SPEN101

POSTGRADUATE COURSE
M.A. ENGLISH
FIRST YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER

CORE PAPER - I

POETRY - I
FROM CHAUCER TO 17th CENTURY

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS
M.A. ENGLISH CORE PAPER - I
FIRST YEAR - FIRST SEMESTER POETRY - I FROM CHAUCER
TO 17th CENTURY

WELCOME
Warm Greetings.

It is with a great pleasure to welcome you as a student of Institute of Distance

Education, University of Madras. It is a proud moment for the Institute of Distance education
as you are entering into a cafeteria system of learning process as envisaged by the University
Grants Commission. Yes, we have framed and introduced Choice Based Credit
System(CBCS) in Semester pattern from the academic year 2018-19. You are free to
choose courses, as per the Regulations, to attain the target of total number of credits set
for each course and also each degree programme. What is a credit? To earn one credit in
a semester you have to spend 30 hours of learning process. Each course has a weightage
in terms of credits. Credits are assigned by taking into account of its level of subject content.
For instance, if one particular course or paper has 4 credits then you have to spend 120
hours of self-learning in a semester. You are advised to plan the strategy to devote hours of
self-study in the learning process. You will be assessed periodically by means of tests,
assignments and quizzes either in class room or laboratory or field work. In the case of PG
(UG), Continuous Internal Assessment for 20(25) percentage and End Semester University
Examination for 80 (75) percentage of the maximum score for a course / paper. The theory
paper in the end semester examination will bring out your various skills: namely basic
knowledge about subject, memory recall, application, analysis, comprehension and
descriptive writing. We will always have in mind while training you in conducting experiments,
analyzing the performance during laboratory work, and observing the outcomes to bring
out the truth from the experiment, and we measure these skills in the end semester
examination. You will be guided by well experienced faculty.

I invite you to join the CBCS in Semester System to gain rich knowledge leisurely at
your will and wish. Choose the right courses at right times so as to erect your flag of
success. We always encourage and enlighten to excel and empower. We are the cross
bearers to make you a torch bearer to have a bright future.

With best wishes from mind and heart,

DIRECTOR

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M.A. ENGLISH CORE PAPER - I
FIRST YEAR - FIRST SEMESTER POETRY - I FROM CHAUCER
TO 17th CENTURY

COURSE WRITER

Dr. Usha Sadasivan, M.A. (Eng.) M.A. (MCJ) M.Phil. Ph.D.

Head, Department of English
Meenakshi College for Women
Chennai - 600 024.

COORDINATION AND EDITING

Dr. V. Meena Kumari, M.A. (Eng.) M.A. (J.M.C) M.Phil., Ph.D.,

Associate Professor,
Deparment of English
Anna Adarsh College for Women,
Anna Nagar,
Chennai - 600 040.

Dr. S. Thenmozhi
Associate Professor
Department of Psychology
Institute of Distance Education
University of Madras
Chepauk Chennnai - 600 005.

© UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS, CHENNAI 600 005.

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 M.A. DEGREE COURSE

ENGLISH

FIRST YEAR

FIRST SEMESTER

Core Paper - I

POETRY - I FROM CHAUCER TO 17TH CENTURY

SYLLABUS

UNIT I
Chaucer and Medieval England
1. Geoffrey Chaucer From “The Prologue” to The Canterbury Tales
The Knight
The Prioress
The Wife of Bath
The Monk
The Doctor of Physic

UNIT 2
Poetic Forms During 16th Century
Lyric, Ballad, Sonnet Ballad of Sir Patrick Spens
Spenser’s Prothalamion
Wyatt and Surrey’s sonnets – 2
sonnets

UNIT 3
Poetic Forms during 17th Century
Metaphysical Poetry
John Donne The Canonisation
Ecstasy

UNIT 4
Satire
John Dryden Absalom and Achitophel

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UNIT 5
Epic
John Milton
Paradise Lost Book I

Recommended Texts:

1. 1973, The Oxford Anthology of English Literature Vol. I. The Middle Ages Through
the 18th century. OUP, London

2. Standard editions of texts

Reference Books:

1. T.S. Eliot, 1932, “The Metaphysical Poets” from Selected Essay; Faber and Faber
limited, London.

2. H.S. Bennett, 1970, Chaucer and the Fifteenth Century, Clarendon Press, London.

3. Malcolm Bradbury and David Palmer, ed., 1970 Metaphysical Poetry, Stratford -
upon – Avon Studies Vol. II, Edward Arnold, London.

4. William R. Keast, ed., 1971, Seventeenth Century English Poetry: Modern

Essays in Criticism, Oxford University Press, London.

5. A.G. George, 1971, Studies in Poetry, Heinemann Education Books Ltd., London.

6. David Daiches, 1981, A Critical History of English Literature Vols. I &II., Secker &
Warburg, London.

7. Thomas N. Corns, ed., 1993, The Cambridge Companion to English Poetry: Donne
to Marvell, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

8. H.J.C. Grierson, “Metaphysical Lyrics and Poems of the Seventeenth Century”

OUP, 1983, London.

Website, e-learning resources

http://www.english/.org.uk/chaucer/htm

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 M.A. DEGREE COURSE

ENGLISH

FIRST YEAR

FIRST SEMESTER

Core Paper - I

POETRY - I FROM CHAUCER TO 17TH CENTURY

SCHEME OF LESSONS

Sl.No. Title Page

1 Chaucer and Medieval England 1

2 POETIC FORMS DURING 16TH CENTURY 16

3 Poetic Forms during the 17th century 36

4 Satire 48

5 Epic 63

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 1

LESSON - 1
CHAUCER AND MEDIEVAL ENGLAND
Structure
1.1 Introduction to Chaucer and Medieval England

1.2 The Canterbury Tales

1.3 The Knight

1.4 The Prioress

1.5 The Wife of Bath

1.6 The Monk

1.7 The Doctor of Physic

1.8 Summary of The Canterbury Tales

1.1 Chaucer and Medieval England

Geoffrey Chaucer, the man responsible for the spreading and development of Middle
English dialect was not just a poet but a courtier, philosopher, astronomer etc. However, the
father of English literature – Geoffrey Chaucer, is remembered today for his work “The Canterbury
Tales” which has more than seventeen thousand lines and twenty four stories. The intention of
the Prologue to the Canterbury Tales is to take the reader into a journey, where every character
in the work is described.

Preview of past learning :This section will introduce you to the English poetic forms and
poets of the 17th century and their distinctive characteristics. A study of these varied poetic
forms will improve understanding of the different poetic genres. It demands some understanding
of the social conditions that existed in England during the 16th and 17thcenturies .

Thematic linkage :The background especially knowing the political; and the personal
background of the writers will give a better understanding of the works that are to be discussed
in detail here.
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1.1.1 Learning Objective

This unit will introduce you to the father of English literature – Geoffrey Chaucer, who is
remembered today for his work “The Canterbury Tales” which has more than seventeen thousand
lines and twenty four stories.

