd ruling period from 1555-56AD:
3) Akbar: Ruling period from 1556-1605AD. He took birth on 15th Oct 1542AD at place Umarkot (Sindh)
in Rana Veer Saal palace. He was son of Humayun. His full name was Jalaluddin Mohammad Akbar.
Coronation on 14th Feb 1556AD at Kalanaur (Gurdaspur, Punjab) by Mirza Abul Qasim under
supervision of Bairam Khan. He was titled ‘Shahan Shah’ means king of kings. His ruling period is
categorized as-
i. Regency (रक्षात्मक) of Bairam Khan = From 1556-60AD. Akbar ruled under the protection of
Bairam Khan.
ii. Petticoat Govt. = From 1560-62AD. Interference of his mother Hamida Bano Begum in ruling.
iii. Sovereign ruler = From 1562-1605AD. This period was called ‘Period of Mughal
strengthening’.
Akbar had 3 sons and 3 daughters-
i. Salim (Jahangir) = He was 1st Shehzada who rebelled against royal power.
ii. Daniyal = Daniyal and Murad used to highly consumption of liquor, which resulted in their
death. Daniyal died in 1599AD.
iii. Murad = Murad died in 1604AD.
iv. Khanam Sultan =
v. Shukrun Nisha =
vi. Aram Bano Begam =
Major policies of Akbar →
 End of slavery in 1562AD.
 Abolition of pilgrim’s tax in 1563AD.
 Abolition of Jazia tax in 1564AD.
 Establishment of Fatehpur Sikri in 1571AD.
 Construction of Ibadatkhana (worship/prayer house) in 1575AD.
 Ibadatkhana was opened for all religious sect in 1578 for all religion.
 Declaration of Mahjar- all religious rights taken in his own hand in 1579AD.
 Founded a new religious channel, named ‘Tauhid-i-Ilahi’ popularly called ‘Din-i-Ilahi’ in
1582AD. The only Hindu who adopted this religion was Birbal (Mahesh Das).
 Policy of Sulah-kul- It means policy of religious tolerance (treating all religion equally).
 Conciliatory (मेल मिलाप) policy towards Rajput’s, except Mewar.
4) Jahangir: Ruling period from 1605-27AD. Took birth on 30th August 1569AD. His original name was
Salim. Full name was ‘Nur-Uddin Mohammad Jahangir’. Father’s name was Akbar. His mother’s name
was ‘Jodha Bai’ urf Mariam Ujjamani given by Sheikh Salim Chishti. His coronation on 24th Oct
1605AD. His primary teacher was Abdur Rahim Khan-e-Khana (Son of Bairam Khan). Marriages of
Jahangir→
i. 1st marriage of Jahangir was with Maan Bai (daughter of Amber’s king Bhagwan Das or
sister of Man Singh) in 1585AD, and gave birth to Khusrau Mirza. Maan Bai was given title of
‘Shah Begam’ by Jahangir. Later, Khusrau Mirza rebelled against his father, which sadness
result in suicide of Maan Bai.
ii. 2nd marriage of Jahangir was with Jagat Gosai (daughter of Mawad’s king Uday Singh,
presently Jodhpur region), and gave birth to Khurram. She was given title of ‘Malika-i-Jahan’
by Jahangir.
iii. 3rd marriage of Jahangir was with Sahib-i-Jamal, and gave birth to son Parvez.
iv. 4th marriage of Jahangir was with Mehrun Nisha, she was widow of Ali Kuli Begh. She was
given title of ‘Noor Jahan’ by Jahangir. She also participated in administration with Jahangir.
Some facts about Jahangir→
 i. 12 ordinances of Jahangir called ‘Ain-i-Jahangiri’.
ii. Revolt of prince Khusrau Mirza in 1606, after that when he arrived Taran tara (Punjab), then
Guru Arjun Dev (5th Guru of Sikh) gave him shelter, resulted sedition charge of Guru Arjun Dev
by Jahangir and gave him death penalty.
iii. Campaign of Jahangir over Mewar during 1605-15AD, and in 1615AD, a treaty (friendship)
between Mewar’s king Amar Singh and Jahangir.
5) Shahjahan: Ruling period from 1627-58AD. Took birth on 5th Jan 1592AD, at Shahdara (Lahore).
Original name was ‘Khurram’. Full name ‘Shahabuddin Mohammad Shahjahan’. Mother name was
‘Jagat Gosai’ and father’s name was ‘Jahangir’. His title of Shahjahan was given by Jahangir at the time
of victory of Ahmednagar by him (Shahjahan). Marriages of Jahangir→
i. 1st marriage of Shahjahan with Arjumand Bano Begam (daughter of Asaf Khan). She was
titled ‘Mumtaz Mahal’. He, in her memory, made Taj Mahal.
His coronation was on 4th Feb 1628AD. His reign was called Golden age of Mughal architecture. Battle
of successorship started between sons of Shahjahan, as soon as he falls sick. From Arjumand Bano
Begam, Shahjahan had 14 children’s, out of which only 4 sons and 3 daughters remain alive. Those 4
sons were-
i. Dara Shikoh =
ii. Aurangzeb =
iii. Shah Shuja =
iv. Murad Bakhsh =
Those 3 daughters were-
i. Jahanara
ii. Roshanara
iii. Gohanara
Battle of successorship: The war fought between princes for Mughal throne. With establishment of
Turk’s rule in India, the dispute for successorship raised repeatedly. Because among the Muslim’s,
there were no clear provision for successorship. Shahjahan was aware, to war of successorship among
his sons. So, he partitioned his empire among his sons through a will. Claimers of throne were- 4 sons
& 3 daughters-
 Dara Shikoh = He was elder son of Shahjahan. Shahjahan’s elder daughter was also in support
of Dara Shikoh. Shahjahan also declared him as successor.
 Aurangzeb = Roshanara was in support of Aurangzeb.
 Shah Shuja =
 Murad Bakhsh = Gohanara was in favour of Murad.
The war of successorship broke out in September 1657AD, when Shahjahan fell sick. There were
following war fought →
 Battle of Bahadurpur = Fought on 14th Feb 1658AD, near Varanasi, between Dara Shikoh
(Royal army) v/s Shah Shuja. It resulted victory of Dara Shikoh, and Shah Shuja departed/fled
to Bengal.
 Battle of Dharmat = Fought on 15th April 1658Ad, near Ujjain, between Dara Shikoh (Royal
army, under leadership of Jodhpur King Jaswant Singh & Qasim Khan) v/s joint army of
Aurangzeb & Murad. It resulted victory or Aurangzeb.
 Battle of Samugarh = Fought on 29th May 1658AD, near Agra, between Dara Shikoh v/s
Aurangzeb. It resulted victory of Aurangzeb, then he entered Agra fort and captured
Shahjahan. It was 1st coronation of Aurangzeb.
 Battle of Khajua = Fought on 5th January 1659AD, near Allahabad (Prayagraj), between
Aurangzeb v/s Shah Shuja. It resulted victory of Aurangzeb. He followed Shah Shuja, and
Shah Shuja fled to forest of Arakan, where he died.
 Battle of Devrai = Fought on 13th March 1659AD, near Ajmer, between Aurangzeb v/s Dara
Shikoh. It resulted victory of Aurangzeb, and murder of Dara Shikoh. It was 2nd coronation of
Aurangzeb in Delhi.
 6) Aurangzeb: Ruling period from 1658-1707AD (50 years). Took birth on 24th Oct 1618AD, near Dohad
(Ujjain). His full name was Mohiuddin Mohammad Aurangzeb. His titles were- Bahadur Shah (by
Shahjahan), Abul Muzaffar Alamgir (Zinda Pir), Shahi Darvesh (Fakir). His mother’s name was
Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Bano Begam). Father’s name was Shahjahan. His coronation held 2 times-
1st in Agra fort (21st July 1658AD), and 2nd in Delhi (15th June 1659AD). Policies of Aurangzeb→
o Policies of religious extremism. Followed Muslim rules (Shariyat’s regulations) in his
governance. Followed policy of religious intolerance.
o Imposed Jazia tax again.
o Destroyed various temples.
These policies resulted revolt against Mughals (during Aurangzeb reign)-
 Jat revolt.
 Sikh revolt.
 Rajput revolt = Aurangzeb engaged in fight with Rajput’s for 22 years.
 Maratha revolt = Aurangzeb engaged in fight for 25 years in deccan, by Shivaji & his
successor (Shivaji → Sambhaji → Rajaram → Tara Bai).
This resulted in weakening of administration and economy due to prolong engagement in war. And
that is how, the Mughal empire came to an end.