1.2 About Chaucer

The Canterbury Tales, Geoffrey Chaucer’s last major work, was written between the mid-
1380’s and his death in 1400, although some of the stories, such as “The Knight’s Tale,” were
composed earlier. It is considered one of the greatest works in English Literature.

1.2.1 About The Canterbury tales

Chaucer, came up with the ingenuous literary device of having a pilgrimage, a technique
that allowed him to bring together a diverse group of people. Thus Chaucer’s narrators represent
a wide spectrum of society with various ranks and occupations. From the distinguished and
noble Knight, we descend through the pious abbess (the Prioress), the honorable Clerk, the
rich landowner (the Franklin), the worldly and crude Wife, and on down the scale to the low,
vulgar Miller and Carpenter, and the corrupt Pardoner.

Aside from the high literary standard of The Canterbury Tales, the work stands as a
historical and sociological introduction to the life and times of the late Middle Ages. During
Chaucer’s time, regardless of how brilliant and talented one might be, there was no way for a
commoner to move from his class into the aristocracy. Chaucer, however, made that leap as
well as anyone could. As a commoner, he was familiar with and was accepted by the lower
classes as well as by the higher classes; thus, throughout his life, he was able to observe both
the highest and the lowest, and his gifted mind made the best of these opportunities.

Chaucer’s genius at understanding basic human nature made him the great poet he was.
He knew the world from many aspects, and he loved most of his characters. The mature adult
would find it difficult not to like such characters as The Wife of Bath, even with all her bawdiness,
or the Miller with his vulgarity that amuses rather than offends sophisticated readers. Chaucer
presents the world as he sees it, and he shares one quality with all great writers: He is a delight
to read.
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1.3 The Knight’s Tale

Part I: Duke Theseus returns from overthrowing Scythia with his new wife, Hippolyta, and
her sister, Emilie. Outside Athens, he meets a band of weeping women and learns that the
tyrant Creon has murdered their husbands and dishonors the dead by leaving them unburied.
Incensed, Theseus quickly overthrows Creon and restores the Theban dead to the women for
ceremonial burying. After the destruction of Creon’s forces, booty hunters find two young knights
(Palamon and Arcite) who are not quite dead. Theseus decides against executing the knights
and instead imprisons them with no hope of ransom.

One morning several years later, Palamon sees the beautiful Emilie wandering about in
her garden and cries out in pain. Arcite peers from the tower window and, upon seeing the fair
Emilie, proclaims his own love for her. Because both knights claim their love for Emilie, their
friendship gives way to hostility. About this time, a friend to both Theseus and Arcite arrive in
Athens and secures Arcite’s release on the condition that he never return to Athens. Both
knights think the other luckier: Palamon, because he can still see the beautiful Emilie; Arcite,
because he can raise an army and capture her.

Part II: Back in Thebes, Arcite sinks into a lover’s melancholy. As a result of his lamenting,
his physical appearance changes so much that he is no longer recognizable. One night, Mercury,
the messenger of the gods, appears and orders him to return to Athens, which he does. Taking
the name Philostrate, Arcite is employed as a page in the House of Emilie. Several years pass
and Philostrate/Arcite rises to a high and respected position in the court of Theseus.

Meanwhile, Palamon languishes in the prison tower. At last, whether by chance or destiny,
Palamon escapes and flees to a grove. That morning, by chance, Arcite goes to the same
grove and, thinking himself alone, recites his history aloud, blaming Juno, Mars, and especially
Venus for his plight. Palamon, who had not recognized Arcite, finally identifies him through his
lament and leaps up, swearing to kill Arcite for his treachery and law breaking. The two arrange
to duel the following day.

The next day, the men duel, dismissing all knightly ceremony. Theseus and his entourage
arrive upon the bloody scene. Theseus stops the duel and rebukes the knights for their behavior.
Palamon tells all, demanding that both be killed for their crimes, and Theseus swears that the
wish will be granted, but he relents when the women of his company beg mercy for the knights.
Theseus proposes a formal tournament in one year with each knight supported by one hundred
knights. The winner of the joust will get the hand of Emilie.
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Part III: At the end of the year, Arcite and Palamon, each at the head of one hundred
knights, return to Athens for the joust. Theseus welcomes them all and entertains them in high
fashion. On the evening before the battle, Palamon, Emilie, and Arcite pray. Palamon prays to
Venus, goddess of love; Emilie prays to Diana, goddess of chastity; and Arcite prays to Mars,
god of war. All receive a vision indicating that their prayers will be answered. The three prayers
and resulting promises cause confusion in heaven until Saturn, god of destiny, promises that
Palamon will win his love and Arcite will win the battle.

Part IV: The battle begins, and after much pageantry and heroic fighting, Palamon is
badly wounded and taken from the field. Arcite is declared the winner. Saturn sends a fury from
Pluto to make Arcite’s horse shy. Wounded, Arcite is carried to Theseus’ palace. As he lies
dying, Arcite acknowledges that he knows no person better than Palamon and begs Emilie to
accept Palamon as her husband. Arcite dies and Theseus arranges a great funeral for him.
After a long period of mourning, Palamon and Emilie are married and live out their lives in “a
love unbroken.”

What is central in The Knight’s Tale is a concern with the right ordering of the elements
that make up a person’s total soul — essentially a concern with justice. A person who has
control of his or her emotions and reason is a person who acts honorably in dealing with others.
Early in the tale, for example, both Palamon and Arcite fall hopelessly in love with Emilie, and
their love (emotion) for her controls their behavior. In such a state of emotional disarray, their
reason fails them and hostilities ensue. Only when Theseus, symbol of right reason and justice,
intervenes in the knights’ duel, does reason, synonymous with justice, again reign.

Glossary

Capaneus proud, vain man so disdainful that he boasted that not even Jove could stop
him. He took part in the war to restore Oedipus’ oldest son to the throne of Thebes.

Minotaur a monster with a man’s body and a bull’s head.

Juno the Roman queen of the gods.

Citherea the residence of Venus, goddess of Love.

Narcissus, Solomon, Hercules, Medea, Circe, Turnus, and King Crosesus figures,
each of whom had in some way been trapped by love, used as decoration on the walls of the
altar to Venus.
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Caesar, Nero, Mark Anthony, and Mars in a chariot figures, all of whom had functioned
in wars, used as decoration on the altar to Mars.

Callisto, Dana (Daphne), and Atalanta figures, all of whom avoided — with varying
degrees of success — marriage, used as decoration on the altar to Diana.

Galophy probably meaning the Valley of Gargaphia where Actaeon, who saw the goddess
Diana naked, was turned into a stag and torn to pieces by his own hounds.

1.4 The Prioress’ Prologue And Tale

In her prologue, the Prioress offers a hymn of praise to the Virgin Mary. She extols
Mary, the mother of Jesus and the “whitest Lily-flower.” This hymn acts as a preview of the tale
to follow.

In a Christian town in Asia, one fourth of the area is occupied by Jews. Because a school
for young Christian children is at the far end of the street through the ghetto where the Jews are
isolated, the children are free to walk through the street to and from school. One of the young
Christian pupils hears the older children singing O Alma Redemptoris. Day after day, he draws
near and listens carefully as the other students sing. In very little time, he memorizes the first
verse. Learning that the song is in praise of the Virgin Mary, the child decides to learn the entire
song so that, on Christmas day, he can pay reverence to Christ’s mother. Every day, the child
walks along the Jewish street, boldly and clearly singing the song. At about this time, Satan
whispers to the Jews that this boy is a disgrace to them and that he sings to spite Jewish holy
laws. The Jews, conspiring to rid themselves of this boy, hire a murderer. One day, as the child
walks through the ghetto singing O Alma Redemptoris, the murderer grasps the child, slits his
throat, and tosses his body into a cesspool.

The boy’s mother, a poor widow, goes house to house, inquiring of the Jews the
whereabouts of her son. Yet everyone lies to her, saying they know nothing of the child. Then
Jesus himself puts in her thoughts the direction to the alley where the child had been murdered
and the pit where his body was cast away. As the widow nears the place, the child’s voice
breaks forth singing O Alma Redemptoris. The Christian people gather around in astonishment.
The provost of the city is called; upon seeing the child, he bids all the Jews to be fettered,
bound, and confined. Later, they are drawn by wild horses and hanged.
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The child’s body is taken to a neighboring abbey. As the burial mass draws near, the child
continues to sing O Alma Redemptoris loudly and clearly. He then tells the abbots that Christ
has commanded him to sing until his time for his burial and that the Virgin Mary placed a pearl
on his tongue. The child explains that he must sing until the pearl in taken away. “[T]hen a holy
monk . . . / Touched the child’s tongue and took away the pearl; And he gave up the ghost so
peacefully, So softly.” (“This hooly monk . . . hymmeene I, / His tonge out caughte, and took
awey the greyn (pearl) / And he yaf up the goostfulsoftely.”)

The child is proclaimed a martyr, and a tomb of marble is erected as a memorial to the
young boy, whose name was Hugh of Lincoln.

The Prioress’ Tale shows the power of the meek and the poor who trust in Christ. The
Prioress is a devoted and meek Christian lady (at least as she understands herself), and she
begins by offering a prayer to Christ and especially to the Virgin Mary, the gist of which is that,
because the Prioress is herself like a child, the Virgin must help her with this story in her honor.

To fully understand The Prioress’ Tale, one must first understand the background for tales
such as these. In medieval England, the Christian hatred of Jews took the form of religious
passion. This passion was periodically renewed by stories such as this one and passed along
as true.

Glossary

Corpus Dominus Chaucer has clever ways of commenting on his characters. Here, he
lets us know that the Host is not an expert in Latin. He meant to say “corpus Domini,” which
means “the body of our Lord.”

Saint Augustine (354-430) One of the great church fathers, he consolidated the diverse
elements of the early church and authored Confessions and The City of God.

Bush unburnt, burning in Moses’ sight F.N. Robinson maintains, “The figure of the
burning bush . . . was of course a familiar symbol of the Virgin” (The Poems of Chaucer, page
840). God appeared to Moses in the form of a burning bush to give him instructions about
receiving the Ten Commandments.

O Alma Redemptoris Latin, meaning “O redemptive soul.”

usury lending money at an exorbitant interest rate

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greyn This word in Chaucer’s time carried many meanings, such as a grain of corn, a
grain of paradise, and, most important, a pearl. Throughout medieval literature, the pearl takes
on heavy significance; it can represent purity, chastity, innocence, and other related virtues.

a new Rachel Rachel was the wife of Jacob and the mother of Joseph and was regarded
in medieval times as prefiguring Christ.

1.5 The Wife of Bath’s Prologue and Tale

Before the Wife begins her tale, she shares information about her life and her experiences
in a prologue. The Wife of Bath begins her lengthy prologue by announcing that she has always
followed the rule of experience rather than authority. Having already had five husbands “at the
church door,” she has experience enough to make her an expert. She sees nothing wrong with
having had five husbands and cannot understand Jesus’ rebuke to the woman at the well who
also had five husbands. Instead, she prefers the biblical command to go forth and multiply.

To defend her position, the Wife refers to King Solomon, who had many wives, and to St.
Paul’s admonishment that it is better to marry than to burn. Having shown a knowledge of the
Bible, she challenges anyone to show her that God commanded virginity.

The Wife of Bath then relates tales about her former husbands and reveals how she was
able to gain the upper hand (“sovereignty”) over them. Unfortunately, just at the time she gains
complete mastery over one of her husbands, he dies. Then she explains how she gained control
over her fifth husband.

At her fourth husband’s funeral, she could hardly keep her eyes off a young clerk named
Jankyn, whom she had already admired. At the month’s end, she and Jankyn were married,
even though she was twice his age. As soon as the honeymoon was over, she was disturbed to
find that Jankyn spent all his time reading, especially from a collection of books that disparaged
women. One night, he began to read aloud from this collection, beginning with the story of Eve,
and he read about all the unfaithful women, murderesses, prostitutes, and so on, that he could
find. Unable to tolerate these stories any longer, the Wife of Bath grabbed the book and hit
Jankyn so hard that he fell over backwards into the fire. He jumped up and hit her with his fist.
She fell to the floor and pretended to be dead. When he bent over her, she hit him once more
and again pretended to die. He was so upset that he promised her anything if she would live.
And this is how she gained “sovereignty” over her fifth husband. From that day until the day he
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died, she was a true and faithful wife for him. Her tale, which follows, reiterates her belief that a
happy match is one in which the wife has control.

A lusty young knight in King Arthur’s court rapes a beautiful young maiden. The people
are repulsed by the knight’s behavior and demand justice. Although the law demands that the
knight be beheaded, the queen and ladies of the court beg to be allowed to determine the
knight’s fate. The queen then gives the knight a year to discover what women most desire.

The year passes quickly. As the knight rides dejectedly back to the court knowing that he
will lose his life, he suddenly sees 24 young maidens dancing and singing. As he approaches
them, the maidens disappear, and the only living creature is a foul old woman, who approaches
him and asks what he seeks. The knight explains his quest, and the old woman promises him
the right answer if he will do what she demands for saving his life. The knight agrees. When the
queen bids the knight to speak, he responds correctly that women most desire sovereignty over
their husbands.