# Provincial dynasties of northern India and Deccan:

Provincial dynasties of northern India→

1) Bengal = Maximum revolt during Sultanate period. In 1279AD, during reign of Balban, the revolt of
Tugril Khan. The revolt suppressed by Balban, and made his son Bugra Khan governorship of Bengal.
Later, Bugra khan, declared independent himself after death of Balban. Bengal was then annexed by
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, who defeated Bugra Khan. Bengal was then divided in 3 division during
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq reign- North Bengal (capital- Lakhnauti), Eastern Bengal (capital- Sonargaon),
South Bengal (capital- Satgaon). Bengal got independent in 1338AD during Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
reign. Shamsuddin Iliyas Shah became independent ruler of Bengal. Prominent rulers of independent
Bengal were- Sikander Shah, Barbak Shah, Allaudin Hussain Shah, Nusrat Shah. During their period,
some architecture development like Sona Mosque and Kadam Rasul Mosque were seen.
2) Kashmir = Suhadev founded Hindu Shahi dynasty in Kashmir in 1301AD. In 1339AD, Shah Mirza/Shah
Mir took over rule from Hindu’s, and established Muslim’s rule, and founded Shah dynasty. Prominent
Muslim ruler was Jainul Abidin. Jainul Abidin was called ‘Akbar of Kashmir’. He constructed an
artificial Zaina Lanka in Wular Lake.
3) Jaunpur = This city was founded by Firoz Shah Tughlaq, in the memory of his cousin ‘Mohammad Bin
Tughlaq (Jauna Khan)’, on the bank of river Gomati. At the time of Taimoor’s invasion in 1398AD, Malik
Sarvar founded his independent rule here. Later, Jaunpur was known as ‘Sarki dynasty’. The
prominent rulers were- Ibrahim Shah Sarki and Hussain Shah Sarki. Jaunpur became centre of Islamic
education, and thus called ‘Siraj of East’.
4) Malwa = Situated on a plateau, between Narmada & Tapi. It was conquered by Allaudin Khilji in
1305AD. Hussain Khan Ghori established independent rule here in 1401AD, and sat on the throne with
the name ‘Dilawar Khan’. Prominent ruler was Husang Shah (son of Dilawar Khan), made Madu his
capital. He established a city ‘Hoshangabad’ near bank of Narmada River on his name, now presently
it is ‘Narmada Puram’. Later, in Malwa, Mahmud Khilji (different Khilji) founded Khilji dynasty here.
5) Gujrat = Rule of Baghel dynasty, when Allaudin Khilji invaded it in 1298AD in the reign of Raikan.
Victory of Khilji resulted accession of Gujrat in Delhi Sultanate in 1298AD. Taimoor (Turk ruler) invaded
India in 1398AD at the time of Tughlaq governor Jafar Khan, bit in 1401AD Jafar Khan declared
independent rule and gained title of ‘Muzaffar Shah’. Prominent rulers of Gujrat were-
i. Ahmad Shah I- From 1411-41AD. Considered as real founder of Muslim rule in
Gujrat. He defeated Husang Shah of Malwa. He established ‘Ahmadabad city’ in
1413AD near bank of Sabarmati River. Asawal was an ancient/old town where
 Ahmadabad was established. He imposed Jazia tax on Non-Muslims (Hindu’s) of
Gujrat. He built ‘Jama Masjid’ in Ahmadabad.
ii. Mahmood Begda- From 1459-1511AD. Greatest ruler among Muslim rulers of
Gujrat. He established diplomatic relations with Muslim countries like Persia (Iran),
Turkey, Egypt, Syria etc. Also successfully control Portuguese.
iii. Bahadur Shah- From 1526-37AD. Contemporary of Humayun and strong enemy of
Humayun. Last great ruler of Gujrat. Bahadur Shah was killed by Portuguese and
drowned in Arab Sea. Gujrat was annexed in Mughal empire during reign of Akbar,
who defeated Muzaffar Shah III of Gujrat.
6) Mewar (Chittoor) = Guhlaut dynasty. Mewar was an ancient state, and its capital was Nagada. At the
time of invasion of Turk’s Sultans of Delhi, Mewar’s capital was Chittoor. Allaudin Khilji conquered
Chittoor in 1303AD by defeating Rana Ratan Singh, and Chittoor was renamed khijrabad. After decline
of Khilji dynasty, there was political instability in Delhi, by which Hamir Dev (Sisodia dynasty) took
advantage and captured Chittoor. Prominent Rajput rulers of Mewar (Chittoor) during 14th-15th-16th
century AD→
i. Rana Mokal- From 1421-33AD. Rise of Mewar was observed in terms of art &
culture.
ii. Rana Kumba- From 1433-68AD. Son of Rana Mokal. Mewar was at its mighty peak.
Victory over Khilji of Malwa. He was musician and veena player. Books written on
music by him are-
a. Sangeet raj
b. Sangeet Mimansha
c. Sangeet Ratnakar
Rana Kumba had dispute with his son Uday, and Uday murdered his father.
iii. Rana Sangram- From 1508-28AD. Also known as Rana Sanga. He defeated Muslim
rulers of Gujrat & Malwa. Also defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in battle of Ghatoli in 1517-
18AD. Rana Sanga was defeated by Babur in 1527AD in battle of Khandwa.
7) Marwar (Jodhpur) = Marwar was under rule of Rathore dynasty. They had good relation with
Rashrakuta of deccan or Gahadwal of Kannauj. Founder of present day’s Marwar was Chund
(1394AD), whose son (successor) was Jodha. Jodha established city of Jodhpur was founded by Jodha
in 1459AD. Last important ruler of Marwar was Maldev, contemporary of Sher Shah Suri.
8) Khandesh = Location was Tapti River valley region (MP). Independent Muslim kingdom was
founded/established by Malik Raza Farooqi in 1399AD, due to political instability In Delhi (Taimoor’s
invasion). Later, his dynasty was called ‘Farooqi dynasty’. Capital of Khandesh was Burhanpur. Their
powerful military centre was ‘Fort of Asirgarh’. Asirgarh fort was called ‘Dakkan ka Darwaza’ or gate of
Deccan. Most prominent ruler was Adil Khan II. Hindu state of Gondwana was conquered by Adil Khan
II. Rulers of Farooqi dynasty used title ‘Khan’. Khandesh was annexed in Mughal empire by Akbar in
1601AD.