Having supplied him with the right answer, the old crone demands that she be his wife
and his love. The knight, in agony, agrees. On their wedding night, the knight pays no attention
to the foul woman next to him. When she questions him, he confesses that her age, ugliness,
and low breeding are repulsive to him. The old hag reminds him that true gentility is not a matter
of appearances but of virtue. She tells him that her looks can be viewed as an asset. If she were
beautiful, many men would be after her; in her present state, however, he can be assured that
he has a virtuous wife. She offers him a choice: an old ugly hag such as she, but still a loyal,
true, and virtuous wife, or a beautiful woman with whom he must take his chances. The knight
says the choice is hers. And because she has “won the mastery,” she tells him, “‘Kiss me . . .
and you shall find me both . . . fair and faithful as a wife.” Indeed, she had become a lovely
young woman, and they lived happily ever after.

The Wife of Bath’s Tale is referred to technically as an exemplum, a story told to illustrate
an intellectual idea. In this case, the tale is to provide an answer to the question “What do
women most desire?” Even though Chaucer had some of the ideas from other sources
(the Roman de las Rose as elaborated by Jean de Meun, and St. Jerome’s comments on celibacy
in Hieronymous contra Jovinianum), he reshaped the tale to fit in with the Wife of Bath’s
introduction and her basic thesis that women most desire “sovereignty.”
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Glossary

“Five husbands . . . at the church door” In Chaucer’s time, a wedding was performed
at the church door and not inside the church or chapel.

Mark can tell The miracle of the loaves and fishes and the barley bread is actually John,
not Mark (see John VI:9), but this is a slight error for a woman of the Middle Ages to make.

Ptolemy . . . almagest Ptolemy was a second century a.d. astronomer whose chief work
was the Almagest. The Wife of Bath’s quote shows that she is familiar with such a famous
person.

DunmowFliatcah a prize awarded to the married couple in Essex who had no quarrels,
no regrets, and, if the opportunity presented itself, would remarry each other. The Wife is still
establishing the right of more than one marriage.

Argus . . . pull his beard a mythological giant with a hundred eyes whose duty was to
guard a mortal (Io) whom Zeus loved. By Chaucer’s time the word referred to any observant,
vigilant person or guardian.

Three Misfortunes, Thinges Three reference to Proverbs xxx, 21-23.

quoniam a vulgar designation for the female pudendum, or vulva.

Venerien . . . Marcien astrological terms.

Ecclesiasticus, Ecclesiaste See xxv: 29.

Valerie and Theofraste a work attributed to Walter Map, a minor satirist who disparaged
marriage. All the writers the Wife of Bath quotes have written something either antifeminist,
satiric, or unpleasant about marriage.

Valerius, Tullius, Boethius, Seneca writers who espoused that gentility comes from
within and not from outward appearances.
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1.6 The Monk’s Tale

Although the Host demands a merry tale from the Monk, the Monk instead gives a series
of cameo tragedies, all of which deal with the role of fortune in a man’s life. The Monk catalogues
the fickleness of Fortune through a series of abbreviated tales about such people as Lucifer,
Adam, Hercules, Samson, Nero, and so on — all who were initially favored but eventually
abandoned by Fortune. The Monk concludes when the Knight interrupts him and pleads for a
merry tale.

The Monk’s series of little tragedies report the gloomy news that all wealth and position in
the world are pure illusion, and nothing can prevent the fall of the proud. The Monk sums up his
theme in the introductory stanza: “For sure it is, if fortune decides to flee, / No man may stay her
course or keep his hold; / Let no one trust a blind prosperity.” (“For certein, whan that Fortune
list to flee, / Ther may no man the cours of hire withhholde. / Lat no man truste on blyndprosperitee
. . . .”)

Why Chaucer wrote these stories for the Monk is unclear. This tale is often thought to be
one of Chaucer’s early writings. Certainly it has none of the subtly of most of his other tales.

Glossary

“now called Damascus” the suggestion is that Damascus now stands where Eden once
was.

The Warning the moral “Don’t tell your wife any secrets” differs significantly from the
usual references to fortune in the other tragedies.

Centaurs, Cerberus, Busiris, Achelous, Cacus, and Antacus all part of the Labors of
Hercules.

Trophee a prophet of the Chaldee.

Nessus a centaur slain by Hercules.

Odenatus the ruler of Palmyra.

Shapur king of Persia.

Aurelian (Aurelianus) emperor of Rome, preceded by Gallienus.

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King Peter of Spain; King Peter of Cyprus; Bernabo Visconti of Lombardy; Count
Ugolino of Pisa figures who relied on fortune and were betrayed, killed, or starved.

Alexander the representative of the ideal for the medieval person.

Brutus Cassius Chaucer erroneously supposes these two famous assassins of Julius
Caesar to be one person, not two.

Croesus the king of Lydia who depended too strongly upon fortune.

1.7 The Physician’s Tale

Virginius, a knight, has only one child, Virginia, whose beauty is beyond compare and
who is endowed with all the other noble virtues. One morning, in town, a judge named Apius (or
Appius) catches sight of the daughter, is smitten by her beauty and purity, and determines to
have her at any cost. He sends for the town’s most disreputable blackguard, Claudius, and
pays him to take part in a scheme to capture the girl.

In court before Judge Appius, Claudius falsely accuses Virginius of having stolen a servant
girl (Virginia) from his house many years ago and keeping her all these years, pretending that
she is his daughter. Before Virginius can defend himself, the evil judge orders that the young
girl be brought immediately to the court. Virginius returns home and calls his daughter into his
presence. She must, he says, accept either death or shame at the hands of Claudius and
Apius. Virginia tells her father: “Blessed be God that I shall die a Maid (virgin), / I take my death
rather than take my shame. / So do your will upon me (“Blissed be God, that I shal dye a mayde!
/ Yif me my deeth, er that I have a shame; / Do with youre child yourewyl”). Then she faints, and
her father “smote off her head.” Virginius returns to the judge and hands him Virginia’s head.
The judge orders the knight hanged for murder, but a throng of citizens, aroused by the Apius’
treachery, imprisons the judge. Claudius is to be hanged, but the knight pleads mercy and
suggests exile instead.

The Physician concludes his tale with the moral that “the wages of sin is Death” and let
everyone forsake his sins.

Many Chaucerian critics find this tale to be among the weakest, the least well constructed,
and direly lacking in motivation.. But always with Chaucer, the value of the tale lies in the
narration.
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Glossary

Livy Titus Livius, a Roman historian (55 b.c. to a.d. 17).

Pallas PallasAthene, the goddess of wisdom.

Pygmalion, Zeuxis (Zanzis), Apelles Pygmalion created a statue so beautiful that he

fell in love with it; Zeuxis was a fourth-century b.c. painter known for the beauty of his portraits;
Apelles was a famous Jewish painter who decorated the tomb of Darius. Legendarily, these
three argued over who had the best right to create Virginia’s beauty.

Bacchus (Bacus), Venus Bacchus was the god of wine. Virginia had never tasted wine
because it would arouse her interest in Venus, the goddess of love.