Provincial dynasties of Deccan/southern India→

1) Bahmani kingdom = Located in Deccan. Revolt of ‘Amiran-i-Sadah’ of south against Sultan. In last years
of rule of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, Zafar Khan (Allaudin Hasan Bahaman Shah) holds title of
‘Bahman Shah’ in 1346AD and declared independent ruler, hence founded ‘Bahmani kingdom’. It was
1st independent Muslim kingdom of south India. He made ‘Gulbarga’ as his capital, then renamed it
‘Ahsanabad’. He divided Bahmani kingdom into 4 Taraf (administrative centre- states/provinces)
namely- Gulbarga (consist Bijapur), Daultabad, Bidar and Berar. Prominent rulers of Bahmani kingdom
were-
i. Muhammad Shah I- Use of gun powder first time in battle. He fought battle with
Vijayanagar and Warangal.
ii. Tajuddin Firoz Shah- Most scholar ruler among Bahmani rulers. Established
‘Firozabad’ near bank of Bhima River. Bahmani kingdom splits into two class-
 Dakkani and Afaki. Hindus were also included in administration in large numbers.
Dispute with saint Gesudaraj, which resulted great loss for his administration further.
iii. Shihabuddin Ahmad I- From 1422-46AD. He transferred capital from Gulbarga to
Bidar. He renamed Bedar as ‘Mohammadabad’. An Iranian saint Sheikh Azari visited
India in his reign. Shihabuddin’s reign was famous for his justice, so he was called as
‘Ahmad Shah Wali or Saint Ahmad’.
iv. Allaudin Ahmad II- from 1446-58AD. In his reign, there was rise of Khwaja Mahmud
Gawan (Iranian resident known as Afaki) who later became PM (appointed by
Humayun Shah) of Bahmani kingdom. War with Gajapati rulers of Odissa.
v. Humayun Shah- From 1458-63AD. He was elder son & successor of Allaudin Ahmad
II. He was very cruel Brahmani ruler and called ‘Zaalim’ or ‘Niro of Deccan’. He
appointed Khwaja Mahmud Gawan his prime minister. At the time of Humayun
Shah’s death, his son was only 7 years old, so a council was formed to run the
administration and practical powers came in hand of PM Khwaja Mahmud Gawan.
He divided kingdom into 8 Taraf (provinces), and he became governor of Bijapur
province.
vi. Muhammad Shah III- In his reign, Khwaja Mahmud Gawan was charged of sedition,
and was hanged to death in 1481-82AD. After Mahmud Gawan death, Bahmani
kingdom disintegrated & splitted into several independent Sultanates. The
independent states emerged after disintegration of Bahmani kingdom were-
a. Berar = Imad dynasty. Founder was Fatah Ullah Imad Shah. Capital
was Achalpur (Gawilgarh).
b. Bijapur = Founder was Usuf Adil Shah. Capital was Nauraspur.
c. Ahmadnagar = Nizam Shahi dynasty. Founder was malik Ahmad.
Capital was Junnar, Ahmadnagar, Khirki.
d. Golconda = Qutub Shahi dynasty. Founder Quli Qutab Shah.
Capital was Golconda.
e. Bidar = Barid Shahi dynasty. Founder was Amir Ali Bidar. Capital
was Bidar.
NOTE: Important facts→
 The ruler of Bijapur, Adil Shah married to Chand Bibi (daughter of Sultan
Hussain Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar). Chand Bibi ruled Bijapur later.
 Most famous Wazir of Ahmadnagar was Malik Amber.
 Shahjahan annexed Ahmadnagar in 1633AD, and merged in Mughal empire.
 Sultan Mohammad Quli of Golconda established Hyderabad city.
2) Vijayanagar Empire = Founder was Harihar and Bukka, the two sons among 5 sons of Sangam, in
1336AD.
 Harihar & Bukka = Ruling period from 1336-56AD. They were feudatory of Kakatiya
rulers of Warangal. They became ministers in Kampili state after decline of Warangal.
When Mohammad Bin Tughlaq attacked Kampili state, Harihar & Bukka were taken
prisoner, and converted to Islam forcibly. Later, both brothers were sent to south as
Tughlaq governor to calm down the rebellion in the south. By arriving south, both
brothers again converted to Hinduism with the help of their Guru Vidyaranya, and in
1336AD, they built a city ‘Vidyanagar’ on the bank of Tungabhadra River, which later was
called ‘Vijayanagar’. Prominent rulers of Vijayanagar empire were-
 Harihar-I: Ruling period from 1336-56AD. Two capitals were Anegonda and Vijayanagar.
In 1346AD, victory over Hoysala province and merged into Vijayanagar empire. He got
victory over Madura Sultanate in 1352-53AD.
 Bukka-I: Ruling period from 1356-77AD. Joint ruling & also successor of Harihar-I. Bukka
expanded Vijayanagar up-to Rameswaram. Complete victory over Madura empire.
Victory over Cher province (Kerala). In 1374AD, he sent a delegation to China. He
annexed Raichur doab (Krishna-Tungabhadra doab) by defeating Muhammad Shah-I
(Bahmani ruler). He re-established Vedic religion, and hold title of Veda Marg
 Pratishthapak’. Krishna river was considered as border Bahmani kingdom and
Vijayanagar empire.
 Harihar-II: Ruling period from 1377-1404AD. Victory over Mysore, Tiruchirappalli. Got
rights to collect revenue from Sri Lanka. War fought between him and Firoz Shah
(Bahmani ruler) in dispute of Raichur doab, but defeated by Firoz Shah. He was
worshiper of Lord Shiva, and lord Shiva was known that time as ‘Virupaksa’.
 Dev Rai-I: Ruling period from 1404-1422AD. Firoz Shah (Bahmani ruler) attacked &
defeated him, and forced to married her daughter with him and was forced to accept
some conditions to pay damage cost as settlement. Dev Rai-I built a dam over
Tungabhadra River.
 Dev Rai-II: Ruling period from 1422-46AD. His titles were- ‘Emadi Dev Rai’, ‘Praudh Dev
Rai’. He was considered as greatest ruler of Sangam dynasty. He was also titled as
‘’Gajbetkar’ because of elephant hunter. He also recruited Muslims in his army. A Persian
ambassador ‘Abdul Razak’ came to Vijayanagar.
 Mallikarjun: Ruling period from 1446-65AD. Attack of Gajapati rulers (Odissa) on
Vijayanagar. He was also titled ‘Praudh Dev Rai” as he followed footsteps of dev Rai-II.
 Virupaksa-II: He was last ruler of Sangam dynasty.
Dynasties of Vijayanagar empire-

Dynasty Founder Ruling period

Sangam dynasty Harihar & Bukka 1336-1485AD
Saluva dynasty Narsingh Saluv 1485-1505AD
Tuluva dynasty Veer Narsingh 1505-1570AD
Aravindu dynasty Tirumala 1570-1650AD

Saluv dynasty: Ruling period from 1485-1505AD. Prominent rulers were-

 Narsingh Saluv = He was called ‘First Balaaphar’.

 Emadi Narsingh = He made Narsa Nayak his guardian protector during Emadi’s underage. When he
grew up, Narsa Nayak was about to take power in his hand, dispute rises and son of Narsa Nayak,
‘Veer Narsingh’ snatched power from his father in 1505AD, and established his rule, and became
founder of Tuluv dynasty. So, Veer Narsingh was called ‘Second Balaaphar’.

Tuluva dynasty: Prominent rulers were-

 Krishna Dev Rai = Ruling period from 1509-29AD. He was the greatest ruler of not only Vijayanagar,
but also counted in greatest ruler of India. In 1520AD, after defeating Adil Shahi sultans of Bijapur, he
captured entire Raichur doab. He freed Mahmud Shah (Bahmani sultan) that was prisoner by rulers of
Bidar and Gulbarga by attacking over there, to establish his power in Bidar and Gulbarga. He holds title
of ‘Yavanraj Sthapnacharya’ after successful invasion of Gulbarga and Bidar. His reign was considered
‘Golden age for Telugu Literature’. He wrote a book ‘Amuktmalyad’ which gives ideas of politics and
administration, in Telugu language. 8 great scholars were in his court, called ‘Ashtadiggaj’. Two
Portuguese traveller ‘Domingos Paes’ and ‘Duarte Barbosa’ came to his court. He was follower of
Vaishnav religion and built Hazara temple and Vitthal swami temple.

# Decline of Vijayanagar Empire: The battle of Talikota (Rakshasi-Tangadi) fought on 23rd Jan 1565AD
was responsible for decline of Vijayanagar empire. That time, ruler of Vijayanagar empire was Sadashiv and his
minister was Ram Rai (virtual power holder). The Muslim sultans of Deccan, forgetting mutual enmity, and
formed a federation against Vijayanagar. Participating alliance were- Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Bidar. But
Berar did not participate. Vijayanagar was defeated.
 ← Modern History →
India in the 18th century AD→

 Downfall & disintegration of Mughal empire.

 Rise of autonomous or regional states.

Modern India→ Big changes seen in India in 19th century AD are-

 Rise of Nationalism.
 Socio-cultural renaissance.
 Expansion of modern education.

# Downfall & disintegration of Mughal empire: Due to policies of Aurangzeb→

o Policies of religious extremism = Allowed conversions. Again, imposed Jazia tax on
Hindus. Turned Hindus, Bundella’s, Jat’s, Sikhs, Marathas, and Rajput’s against him.
o Spent 25 years (out of 50years) in South resulted heavy expenditure, and conspiracy in
North against him due to his absence for long time.
o Destroyed various temples.
o No worthy rulers, rise of Maratha’s, Rise of Saiyyad brothers, Economic weakness due to
involvement for prolong war, Foreign invasions and Rise of Briish rule.

These policies resulted revolt against Mughals (during Aurangzeb reign)-

 Jat revolt = Jat’s firstly started revolt against Aurangzeb’s Anti-Hindu religious policy.
 Sikh revolt = Aurangzeb prosecuted & killed 9th Guru of Sikh (Guru Tegh Bahadur). That
is why, the Sikhs rebelled against Mughals under leadership of Guru Gobind Singh.
 Rajput revolt = Aurangzeb engaged in fight with Rajput’s for 22 years. After death of
Jaswant Singh (ruler of Marwar), his son Ajeet Singh succeeded him. Aurangzeb had
tried to capture Marwar, but faced great threat from Durga Das Rathore (commander in-
chief of Marwar army).
 Maratha revolt = Aurangzeb engaged in fight for 25 years in deccan, by Shivaji & his
successor (Shivaji → Sambhaji → Rajaram → Tara Bai).

This resulted in weakening of administration and economy due to prolong engagement in war. And that is how,
the Mughal empire came to an end.

In terms of territorial expansion, the Mughal empire reached its peak of glory, during reign of Aurangzeb. Its
expansion was from Kabul (north-west) to Chatgaon (east), and Kashmir (north) to Jinji (south) on bank of
river Cauvery. Total 21 province- 14 province in north India (Delhi, Agra, Bengal, Kashmir, Gujrat, Malwa etc); 6
provinces in south India/deccan (Aurangabad, Bijapur, Bidar, Barar, Golkunda etc).

Aurangzeb died in Ahmednagar on 3rd March 1707AD. He had 5 sons-

i. Muhammad Moazzam
ii. Muhammad Azam
iii. Muhammad Sultan = He died during surviving period of Aurangzeb.
iv. Shahzada Akbar = He also died during surviving period of Aurangzeb.
v. Muhammad Kambaksh

So, there were only 3 surviving sons, at the time of Aurangzeb’s death. Aurangzeb was aware regarding war of
successorship among his surviving sons. He prepared a will in which he revealed his desire. Muhammad
Moazzam got 12 provinces (including Delhi & Agra’s throne), so he was declared as successor of Aurangzeb.
Muhammad Azam got Gujrat & Malwa, while Muhammad Kambaksh got Bijapur.
The battle of successorship was fought among his three sons→

 Battle of Jajau = Fought on 18th June 1707AD, near Agra, between Muhammad Moazzam v/s
Muhammad Azam. It resulted victory of Muhmmad Moazzam, and ascended on throne with name
‘Bahadur Shah-I’. Muhammad Azam was defeated & killed with his sons in this battle.
 Battle of Bijapur = Fought on January 1709AD, between Muhammad Moazzam v/s Muhammad
Kambaksh. It resulted victory of Muhammad Moazzam, and Muhammad kambaksh was defeated &
killed with his sons.

Finally, Muhammad Moazzam was victorious in wars of successorship, with the help & support of powerful
nobles (feudal lords) Mughal court. He ascended the Mughal throne at the age of 63 years. This was a new era
of Mughal history started, which was called ‘Later Mughals’, after the death Aurangzeb.

# Later Mughals: From 1707-1858AD. This period refers after Aurangzeb. After the death of Aurangzeb, a
new phase called the period of downfall & disintegration of Mughal empire. The rulers after Aurangzeb were
weak & degenerated with poor administrative capabilities.

Prominent rulers in Later Mughal period were→

 Bahadur Shah-I: Ruling period from 1707-12AD. Original name was Muhammad Moazzam. Other
names- Shah Alam-I. He was titled ‘Shah-i-Bekhabar’ given by Khafi Khan (historian of Mughal court).
He emerged victorious in battle of successorship. Adopted friendly policy towards Hindu chief,
released Maratha chief (Sahu) from Mughal captivity. Maratha rights Sardeshmukhi were
acknowledged, but not accepted his demand of Chauth. Maintained friendly relation with Jat chief
Churaman and Bundela chief Chhatrashal. Acknowledged independent status of Rajput ruler Jai Singh
II of Amber (Jaipur) and Ajeet Singh of Marwar. Bahadur Shah-I succeeded to maintain healthy relation
with Sikh Guru Govind Singh (10th/last guru), but after Govind Singh death, again Sikh revolts broken
out in leadership of Banda bahadur. Banda Bahadur-I started a military campaign to supress Sikh
rebellions and captured Lohgarh fort in Bilaspur (built by Guru Govind Singh), but during this
campaign, Mughal emperor got injured and soon died in 1712AD.
 Jahandar Shah: Ruling period from 1712-13AD. He was Wazir of Zulfiqar Khan, and real
power/authority was in his hand. He abolished Jazia tax. He conferred the title of ‘Mirza Raja’ to Jai
Singh-II of Amber (Jaipur), and Malwa place under his governorship, Ajeet Singh of Marwar (Jodhpur)
granted the title of ‘Maharaja’ and made the governor. Jahandar Shah granted Sardeshmukhi and
Chauth rights to Maratha chiefs. Jahandar Shah was Hindi poet, who used to compose Hindi poems
with the pen ‘Mauj’. He was defeated by his nephew Farrukh Shiyar in a battle fought at Agra in
1713AD. He was under influence of ‘Lal Kumari’ and title given as ‘लम्पट मुर्ख ’.
 Farrukh Shiyar: 1713-19AD. He ascended the throne with the help of Saiyyad brothers. Saiyyad
brothers- Abdullah Khan (elder brother) and Hussain Ali Khan (younger brother). Abdullah Khan was
appointed as Wazir, while Hussain Ali Khan appointed as Mir Baksh (Senapati). Zulfiqar Khan was
assassinated. Banda Bahadur was defeated by Saiyyad brothers, then captured & killed in Delhi.
Abolished both pilgrim tax and Jazia tax, for friendly policy towards Hindu chiefs. He granted 3
Farman (royal order) to English East India company for duty free trade in Bengal, Bihar, Odisha etc,
called ‘Magna carta of company’. Difference (मतभेद) started increasing between Farrukh and Saiyyad
brothers. With the help of Muhammad Amin Khan and Chin Qilich Khan (Iranian group leader),
Farrukh tried to deposted Saiyyad brothers.
o Treaty of Delhi = In 1719AD, between Maratha (Chhatrapati Sahu’s peshwa Balaji
Vishwanath) and Mughals (Hussain Ali Khan).
Farrukh Shiyar was deposed & killed by Saiyyad brothers with the help of Maratha peshwa Balaji
Vishwanath in 1719AD. Saiyyad brother used 4 Shazada’s like puppets- Rafi-Ud-Darjat, Rafi-Ud-Daula,
Mohammad Shah (1719-48AD) and Ahmad Shah. That is why, Saiyyad brothers were called ‘King
makers.
 Rafi-Ud-Darjat: In 1719AD (28th Feb to 4th June).
 Rafi-Ud-Daula: In 1719AD (6th June to 17th Sept).
  Mohammad Shah: Ruling period from 1719-48AD. Highly pleasure-loving king, so called as ‘Rangila
Badshah’. Battle of Karnal in 13th Feb 1739AD (invasion of Iran king Nadir Shah on India). Mohammad
Shah was defeated by Nadir Shah, and looted Delhi. Nadir Shah was called ‘Napolean of Iran’. He also
looted Kohinoor Diamond. It also resulted end of Saiyyad brothers.
 Ahmad Shah: Ruling period from 1748-54AD. He was son & successor of Mohammad Shah. His
mother was ‘Udham Bai’, a dancer of Mughal court. She had great influence on Mughal administration
during Ahmad Shah reign. Title of Udham Bai was ‘Kibla-i-Alam’. Zabid Khan (leader of Mughal court)
was slave of Udham Bai. Mughal Wazir during Ahmad Shah reign was Safdarjung, who killed Zabid
Khan. Ghajiuddin Imadulmulk was appointed new Wazir. Imadulmulk made Ahmad Shah blind & put
him into prison, and placed Alamgir-II on throne, due to dispute between them. During Ahmad Shah’s
reign, Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durre Durrani- known as Pearls of the age) invaded India
many times and conquered Punjab & Multan.
 Alamgir-II: Ruling period from 1754-58AD. Original name ‘Azizuddin’. He was the ruler, at the time of
battle of Plassey, fought between Siraj Ud-Daulah (Nawab of Bengal) and English on 23rd June 1757AD.
Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded Delhi during his reign. Mughal emperor was murdered by his wazir
Imadulmulk in 1719AD. Imadulmulk enthroned a Mughal Shehzada ‘Muhi-ul-Millat’ with the name
Shahjahan-III.
 Shahjahan-III: Ruling period from 1758-59AD.
 Shah Alam-II: Ruling period from 1759-1806AD. Son of Alamgir-II. He was governor of Bihar when
Imadulmulk murdered his father Alamgir-II. Original name ‘Aligauhar’. 3 historical wars were fought
during Shah Alam-II’s reign-
o Battle of Vandivash = Fought on 22nd Jan 1760AD, between English v/s French. It resulted
victory of English.
o 3rd Battle of Panipat = Fought on 14th Jan 1761AD, between Maratha Peshwa (Balaji Bajirao-
son of Bajirao) v/s Afghan (Ahmad Shah Abdali). It resulted victory of Afghan.
o Battle of Buxar = Fought on 22nd Oct 1764AD, between Indian allies (Awadh nawab Shuja Ud-
Daulah; Mughal ruler Shah Alam II; ex-governor of Bengal Mir Qasim) v/s English (Major
Hector Munro). It resulted victory of English.
 After defeat in battle of Buxar→
 First treaty of Allahabad = On 12th August 1765AD. Shah Alam-II gave
Diwani right (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Odissa to English
company. Shah Alam-II started living in Allahabad as a pensioner of English
company.
In 1806AD, after death of ruler Shah Alam-II, English company enthroned his son Akbar-II on Mughal
throne. He was the 1st Mughal Badshah under protection of English.
 Akbar-II: Ruling period from 1806-37AD. He was the 1st Mughal Badshah under protection of English.
Pension was reduced.
 Bahadur Shah-II: Ruling period from 1837-1858. Also known as Bahadur Shah Zafar. He was the last
Mughal Badshah. He used to write poem in the name ‘Zafar’. He was sentenced to exile, after revolt
of 1857. He was sent to Rangoon, and there he died in 1862AD.