1.8 Summary of The Canterbury Tales

In April, with the beginning of spring, people of varying social classes come from all over
England to gather at the Tabard Inn in preparation for a pilgrimage to Canterbury to receive the
blessings of St. Thomas à Becket, the English martyr. Chaucer himself is one of the pilgrims.
That evening, the Host of the Tabard Inn suggests that each member of the group tell tales on
the way to and from Canterbury in order to make the time pass more pleasantly. The person
who tells the best story will be awarded an elegant dinner at the end of the trip. The Host
decides to accompany the party on its pilgrimage and appoints himself as the judge of the best
tale.

Shortly after their departure the day, the pilgrims draw straws. The Knight, who draws the
shortest straw, agrees to tell the first story — a noble story about knights and honor and love.
When the Knight finishes his story, the Host calls upon the Monk. The drunken Miller, however,
insists that it is his turn, and he proceeds to tell a story about a stupid carpenter. At the end of
his story, everyone roars with laughter — except the Reeve, who had once been a carpenter. To
get back at the Miller, the Reeve tells a lowbrow story about a cheating miller. At the end of The
Reeve’s Tale,the Cook, Roger, promises to tell a true story, but he doesn’t complete his tale.

By now, the first day is rapidly passing, and the Host hurries the pilgrims to get on with
their tales. Using the best legalese that he knows, he calls upon the Man of Law for the next
tale. The Man of Law proceeds to tell the tale of Constancy. The Host is very pleased with the
tale and asks the Parson to relate another one just as good. The Parson declines, however, and
 13

rebukes the Host for swearing and ridiculing him (the Parson). The Shipman breaks in and tells
a lively story to make up for so much moralizing.

The Wife of Bath is the next to tell a story, and she begins by claiming that happy marriages
occur only when a wife has sovereignty over her husband. When the Wife of Bath finishes her
story, the Friar offers his own tale about a summoner. The Host, however, always the
peacekeeper, admonishes the Friar to let the Summoner alone. The Summoner interrupts and
says the Friar can do as he likes and will be repaid with a tale about a friar. Nevertheless, the
Friar’s tale about a summoner makes the Summoner so angry that he tells an obscene story
about the fate of all friars and then continues with an obscene tale about one friar in particular.

After the Friar and Summoner finish their insulting stories about each other, the Host
turns to the Clerk and asks for a lively tale. The Clerk tells a story about Griselda and her
patience — a story that depicts the exact opposite of The Wife of Bath’s Tale. The Merchant
comments that he has no wife as patient and sweet as Griselda and tells of tale of a young wife
who cheats on her old husband. After the Merchant’s tale, the Host requests another tale about
love and turns to the Squire, who begins a tale of supernatural events. He does not finish,
however, because the Franklin interrupts him to compliment the Squire on his eloquence and
gentility. The Host, interested only get in getting the next story told, commands the Franklin to
begin his tale, which he does. The Franklin tells of a happy marriage.

Then the Physician offers his tale of the tragic woe of a father and daughter — a story that
upsets the Host so much that he requests a merry tale from the Pardoner. The Pardoner tells a
tale in which he proves that, even though he is not a moral man, he can tell a moral tale. At the
end of the tale, the Pardoner invites the pilgrims to buy relics and pardons from him and suggests
that the Host should begin because he is the most sinful. This comment infuriates the Host; the
Knight intercedes between the Host and the Pardoner and restores peace.

The pilgrims then hear a story by the Prioress about a young martyr. After the seriousness
of this tale, the Host turns to Chaucer and asks him for something to liven up the group. Chaucer
begins a story about Sir Topas but is soon interrupted by the Host, who exclaims that he is tired
of the jingling rhymes and wants Chaucer to tell a little something in prose. Chaucer complies
with the boring story of Melibee.

After the tale of Melibee, the Host turns to the merry Monk and demands a story that he
confidently expects to be a jovial and happy tale. Instead, the Monk relates a series of tales in
14

which tragedy befalls everyone. The Knight joins in with the Host in proclaiming that the Monk’s
tales are too much to bear and requests a merry tale. But the Monk refuses, and the Host turns
to the Nun’s Priest and calls for a tale. Thus the Nun’s Priest relates the tale of the barnyard
rooster, Chaunticleer, his lady, and a fox. The Second Nun then offers a tale that befits her
station — a retelling of the events in the life of St. Cecilia.

Suddenly, two men approach the pilgrims. One is a canon; the other his yeoman (servant).
The Host welcomes them and asks whether either has a tale to tell. The Canon’s Yeoman
answers that his master has many strange tales filled with mirth and laughter, yet when he
begins to tell of their life and actions, the Canon slips away embarrassed and frightened.

As the party nears Canterbury, the Host demands a story from the Manciple, who tells of
a white crow that can sing and talk. Finally, the Host turns to the last of the group, the Parson,
and bids him to tell his tale. The Parson agrees and proceeds with a sermon. The Tales end
with Chaucer’s retraction.

Study Questions
1. Who is the central character in the story told by the Prioress ?

2. Why is it appropriate that this tale should be told by the Prioress?

3. What is the theme of The Physician’s Tale?

4. In what way does Virginius represent true justice and how does Appius represent
justice corrupted?

5. What is the theme of The Monk’s Tale?

6. What type of tale does the Wife tell?

7. Why is it fitting that this tale should be told by the Wife of Bath?

8. Why is it appropriate that the Knight should tell the first story?

9. What is the theme of The Knight’s Tale?

CONCLUSION

These selections provide only a glimpse into the variety that makes The Canterbury
Tales such an intriguing literary work. This variety also introduces a question about the unity
of The Canterbury Tales. The issue of this unity is complex because Chaucer died before finishing
 15

the work, and the order of the tales, in part, results from editorial efforts made from the fifteenth
through the twentieth centuries to impart unity to what in fact remains a fragment of the intended
whole. Many crucial elements contribute to the artistic integrity of The Canterbury Tales as a
complete concept. The frame of the pilgrimage is maintained throughout, and dialogue among
the pilgrims links some of the tales, as in the transition between “The Knight’s Tale” and “The
Miller’s Tale.” Particular themes repeat themselves: “The Wife of Bath’s Tale,” for example, is
part of a larger group of tales discussing marriage. In its entirety, The Canterbury Tales provides
an infinite source for entertainment and enlightenment and remains as engrossing a work of
English literature as when Chaucer first composed it.

References
https://opencanterburytales.dsl.lsu.edu/refchaucerbio/

Open Access Companion to the Canterbury Tales

16

UNIT 2
POETIC FORMS DURING 16TH CENTURY
Structure
2.1 Introduction to poetic forms during 16th century

2.2 Lyric - Spenser’s Prothalamion

2.3 About Spenser’s Prothalamion

2.4 Analysis of Prothalamion in detail

2.5 The Ballad – definition and characteristics

2.6 About “Sir Patrick Spens

2.7 Sir Patrick Spens detailed analysis

2.8 Definition of sonnet and characteristics of sonnet form

2.9 Introduction to Wyatt and Surry

2.10 Sonnet 1 A Renouncing Of Love by Wyatt

2.11 Sonnet 2 Description of Spring” by Surrey

2.1 Introduction
In the literature of sixteenth-century England there existed, together with new currents,
many traditional elements. Writers continued to assume, and expect their readers to assume,
certain views about the nature of things that had been accepted for centuries past.