Cause for downfall of Mughal empire were-

 Aurangzeb’s religious policy = Imposed Zazia tax on Hindus, and allowed conversion. Hindus, Blundells,
Jat’s, Sikhs, Marathas, and Rajput’s rebelled against him causing trouble to Mughal power.
 Deccan Policy of Aurangzeb = He spent 25 years (out of 50) in war in south and didn’t look up in north.
Constant war involvement empties the treasure.
 Unworthy Rulers or no rulers for ascending the throne.
 Rise of Marathas = When Marathas gained power under Shivaji, Aurangzeb attempted to crush them.
But none of the rulers could control them or crush them.
 Rise of Saiyyad Brothers = They made the Mughal rulers as 'puppet' in their hands. Prestige of rulers
went down and weakened the foundation of the empire resulted conspiracies inside court.
  Foreign invasion = The invasions of Nadirshah and Ahmad Shah Abdali gave a death blow to the
Mughal empire.
 Rise of British = In the later 19th century, the British had gathered enough political power and they
could easily defeat the last of the Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah Zafar who was sent to Rangoon. He died
in Rangoon.

# Rise of regional or autonomous states:

Awadh: Ruler- Saadat Khan Burhanulmulk.

Hyderabad: Ruler- Chin Quilich khan (Nizam Ul-Mulk).

Bengal: Ruler- Murshid Quli Khan.

Rajputana states:

1) Amer: Ruler- Sawai Jai Singh-II. Presently Jaipur.

2) Marwar: Ruler- Ajeet Singh. Presently Jodhpur.

Maratha: Chhatrapati Sahu defeated her aunt Tara Bai, and established his power in Satara. Balaji Vishwanath
helped him in this victory, so was appointed as Peshwa in 1713AD. Founder of Maratha empire was
Chhatrapati Shivaji, while 2nd founder of Maratha empire was Balaji Vishwanath.

o Maratha empire under Peshwa’s:

o Balaji Vishwanath = from 1713-20AD.
o Bajirao = From 1720-40AD.
o Balaji Bajirao = From 1740-61AD.
From Madhav Narayan to Bajirao-II.

Sikh states: Divided into 12 small Misals (states).

o Sukerchakiya Misal = Chief was Maha Singh. His son was Ranjeet Singh. Ranjeet Singh defeated
Afghans and took possession over Lahore, and took away Amritsar from Bhangi Misal. Ranjeet Singh
made Amritsar as cultural capital and Lahore as political capital.

Mysore: Rulers- Hyder Ali and Tipu.

Rohilkhand: Ruler- Muhammad Khan Bangash.

Bharatpur: It was a Jat state. Ruler- Churaman, Badan Singh, Suraj Mal (great king of Jat’s).

# Arrival of European companies in India:

Contact from ancient times, after arrival of Greeks in India, like Alexander’s invasion, arrival of Megasthenes
(after defeat of Seleucus Nicator). Route was from Europe → Middle east → central Asia.

In 1453AD, when Turk’s took over on Kustuntunia, the land route connecting Europe to Asia was blocked. That
time during 15th-16th century AD, India was huge manufacturer & exporter of goods. So, business with India was
a profit trade, important items were- Garam Masala, Herbs & Medicine, Gems & stones, cotton cloth etc. That
time, those items were in demand in Europe. Arab’s had monopoly over sea route trade connecting Indian &
Europe. On the other hand, these goods used to reach Europe from the hands of Arab’s traders of Venice and
Geneva. They sell these goods in west Europe at very higher price.

Coming of the Europeans →

a) Portuguese in 1498 = Turks closed land route between Europe-India by occupying Constantinople in
1453. Vasco-de-Gama discovered India in 1498, and trade relation started between India-Portugal.
 Trade centre were Calicut, Goa, Daman, Diu and ports of Hooghly. In 1505, Francisco Almida came to
India as governor General (territories under Portuguese central) to develop Portuguese naval strength,
and conquered Goa in 1510 from Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah (Bijapur). Developed Military strength and
interfere in Indian politics.
b) English in 1600 = English East India company got 1st charter from Queen Elizabeth-I on 31st Dec 1600
to trade with India for 15 years. Started interfering in India politics. They started trade centre at Surat
in 1613. Sir Thomas Roe came to the court of jahangir
c) Dutch in 1602 = Corneils De Hastman (1st Dutch) to arrive India in 1596 via Cape of Good Hope, and
established Dutch East India company in 1602. Interest in Indonesia more than India. They conquered
Malaysia in 1641, increased control over Sri Lanka in 1652. Established spice trade monopoly by
through trade centres at Mausulipattanam, Pullycot, Surat, Vizgalipattanam, Bharoch, Cambay,
Ahmedabad, Kochin, Chinsura, Quasim Bazar, Patna, Balasaur, Agra, and Cochin etc. Their strength
crushed Portuguese. They only trade, never interfere in local politics.
d) Danish in 1616 =
e) French in 1664 =

# Age of Discoveries or geographical discoveries:

Started searching for new route to reach India. Prince of Portugal Henry discovered compass, which helped in
navigation. Bartholomew Dias was 1st Portugal traveller, who started journey towards India. He failed in it, but
in 1486AD, he discovered ‘Cape of good hope’ in Africa. Cristopher Columbus (Spain) also tried in 1492AD, and
discovered America, he called it ‘New World’. The 1st who travelled from Lisbon to India through sea route was
Vasco De-Gama in 1498AD in a duration of 90days. Abdul Manik (Gujrati guide) helped him to reach India. In
this way, Portugal’s were first from European continent who reached India.

# Sequence of arrival of Europeans in India:

Portuguese (1498AD) → Dutch (1605AD) → English (1608AD) → Danes (1620AD) → French (1664AD).

# Establishment of British Paramountcy in India:

1) Battle of Plassey on 23rd June 1757AD.

2) Battle of Buxar on 22nd Oct 1764AD.
3) Battle of Vandivash on 22nd Jan 1760AD.

# Revolt of 1857: Mughal emperor then was Bahadur Shah Zafar. Governor general then was Lord Canning.
British crown then was Queen Victoria. PM of Britain then was Lord Palmerston. Beginning of revolt from
Meerut (UP) on 10th May 1857AD. Commander in-chief of English was Georg Anison (at beginning), then Colin
Campbell.

o Cause/reason: On the victory from battle of Plassey on 23rd June 1757AD, the colonial exploitation of
British in India begun. In 1857AD, this colonial exploitation marked 100 years, and Indian were fade of
brutal dissatisfaction against exploitation & oppressive system of British base on exploitation of
Indians & Indian resources at maximum level. Rebellions decided to pulled out this system from India
and started revolt. Cause of this revolt (collective reasons) were-
o Political and administrative reasons →
 It is because the policies adopted by British government to establish their
paramountcy in India→
 Subsidiary Alliance- adopted by Lord Wellesley. Sates who accepted
Subsidiary alliance were-
o Hyderabad (1st state to be signed).
o Mysore
o Tanjaur
o Awadh
o Peshwa
o Baghat
o Satara
o Jaitapur.
 Doctrine of Lapse- adopted by Lord Dalhousie, which says “if the king did
not have any natural born heir, then the kingdom would lapse to the British
or would be administered and occupied by the British”. Sates who accepted
Doctrine of Lapse were-
o Satara
o Jaitapur
o Sambhalpur
o Baghat
o Udaipur
o Jhansi
o Nagpur
 Political setup adopted by British →
 All tops positions (Bureaucracy, Army, Judicial office) were reserved for
Europeans only.
 All doors closed of Indians.
 Discrimination against skin colour (white & black).
o Economic reasons →
 In Mughal administration, the provincial (Suba) administration wad divided into-
 Nizamat- civil administration, law & order. Those who look after it were
called ‘Subedar’.
 Diwani- for tax/revenue collection. Those who look after it were called
‘Diwan’.
But, after victory of Buxar, with the 1st treaty of Allahabad, the British got Diwani
rights of Bengal, Bihar and Odissa. Later, the British rule was established in whole
India and the company took rights of land revenue in their hands.
 Land revenue policies adopted by British government-
 Permanent settlement- Also called Zamindari system or Istmarri system.
Started by Lord Cornwalis in 1793AD. 10/11th part for govt and 1/11th part
for Zamindar. This system covered 19% of British India like Bengal, Bihar,
Odissa, Banaras & Gazipur of UP, North Karnataka.
 Ryotwari system- Started by Thomas Munro and Alexander Reed in
1820AD. This was, on experimental basis, firstly started in Bara Mahal
district of Tamil Nadu in 1792AD, by Captain Alexander Reed. Implemented
in entire Madras presidency in 1820AD, and in Bombay presidency in
1825AD. By 1858AD, it was implemented over entire Deccan. It covered
51% of British India. Farmers had to share 50% of their production.
  Mahal wari system- Father of this system was Holt Mackenzie, while
implemented by Martin Bird and James Thomson in 1833AD. It covered
30% of British India like UP, MP, Punjab. The loot of wealth & property is
criticised in book ‘The poverty and an Un-British rule in India’ written by
Dada Bhai Naoroji.