By the time the Italian Renaissance waned, its greatest poetic exports–the ballad and the
sonnet–found their way to England through Sir Thomas Wyatt. He introduced the forms to a
countryside attuned to lyrical and narrative poetry by the great Geoffrey Chaucer, whose
experiences with latter Provencal poets influenced the style credited with modernizing English
literature.

Sonnets swept through late 16th and early 17th century England, primarily through the
works of Wyatt, Sir Philip Sydney, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare. Spenser and
Shakespeare took the Petrarchan form that Wyatt introduced to the literary landscape and
added their individual touches, forming the three principal sonnet styles: Petrarchan, Spenserian,
and Shakespearean.
 17

Metaphysical poets

A century after the height of the Elizabethan era, a subtler, provocative lyric poetry
movement crept through an English literary countryside that sought greater depth in its verse.
The metaphysical poets defined and compared their subjects through nature, philosophy, love,
and musings about the hereafter – a great departure from the primarily religious poetry that had
immediately followed the wane of the Elizabethan era. Poets shared an interest in metaphysical
subjects and practiced similar means of investigating them.

Beginning with John Dryden, the metaphysical movement was a loosely woven string of
poetic works that continued through the often-bellicose 18th century, and concluded when William
Blake bridged the gap between metaphysical and romantic poetry. The poets sought to minimize
their place within the poem and to look beyond the obvious – a style that greatly influenced the
Romantics who followed. Among the greatest adherents were Samuel Cowley, John Donne,
George Herbert, Andrew Marvell, Abraham Cowley, Henry Vaughan, George Chapman, Edward
Herbert, and Katherine Philips.

Preview of past learning :This section will introduce you to the English poetic forms and
poets of the 16th century and their distinctive characteristics. A study of these varied poetic
forms will improve understanding of the different poetic genres. It demands some understanding
of the social conditions that existed in England during the 16thcentury .

Thematic linkage :The background especially knowing the political; and the personal
background of the writers will give a better understanding of the works that are to be discussed
in detail in this unit.

Plan of Study

Section 1 Lyric: Spenser’s Prothalamion

Section 2 Ballad: Ballad of St, Patrick Spens

Section 3 Sonnet : Wyatt’s and Surrey’s Sonnet

Sonnet 1 Sonnet 1 : A Renouncing Of Love by Wyatt

Sonnet 2 ‘Description of Spring” by Surrey

Also called “The Soote Season “

18

2.1 Lyric Spenser’s Prothalamion

1.1 Learning Objective: This unit will introduce you to the poetic forms that were prevalent
during the 16th centuries specially the lyric. A lyric poem is a comparatively short, non-narrative
poem in which a single speaker presents a state of mind or an emotional state. Subcategories
of the lyric are, for example elegy, ode, sonnet and dramatic monologue and most occasional
poetry. E.g. of lyric poem is Spenser’s Prothalamion

The sonnet was originally a love poem which dealt with the lover’s sufferings and hopes.
It originated in Italy and became popular in England in the Renaissance, when Thomas Wyatt and
the Earl of Surrey translated and imitated the sonnets written by Petrarch (Petrarchan sonnet).

Occasional poetry is written for a specific occasion: a wedding (then it is called

an epithalamion, for instance Spenser’s Epithalamion),

A ballad is a song, originally transmitted orally, which tells a story. It is an important form
of folk poetry which was adapted for literary uses from the sixteenth century onwards. The
ballad stanza is usually a four-line stanza, alternating tetrameter and trimeter. e.g.Ballad of St,
Patrick Spens

The sonnet began in Italy in the 13th century, Thomas Wyatt 1503-1542, was one of the
first English poets to translate and utilize the form. He used the Petrarchan octave but introduced
a rhyming couplet at the end of the sestet. His friend, the Earl of Surrey also initiated more
rhyme.

About Spenser

Edmund Spenser was born in 1552 or 1553. No documentation exists to establish his
exact date of birth, but the year is known in part due to Spenser’s own poetry. In Amoretti Sonnet
60, Spenser writes that he is forty-one years old. We know this poem was published in 1594
(and written only shortly prior to its publication), so the year of his birth can be closely guessed.

Spenser matriculated at the University of Cambridge on May 20, 1569. Ten years later he
published his first publicly-released poetic work, The Sheapheards’ Calendar, to positive reviews.
He then began work on his magnum opus, The Faerie Queene, publishing the first three of the
projected twelve books in 1590.
 19

Spenser was an English subject during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, to whose court he
aspired. He offered Elizabeth The Faerie Queene in an attempt to gain her favor.

Back in Ireland, Spenser pressed on with his writing, in spite of the burdens of his estate.
In early 1595 he published Amoretti and Epithalamion, a sonnet sequence and a marriage ode
celebrating his marriage to Elizabeth Boyle after what appears to have been an impassioned
courtship in 1594. This group of poems is unique among Renaissance sonnet sequences in
that it celebrates a successful love affair culminating in marriage. The Epithalamion further
idealizes the marriage by building into its structure the symbolic numbers 24 (the number of
stanzas) and 365 (the total number of long lines), allowing the poem to allude to the structure of
the day and of the year. The marriage is thus connected with the encompassing harmonies of
the universe, and the cyclical processes of change and renewal are expressed in the procreation
of the two mortal lovers.

2.3 About Spenser’s Prothalamion

2.3.1 Introduction- About Spenser’s Prothalamion

Prothalamion, the commonly used name of Prothalamion; or, A Spousall Verse in Honour
of the Double Marriage of Ladie Elizabeth and Ladie Katherine Somerset, is a poem by Edmund
Spenser (1552–1599), one of the important poets of the Tudor Period in England. Published in
1596[1], it is a nuptial song that he composed that year on the occasion of the twin marriage of
the daughters of the Earl of Worcester, Elizabeth Somerset and Katherine Somerset, to Henry
Guildford and William Petre, 2nd Baron Petre respectively.

Prothalamion is written in the conventional form of a marriage song. The poem begins
with a description of the River Thames where Spenser finds two beautiful maidens. The poet
proceeds to praise them and wishing them all the blessings for their marriages. The poem
begins with a fine description of the day when on which he is writing the poem:

Calm was the day and through the trembling air

The sweet breathing Zephyrus did softly play.

The poet is standing near the Thames River and finds a group of nymphs with baskets
collecting flowers for the new brides. The poet tells us that they are happily making the bridal
crowns for Elizabeth and Katherine. He goes on his poem describing two swans at the Thames,
relating it to the myth of Jove and Leda. According to the myth, Jove falls in love with Leda and
20

comes to court her in the guise of a beautiful swan. The poet feels that the Thames has done
justice to his nuptial song by “flowing softly” according to his request: “Sweet Thames run softly
till I end my song.”