o Socio-cultural & religious reasons → Conversion promoted by Christian missionaries. In

1829, restriction of Sati Partha during governor general Lord William Bentick. In 1856AD,
widow re-marriage act during governor general Lord Canning. Indian soldiers getting lower
salaries, not getting higher positions, victims of religious discrimination, insult, sent to fight
by travelling sea (considered against religion). 1st religious revolt in army took place in Vellore
in 1806AD
o Immediate reasons → In 1856AD, Lord Canning order to use new Enfield riffles, which
cartridges covered with leather on upper part, and had to be removed by pulling it back by
teeth. A news spread in Army of Bengal, that this leather has cow’s & pig’s fat. This news
sparked the incident of revolt. Mangal Pandey (34th infantry of Barrackpore Cantt in
Murshidabad-Bengal) shot lieutenant Baugh and Major Hugeson to death on 29th March
1857AD.
o Nature: It was the first effort, national revolt and war of independence of the Indians to throw off the
British Yoke.
o Beginning:
 Delhi = Revolts led by last Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah Zafar.
 Kanpur = Military leader was Nana Saheb
 Lucknow = It’s leader was Begum Hazrat Mahal
 Allahabad = Leader was Liyaqat Ali
 Jhansi = Leader was Rani Laxmi Bai, but killed on 17th June 1858 by English.
 Bihar = Leader was Kunwar Singh
o Outcome/result: This revolt resulted rise of nationalism in India, and later, organised national
movement was born. In 19th century AD, in the leadership of Raja Ram Mohan Rai, the socio-cultural
renaissance started, which put foundation stone of Indian nationalism. That is why, he is called as
Father of Indian nationalism of modern India. In 28th Dec 1885AD, Indian National Congress was
established in Gokul Das Tejpal university of Bombay from where Indian national movement begun.
India’s freedom from British rule in 1947 was the result of hard struggle, which is called Indian
national movement or India’s war of independence. This struggle is divided into 3 stages-
 Udaarvadi (liberal) or Naramdal (centrist/moderate) leadership = 1885-1905AD.
 Extreme nationalist or Garamdal or stage of revolutionary nationalism = 1905-20AD.
 Gandhian era = 1920-47AD.

# Social & cultural Awakening- Lower Castes, Labour Union & Peasant Movement : In early
19th Century, India was backward and many social evils like Child marriage, Sati, Infanticide etc. Blind faith, idol
worship, priesthood cursed the lot of common people, Caste system become even more rigid. Raja Ram Mohan
Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekanand, Rai Saligram Bahadur, M. G. Ranade, Swami Shiv Dayal
Seth were the social and religious reformers who made efforts to bring about social change for betterment.

Brahmo Samaj = Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded Brahmo Samaj at Calcutta on 20th Aug 1828, to stop Child
marriages & Infanticide. In 1829 the Sati Abolition Act was passed. He encouraged the practice of Widow
Remarriage and conducted the movement for the freedom of the Press in 1830. He was in favour of English
education, started a College in Calcutta which later became the Presidency College. He died on 27th Dec 1833 at
Bristol. After Raja Ram Mohan Roy the leadership of Brahmo Samaj came to Devendra Nath Tagore. Later in
1857 Keshab Chandra Sen joined it. He opened the Brahmo Samaj of India. The objectives of Brahmo Samaj
were as under-

 Trust in one God, Prayer is necessary for spiritual progress.

 The theory of incarnation is false.
 Faith in the theory of Karma.
 Man's soul is immortal.
 Faith in discovery of Truth.
 Idol worship is useless.
 Caste system and untouchability must be abolished.
 Child marriage, sati and other social evils must end and widow remarriage should be adopted.

Prarthana Samaj = Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang established this organization in 1867. In Maharashtra Mahadev
Govind Ranade and Ramakrishna Gopal strongly supported it. Others who contributed to its success were
Kehav Chandra Sen, Narin Chandra Ray, P. C. Majumdar, Mahendra Nath Bose and Narain Chandravarkar. The
teachings Prarthna Samaj advocated were-

 Rational Worship
 Abolition of Caste
 Encouraged Widow remarriage
 Discard Child Marriage
 Encouraged Female education
 Discard untouchability and train the labour class.

Arya Samaj = Swami Dayanand (Mool Shankar) born in 1825 in a Kathiawar Kuli family. He wrote a book
Satyartha Prakash which established the excellence of Vedic religion. He gave the slogan 'Go Back to Vedas'. He
founded Arya Samaj on 10th April 1875. He opposed of conversion to Christianity. He died in 1883. Its principles
are as under-

 God is one. Idol worship has no relationship to worship of God.

 Vedas are God's spoken words & they contain absolute truth.
 Vedas give the principle of birth, rebirth, and transmigration of soul.
 Moksha means freedom from the cycle of Birth & Death. It can be attained through God's grace.
 God is truth, ecstasy, and joy, Formless, Omnipresent, Omniscient and Full of mercy. He is immune to
age or birth.
 One should accept truth and reject untruth.
 One should treat others with love and justice and according to their merit.

Ramkrishna Mission = Swami Vivekanand (Narendra Nath Dutt) born on 12th Jan 1863 in a renowned Kayastha
family of Calcutta. In the beginning he was atheist but when he met Ramkrishna, he became a theist and
became Sanyasi in 1886. He studied religion and philosophy and became an expert in Vedantic studies. In 1892
he travelled in South India and in 1893 he went to Chicago to attend the World Conference on Religion. He
established in 1887 the Ramkrishna Association and in 1897 the Ramakrishna Mission. He died in 1902. His
teachings were as under-

 All religions are true and great, everyone should follow his own religion.
 God is formless and omnipresent.
 Hindu civilization is very old and based on truth, beauty and goodness.
 Everyone should save his country and religion from material and culture of the West.

Sikh Religion: Reform Movement = It started with the foundation of Khalsa College in Amritsar. In 1920 The
Akali movement began which aimed as the purification of Sikh religion and to make the management of
Gurudwara more transparent and better than before. In 1922, the Government created the Shiromani
Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee. It was used to remove the corrupt priests.
Indigo Revolt = It was a revolt by indigo-cultivators against the indigo producers of Bengal by English after
seizing land in Bengal and Bihar. They ill-treated the Indian peasants who worked with them. In 1860, the
peasants of Pabna and Nadia districts went on strike. At many other places, such as Khulana, Dacca, Malda,
Dinajpur the peasants joined the strike. In 1860, Indigo Commission was appointed by the British to deal with
this problem.

Revolt of Maratha Peasants = The Sahukars of Gujarat exploited the peasants and cheated them. In 1875 they
rose in revolt against the Gujarati Sahukars by burning their houses and shops. A Commission was appointed to
investigate the causes of the revolt. In 1879, the Peasant's Relief Ordinance was enacted.

Revolt of Champaran = The English exploited the indigo cultivators in Champaran, Bihar. In 1917, Gandhiji and
Dr. Rajendra Prasad initiated them into Champaran Satyagraha. The Government imprisoned Gandhiji.
Ultimately the Government had to legislate the Champaran Peasants Ordinance.

# Freedom struggles:
Partition of Bengal (1905) = Nationalist feelings & anti-British movement had raised in the beginning of 20th
century. To crush it Lord Curzon played the communal card and “Divide and Rule” policy. It was widely opposed
and all classes came together to hold demonstrations. Surendra Nath Banerjee travelled throughout India and
spread the feeling of nationalism. The English failed to crush it and in 1911 Bengal was reunited by the
government.

Swadeshi & Boycott Movement (1905) = Swadeshi movement was started and Boycott of foreign goods were
conducted. Meetings were organised, processions were taken out, Bande Mataram was sung, foreign-cloth was
burnt and use of swadeshi was Gopal Krishna Gokhale went to London to get the partition of Bengal cancelled.
In Bengal, Black day was observed.