2.3.2 Definition of lyric

Lyric poetry is a formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings,
typically spoken in the first person. The term derives from a form of Ancient Greek literature,
the lyric, which was defined by its musical accompaniment, usually on a stringed instrument
known as a lyre. The term owes its importance in literary theory to the division developed
by Aristotle between three broad categories of poetry: lyrical, dramatic, and epic.

Lyric is a collection of verses and choruses, making up a complete song, or a short and
non-narrative poem. A lyric uses a single speaker, who expresses personal emotions or thoughts.
Lyrical poems, which are often popular for their musical quality and rhythm, are pleasing to the
ear, and are easily put to music.

The term lyric originates from the Greek word “lyre,” which is an instrument used by the
Grecians to play when reading a poem. Lyrical poets demonstrate specific moods and emotions
through words. Such moods express a range of emotions, from extreme to nebulous, about life,
love, death, or other experiences of life. Read on to learn more about lyric in literature.

2.3.3 Features of lyric

A lyrical poet addresses his audience directly by portraying their state of mind or emotions.
That is why a lyrical poem expresses personal emotions of the poet. The themes of lyrical
poems are also emotional and lofty, enabling the readers to look into the life of things deeply.
That is why such poems have universal appeal, because readers can relate their feelings with
the poem

Most lyrical poems are short, but there are longer examples.

They also tend to be written in first person and include the writer in the poem.

Another characteristic of lyrical poetry is in the types of moods and emotions the poem
expresses. These emotions tend to lean toward the extremes in life, such as love, death or loss.
Other emotions can be expressed, but the emotion is always very intense.
 21

A lyric poem doesn't tell a story that portrays certain actions and characters. Instead, it is
addressed directly to the reader, where the poet uses effective imagery, emotional evocativeness,
uniqueness and effective themes.

A lyric poem should communicate with clarity, contiguity and focused impact. It is shorter
and less complex than any other form of poems.

Love, companionship and friendship are three of the most common topics people choose
for lyric poetry.

2.4 Analysis of Prothalamion in detail

The poem has two themes—the obvious one of celebrating the ladies going to their
betrothal and the personal theme which serves for introduction and passing reference once
again towards the end. The tone of the two is in great contrast. The first one is gay, full of colour,
beauty and hope of fulfillment; the second sad and tragic. The poet is conscious of the contrast
and makes an attempt to suppress the sad note in a gay poem. At one point the poem verges
on the elegiac but the poet deliberately steers himself to the opposite shore on consideration of
decorum.

It Is a cleverly contrived poem. So far as the poet is concerned the more important theme
is the personal one, the statement of neglected merit, the loss of the great patron and the
acquiring of a new one in Essex. But this is hidden and artfully introduced. The most powerful
lines are those devoted to Essex to whom Spenser devotes about 23 lines. These lines are
direct address. The poem is skillfully directed to take in this matter. The train of thought and the
plan of poem are so conducted that the passage on Essex is integral and not superimposed.
The bridegroom’s play a minor role and are colorless and have only a reflected glory which they
take from Essex.

Structure Of The Poem

The verse is an adaptation of the Italian canzone of 18 lines with varying rhyme scheme.
The last two lines serve as a burden/refrain to the whole poem. The last line is repeated with
variation. And the penultimate line slightly varied to suit the meaning. Poem is lyrical throughout
and the repetition adds to the lyrical effect. The organization of stanza makes for great variety
in the cadence with the mixing of 10 syllabic and 6 syllabic lines. The successful handling of the
very complicated arrangement shows the poet’s mastery over a new metre.
22

In Spenser’s poetry we get a characteristic blending of mythology and realism. Spenser

added a new dignity to English verse by handling it in an exalted manner with a unique style,
thought and art. Prothalamion, a spousal verse by Edmund Spenser is one of the loveliest
wedding odes. The verse is essentially the wedlock of twin sisters; Lady Catherine and Lady
Elizabeth with Henry Gilford and William Peter. On comparison with Epithalamion, the verse is
considered less realistic and unappealing. Spenser incorporates classical imagery strongly with
a beautiful atmosphere in the poem.

Prothalamion - Summary
Stanza 1:

The poet walks along the banks of River Thames to forget the worries of his personal life.
He was completely frustrated with the job at the court and all he wanted is some mental peace.
The cool breeze covered the heat of the sun by reflecting a shade of tender warmth. There are
flowers everywhere and the birds chirp happily. The poet as a refrain requests the river to flow
softly until he ends his song.

Stanza 2:

The poet happens to see a group of nymphs along the banks of the river. Here the poet
makes use of first Mythological figure, the nymphs which are supernatural maidens known for
their purity. Every nymph looked stunning and had loose strands of hair falling to the shoulders.
Nymphs together prepared bouquets of flowers with primroses, white lilies, red roses, tulips,
violets and daisies.

Stanza 3:

As the second mystic entity, Spenser introduces the swans. Swans that swam across the
river looked holy and whiter than Jupiter who disguised as a swan to win his love, Leda. But,
yes, what Spenser says next is that these swans are shinier than Leda herself. The River
Thames requests its waters not to dirty the sacred wings of the swan.

Stanza 4:

The nymphs were all dumb struck watching the swans swim across the river. Swans are
usually assigned to drawing the chariot of Venus, the goddess of love. The white lilies are
matched to the purity or virginity of the nymphs.
 23

Stanza 5:

As the next step, the nymphs prepare posies and a basket of flowers which look like
bridal chamber adorned with flowers. The nymphs on excitement of the upcoming wedding
throw the flowers over the River Thames and birds. The nymphs also prepare a wedding song.
With all the fragrance of flowers, Thames exactly looked like the Peneus, the river of ancient
fame flowing along the Tempe and the Thessalian valley.

Stanza 6:

The song of the nymph mesmerizes with an enchanting musical effect. Here Spenser
wishes the couple live forever with swans’ as these birds are the wonder of heaven. He also
prays to Cupid and Venus to bless the couple with love and care and be safe from deceit and
dislike. With endless affluence and happiness, their children must be a sign of dignity and a
threat to immoral people.

Stanza 7:

The river Lee, with headquarters at Kent, flows with happiness on such an occasion. As
the birds flew above the swans, the sight looked like moon (Cynthia) shining above the stars.

Stanza 8:

Once the wedding starts at London, the poet begins to recollect his encounters at the
mansion and the building where the wedding occurs.

Stanza 9:

The Earl of Essex lived in the mighty castle which actually was the venue of the wedding.
He was so chivalrous that he served as a danger to foreign countries. His brave attack on Spain
shot him to fame and entire Spain shook at his very name. Queen Elizabeth was so proud of
him and he deserves to be celebrated with a poem.