Rise of Muslim League (1906) = Sir Saiyyad Ahmed Khan taught the Muslims to cooperate with the British and
keep away from the congress. The British government encouraged this attitude and Lord Minto patronised
them by stage managing. Shimla deputation leading to birth of Muslim league. On 30th Dec 1906, Nawab
Bakawal Mulq chaired the 1st Session of the League and formally established Muslim League with the
objectives-

 To make the Muslims, the supporters of English rule.

 To protect the interest of Muslims and their rights.
 Since the beginning, it adopted a communal pose.

Surat Session (1907) = When the government did not pay any attention to dismiss the partition of Bengal as
appealed by Gokhale, the militant nationalism grew in the Congress. In 1907 in the Surat Session the
differences between the Liberals and militant Nationalists grew more vocal and the Congress was divided. The
English attempted to win over the liberals.

Morley Minto Reform = The constitutional reform is so- called because it was the brain child of secretary of
State Morley and Viceray Minto took place he rights of Central and provincial Assemblies and their members
were increased. The principle of separate electorate for Hindus and the Muslims was legalized. The Morley
Minto Reforms disappointed even the liberal leaders of the Congress. Only the Aligarh Muslims felt happy.

The Seditious Committee Act (1911) = With the Morley Minto Reforms, the militant nationalist were very
much discontented and the revolutionary activities because more usual than before. The British Government
legislated the Seditiou's Committee Act and imprisoned under it Lala Rai and other revolutionaries.

Delhi Durbar (1911) = Lord Hardinge organized a splendid Durbar at Delhi and invited George V and his Queen.
He also announced the cancellation of Bengal Partition. The Capital of India was transferred from Calcutta to
Delhi. Bengal was made a province. Bihar and Orissa too were made provinces.
Lucknow Pact (1916)

Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, Maulana Mohammad Ali, Shaukt Ali were such Muslim leaders

as were opposed to the Communal Policies of the British. The Muslim league too was unhappy with

the English. In 1913, the Muslim league passed a resolution for attaining self rule for India. With the

cooperation of Hindu and Muslim leaders in 1916 the Lucknow Pact was signed. Both the League

and the Congress formed a joint Committee to prepare the Congress League draft. Tilak and other

extremists attended it and the Policy of Communal Electorate was accepted by the Congress.

Home Rule Movement (1916)

After his release from Jail, Tilak organized the extremist group. With the cooperation of Smt.

Annie Besant, he started the Home Rule Movement. On 28 April, 1916, the first Home Rule League

was founded at Poona. Another Home Rule League was established at Madras. Tilak demanded

'Home Rule' for Indian in his newspapers Kesari and Maratha. Smt. Annie Besant's newspapers

Common Weel and New India also supported the movement. The movement spread in other parts

of India but the British Government crushed it. In 1917 it warned the students to remain aloof from

this movement. Annie Besant was imprisoned. Tilak started Satyagrah against her imprisonment and the
government released her. The Secretary of State for India announced in the Cabinet that India

shall be granted 'Home Rule' in a gradual manner.

Government of India Act (1919)

On the basis of the August 20, 1917 declaration of the Secretary of State Mr. Montague, the

Montague Chelmsford Report was prepared to implement it. The Government of India Act of 1919

was legislated. It established Dual System of administration known as dynasty, in the provinces. It

tended to bring partial responsible government.

Rowllat Act (1919)

To check the revolutionary activities, the British government appointed a committee under

the chairmanship of Justice Rowlatt. In Feb. 1919 two acts were passed and they came to be known

as Rowlatt Acts which were introduced on 21 March, 1919. According to these acts any one could

be arrested on suspicion and through secret trial, he could be punished. They were called the Black

Laws and demonstrations were held all over the country against it. Mahatma Gandhi became a noncooperator

from a cooperator in war. A country-wide strike was observed. Swami Shraddhanand led

the procession at Delhi. The English fired at the procession and five persons were killed. Revolts
sprang up at Lahore and Punjab. Dr. Satyapal and Shraddhanand requested Gandhiji to proceed to

Delhi. Gandhi was arrested at Palwal and sent to Bombay Jail. This Act infuriated the Indians and

helped in the spread of nationalism.

Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy (1919)

The people of India were excited on Gandhi's arrest. The Government also arrested the two

leaders of Punjab-Dr. Kichelu and Dr. Satyapal at Amritsar - When a crowd went to see the District

Magistrate of Amritsar protesting against their arrest, the police opened fire in which two men were

killed The excited crowd burnt a Bank and killed its English Manager On 10th April the

administration of Amritsar was entrusted to the Military. On 13 1919, Indian assembled to hold a general
meeting at Jallianwala Bagh. General Dyer declared it as illegal and without any warning

opened fire in which more than 200 died and 4000 were hurt. This tragedy further infuriated the

Indinas and its impact was felt throughout the country of National Movement.

Khilafat Movement (1919-1922)

The British Prime Minister had promised the Muslims that Sultan of Turkey who was their

religious head (Khalifa) would not be humiliated after the end of war. But this promise was noy kept

and Turkish empire was dismembered. Maulana Mohammed Ali and Shaukat Ali protested against

it and organized the Muslims under a Khilafat Committee. They began a Khilafat movement against

the English in India. The Indian National Congress supported their movement wholeheartedly.

It gave an opportunity to the Hindus and the Muslims to come closer and be united. The

movement got merged into Non-cooperation movement.

Non Co-operation Movement (1920–1922)

Gandhiji decided to start a Non- cooperation movement. In September 1920. a special session

of Congress was convened at Calcutta. Gandhi introduced the resolution of non- cooperation. C.R.

Das and M.M. Malviya opposed it. But due to support of the Ali brothers and Motilal Nehru it was passed.
Gandhiji travelled throughout India with Mohammed Ali and Shaukat Ali to prepare a

favourable atmosphere. In the Nagpur Session of Congress in 1920 the resolution was reaffirmed.

Beginning of Non-cooperation

When Gandhi started it, innumerable people joined him. They left titles and boycotted courts,

schools and foreign goods. The foreign cloth was burnt. In 1921. in the Ahmedabad Session of

Congress, decision was taken to further aggravate the movement. Gandhiji warned the Viceroy that

the movement would grow soon in a 'No Tax movement'.

Event of Chauri-Chaura & End of Non-cooperation

On 5 February, 1922 in the Chauri Chaura village of Gorakhpur in U.P., when Congress was

organizing a procession, Police interfered. A clash between Police and people began. The people

encircled the Police-station and the Thana was burnt by the angry crowd. One Inspector and 21

soldiers died on the spot. Gandhiji was shocked because he declared that it would be movement

based on Truth and non- on 12 February the Executive of Congress met at Bardoli and suspended the non-
cooperation movement. Gandhiji was criticized for this act and his popularity graph came

down. The British government arrested him for 6 years but due to his illness he was discharged on

5 February, 1927.

The Non-cooperation movement will always be remembered for its mass-character and for

display of unprecedented Hundu-Muslim unity. It ushred the era of Non-violent movements under

Gandhian leadership. It helped Indians to shed their inferiority complex and boldly challenge the

British imperialism.

The Swaraj Party (1923)

The suspension of non cooperation was not liked by the excited people of India. They needed

some other programme. After his release, C.R. Das started the Slogan, 'Enter the Council'. In the

Gaya Congress, C.R. Das had resigned from membership of the Congress with Motilal Nehru. He

started Swaraj party at Allahabad. He toured the entire country to promote his principles of entering

the Legislatures. The party participated in the elections of 1923 and attained enough success. The

members who were elected started the programme of obstructing the administration from inside.

Programme of Swaraj Party

The policy of obstruction of the Swaraj Party was directed to trouble the government and set

them right. The Swarajist tactical line was-

1- To discuss and condemn the Budget.

2- To protest against repressive laws.

3- To support the creative activities.

4- To strengthen the national power.

5- Leave the post and struggle with Gandhiji for freedom through Satyagraha if circumstances

warranted so. In 1924 when Gandhi came out of jail, he supported the programme of Swaraj party. Swaraj

party succeeded to some extent. When C. R. Das died in 1925, differences grew in the party and it

did not succeed well in the elections of 1926 and it fizzled out.
Boycott of Simon Commission (1927)

The Act of 1919 had provided that after every 10 years, there shall be appointed a Commission

to examine the working of constitutional reforms and submit its report. The British government

accordingly sent Sir John Simon and sit other members to act as a Commission. None of its members

was Indian. Protests were organized and black flags were shown to the Commission. The slogan

was, 'Go back Simon'. Lala Lajpat Rai was leading a procession at Lahore. The Police Lathi charged

it and Lala received severe wounds. He died later of these wounds. The Simon Commission toured

twice inspite of the wide protests against it. The report was published in 1930. Its sugge- stions were

as under-

1- The dual administration should be discontinued and responsible government be introduced.

2- No change should be made in the Central government.

3- Federal polity be established in India.

4- The Supreme Court should be brought under the Government of India.

5- Special powers be allotted to Viceroy and provincial governors to protect the interests of the

Minorities.

6- The number of the members of Provincial Legislatures be increased.

7- Burma be separated from India and the two provinces of Sindh and Orissa be carved.

8- A Greater India Council be organized before the Federal government.

9- Franchise be extended

10- The idea of periodical review of the Constitutional progress in India be stopped. An elastic

Constitution be drafted which may develop itself. The report was widely criticized and was spoken as worth
throwing in Waste Paper Basket

by Shiv Swami Aiyyar, many of its clauses were included in the Act of 1935.

Nehru Report (1928)

When the Indians were boy-cotting the Simon Commission, The Secretary of state for India

challenged the nationalists to prepare a draft constitution for a consideration of the Government. The

prominent political groups convened an all party meeting at Delhi and later in 1928 at Bombay.

Under the Chairmanship of Moti Lal Nehru an eight member committee was organised to prepare

the draft. In the Lucknow session, this draft consti-tution was accepted in 1828 and it was known as

Nehru Report.

Provisions of Nehru Report

1- Dominion Status be granted for India internal freedom be sanctioned.

2- Dyarchy should be removed and responsible rule be established.

3- Federal Government be established in India and centre should be given more powers.

4- Religious freedom be granted to people. Scheduled class interest be protected. Equal rights

to both the sexes be granted.

5- Separate Electorate be stopped and joint electorate be started to strengthen country's unity.

6- A Supreme Court should be established as the highest Judicial Power in India.

7- The Sindh should be a separate province and separated from Bombay.

8- The Central Legislature should consist of two houses.

9- The new government should have the same rights Vis Avis the native states as crown used to have.

In the All-party meeting, Nehru Report was accepted. The Sikhs were still dissatisfied. Dr. Ansari accepted it.
Maulana Mohammad Ali and Zinnah too rejected it. Muslim League presented 14 points of Jinnah as
alternative but Congress, rejected it. There could not be any understanding between the Muslims and the
Hindus. The Nehru Report was so progressive that the Britishers also did not accept it.

Bardoli Satyagraha = When the Zamindars of Bardoli oppressed the peasants and overtaxed them they were
organized by the ironman Sardar Ballabh Bhai Patel for Satyagraha in 1928.

Lahore Session of Congress (1929) = A demand for full Swaraj came during Lahore Session under the
Chairmanship of J. L. Nehru the British government had rejected the Nehru Report, so in Lahore Congress, the
resolution was passed for complete independence. On 31st Aug 1930, the Congress unfurled the National Flag
and Congress Committee was authorized to begin the Civil Disobedience Movement in the country. It was also
decided that every year on 26 January, the Independence Day should be observed and the First Independence
Day was observed on 31st Aug 1930. Later, the Constitution of India was adopted on this day.

# Rise of English power in Deccan & Bengal: Bengal and South India were the prosperous regions to
trade Cotton, Silk threads, Sugar, etc. were available in these parts in abundance. The British established 1st
trade centre at Hooghly. In 1717 Farrukhsiyar (Mughal king) granted a Farman Company and provided many
concessions to them. Due to commercial competition, conflict arose among the English and the French. French
supported Chanda Saheb in Carnatic and the English were with Anwaruddin. The 1st and 2nd Carnatic war did
not prove decisive. British won the war but the French survived. The French were defeated in 3rd Carnatic war
and the English supremacy in India was established.

Conquest of Bengal = The English did not want to pay tax on export & import, started the fortification of their
settlement without permission of the Nawab, so they fought with the Nawab of Bengal. They gave shelter to
the rebels and enemies of the Nawab and fluted his orders.

Invasion on the Qasim Bazar Settlement = The Nawab invaded & captured the English establishment. He also
captured Calcutta. The English Governor Drake and many officers fled to an island 'Fulta'. Rest was prisoned
and led to death due to suffocation in small prison room called blockhole event.

Treaty of Alinagar = On 2nd Jan 1757, a battle fought between the Nawab Sirajuddaula and the English. The
Nawab was defeated on 9th Feb 1757, and the Alinagar treaty was signed by the Company and the Nawab. The
terms of the treaty were as under→

a. The settlements, factory and property seized by the Nawab shall be returned to the English.
b. The Nawab had to accept all the concessions given by king Farrukhsiyar to the English.
c. The English received the right to trade without tax in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
d. The English were allowed to fortify their settlements in Calcutta.
e. The English gained the rights to issue their own currency in Calcutta.
f. The English and the Nawab would help one another in war and the enemy of one shall be the enemy
of the other too.

Battle of Plassey = Lord Clive blamed the Nawab of breach of faith, of ignoring the Alinagar treaty and helping
the French. Clive conducted a secret treaty with Ray Durlabh. On 23rd June 1757, the battle of Plassey was
fought between Sirajuddaula and the English. Sirajuddaula fled from the battle field but he was caught by the
English and sent to Murshidabad, then Mir Jafar was declared as Nawab of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The
victory of the English in the battle of Plassey made them strong in Indian politics and their political interference
increased.

Removal of Mir Jafar = Due to his incapability, Clive intervened at every step in his administration and all had
to obey him. Mir Jafar had to pay a sum of Rs 1.7 lacks, many gifts as reparation to the English, so the treasury
became empty. He failed to fulfil payment to the English, the relations became severe. The English conspired
and removed Mir Jafar to make Mir Qasim (son-in-law of Mir Jafar) the new Nawab.

Mir Qasim became Nawab = After getting Nawab ship from English, he gave the Zamindari of Vardhman,
Midnapur and Chattgaon to English.

Battle of Buxar = The English defeated the joint army of Nawab of Oudh, Mughal ruler Shah Alam and Mir
Qasim in the battle of Buxar. Now British where the master of Oudh was opened for their loot and the Mughal
emperor was at their mercy. The battle was followed by the treaty of Allahabad. The terms of treaty were as
under-

a. In 1765 this treaty was signed and the Nawab of Oudh Shujaud- daula gave a sum of Rs. 50 lacs to the
English.
b. Kara and Allahabad were given to Mughal ruler Shah Alam.
c. Nawab gave Chunar to the English.
d. The Mughal king gave the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the English.
e. The English agreed to pay a pension of Rs. 26 lacs to the Mughal ruler.

Hyder Ali = In Mysore, Hyder Ali gained power and became the Sultan. The English organized a joint venture
with Marathas and the Nawab of Hyderabad against Hyder Ali, but was defeated by Hyder Ali.

 1st Mysore War = Fought in 1766-67 between Hyder Ali and English. English won. But soon Hyder Ali's
forces proceeded towards Madras, and English were defeated.
  2nd War of Mysore = Fought in between 1780-84. Hyder Ali became victorious but died in the war
camp in 1782. His son Tipu Sultan carried on the war. In 1784, the treaty of Bangalore was signed
between the two parties.
 3rd Mysore War = Fought between Tipu Sultan and the English during 1790-1792. Tipu fought bravely
and captured Coimbatore. But he grew weak and Cornwallis conquered all the forts on way to Sri
Rangpattanam. Tipu was forced to sign the treaty of Sri Rangpattanam with the English. He had to pay
huge indemnity and surrender half of his territory.
 4th Mysore War = Fought between Tipu Sultan and the English. Tipu was killed in this war and his sons
surrendered to the English, resulted end of Muslim rule of Mysore. In Bengal the battle of Buxar and in
south the Mysore wars made the - English supreme in Indian politics. It ensured the rise of English
power in south India and Bengal.

# The Anglo-Marata conflict: The Marathas were the only power to challenge the Mughals and bring
their downfall. They entangled Aurangzeb for 25 years in South India. The Marathas were divided into 5 clans-
Bhonsle (Nagpur), Scindia (Gwalior & Ujjain), Holkar (Indore & Malwa), Gayakwad (Baroda) and Peshwa (Dhar).
The English took full advantage of their division and mutual dissensions through 'Divide and Rule’.

First Battle between English and Maratha (1775-1782) = The English sent army from Bombay to Poona to help
Raghoba. The first severe battle between the English and the Marathas began on 18 May, 1775. The Marathas
were defeated and difficulty. But the Governor of Bengal and his council, exercising the power vested in them
by the recently passed Regulating act, did not approve of the alliance and negotiated with Poona court.

Treaty of Purandar =

Battle of Telgaon =

Treaty of Bargaon =

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1806) =

Treaty of Devgaon =

Treaty of Surji Arjun Gaon =

The Third Maratha War =

Fourth Anglo-Maratha War =

Anglo-Sikh Conflict =