Stanza 10:

The Earl of Sussex walked towards the river and he looked fresh with his lovely golden
hair. He was accompanied by two young men who were brave, handsome and glorious. They
resembled the Twins of Jupiter namely, Castor and Pollux. The men held the hands of the
brides and their wedlock begun thereby.
24

Conclusion

Spenser was considered in his day to be the greatest of English poets, who had glorified
England and its language by his long allegorical poem The Faerie Queene, just as Virgil had
glorified Rome and the Latin tongue by his epic poem the Aeneid. Prothalamion is embroidered
with long lasting style and simplicity and is still read today with admiration.

Spenser had a strong influence upon his immediate successors, and the sensuous features
of his poetic style, as well as his nine-line stanza form, were later admired and imitated by such
poets as Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley in the Romantic period of the late 18th and
early 19th centuries.

The Ballad

Plan of study - In this lesson you will be made familiar with the ballad form of literature,
the distinguishing features of the ballad, detailed summary and analysis of the ballad of Sir
Patrick Spens

Content

1. What is a ballad

2. Characteristics of Ballad

3. About the ballad- “Sir Patrick Spens”

4. Summary of the ballad”Sir Patrick Spens”

2.5 The Ballad – definition and characteristics

1. What is a ballad

Most of the ballad examples in ancient times used to be passed from generation to
generation through oral traditions. This is because there was no language in which to write
them down.

However, in the modern world, the preservation and transmission of such literary treasures
has become easier. The availability of advanced technology and common languages has
improved not only the documentation, but the accessibility of these resources for people in
every part of the world.
 25

Ballads, mostly rely on simple and easy-to-understand language, or dialect from its origin.
Stories about hardships, tragedies, love, and romance are standard ingredients of the ballad.
This is irrespective of geographical origins.

Another conspicuous element of any ballad is the recurrence of certain lines at regular
intervals. Ballads can also be in interrogative form, with appropriate answers to every question
asked. Ballads seldom offer a direct message about a certain event, character, or situation. It is
left to the audience to deduce the moral of the story from the whole narration.

2. Characteristics of a Ballad

 Every ballad is a short story in verse, which dwells upon only on one particular
episode of the story. There is certainly only one episode of the story in a ballad and
the poet needs to complete the story within the limits of small number of stanzas

 Another fundamental characteristic of a ballad is its universal appeal. Every single

ballad touches upon a specific subject, which bears universal significance. It’s not
simply restricted to his personality or his country, rather; it deals with the whole
humanity.

 Use of colloquial language is an indispensable feature of a ballad. The poet has a

tendency to make use of day-to-day and commons words instead of bombastic and
flowery language in the ballad.

 Unlike other kinds of poems, ballad has an abrupt and unexpected opening. The
poem starts all of a sudden, without providing any details about the subject matter.
Similarly, the ending of many ballads may also be abrupt and unexpected.

 There are no extra details about the surroundings, atmosphere or environment.

The poem starts suddenly and the reader has to visualise the setting himself through
the words of the poet. Thus ballads lack in superfluous details.

 Dialogue is also an indispensable feature of a ballad. The story is mostly told through
dialogues.

 Generally, in every ballad, there is a refrain. Refrain is a phrase or a line, which is

repeated again and again after a stanza.

 The poet tends to use stock phrases so that it may be easier to be memorized by
the readers. That is why; every ballad is easier than any poem to be memorized.
26

 Use of ballad stanza is another remarkable characteristic of a ballad. Every ballad

is written in ballad stanza. Ballad stanza is a stanza, which consists of four lines
with abcb rhyme scheme. There are four accented syllables in the first and third
line, while in the second and the fourth lines there are three accented syllables.

 Use of supernatural elements is an imperative feature of a ballad. John Keats and

Coleridge’s ballads are best examples in this regard.

 Usually, the themes of most ballads are tragic, but it must be kept in mind that there
are some ballads, which are comic in nature.

 Simplicity is an additional characteristic of a ballad. Approximately, all ballads are

simple in structure, style and diction, which make them the most popular form of
poetry.

2.6 About the ballad- “Sir Patrick Spens”

“Sir Patrick Spens” is a tragic ballad of Scotland. First published in 1765, it is probably
much older than that date, probably by several centuries. While a real Sir Patrick Spens has
never been identified, it is possible there was a real thirteenth-century event involving the daughter
of the King of Norway on which the poem is based

Sir Patrick Spens remains one of the most anthologized of British popular ballads, partly
because it exemplifies the traditional ballad form. The strength of this ballad, its emotional
force, lies in its unadorned narrative which progresses rapidly to a tragic end that has been
fore-shadowed almost from the beginning. It was first published in eleven stanzas in 1765 in
Bishop Thomas Percy’s Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, based on “two MS. copies transmitted
from Scotland”.

The story as told in the ballad has multiple versions, but they all follow the same basic
plot. The King of Scotland has called for the greatest sailor in the land to command a ship for a
royal errand. The name “Sir Patrick Spens” is mentioned by a courtier, and the king despatches
a letter. Sir Patrick is dismayed at being commanded to put to sea in the dead of winter, clearly
realising this voyage could will be his last.

Versions differ somewhat at this point. Some indicate that a storm sank the ship in the
initial crossing, thus ending the ballad at this point, while many have Sir Patrick safely
reaching Norway. In Norway tension arises between the Norwegian lords and the Scots, who
 27

are accused of being a financial burden on the king. Sir Patrick, taking offence, leaves the
following day. Nearly all versions, whether they have the wreck on the outward voyage or the
return, relate the bad omen of seeing “the new mune late yestreen, with the auld mune in her
airms”, and modern science agrees the tides would be at maximum force at that time. The
winter storms have the best of the great sailor, sending him and the Scottish lords to the bottom
of the sea.

2.7 Sir Patrick Spens detailed analysis

4. Summary of the ballad”Sir Patrick Spens”

Sir Patrick Spens is a written version of a song that was passed on by word of mouth for
hundreds of years, leaving the author or poet, unknown. It was thought to probably first been
sung in communities along the Scottish-English border in the fourteenth century. The poem is
based on an early Scottish Ballad. A ballad is a poem or song that tells a popular story in short
stanzas. \

In the most common version, the poem has eleven stanzas, each consisting of four lines,
with the second and fourth lines rhyming. Even in the modernized version, the language suggests
a long-ago Scots dialect that is more easily understood when the words are said aloud than
when they are seen printed on the page. This is entirely appropriate and in keeping with the
history of ballads, anonymous narrative songs that were preserved by oral transmission long
before they were written down.

Sir Patrick Spence, or Spens, of the ballad may have been Sir Patrick Vans of Barnbarroch,
the original ambassador sent to negotiate the marriage between James VI. and Anne of Denmark,
and that the ballad may have voiced the rumour of disaster to the expedition of James VI. when
in company with Sir Patrick Vans he set out during tempestuous weather in October 1589 to
bring home his bride, who had been driven back by stormy weather to the coast of Norway. But
whatever the origin of the ballad, the theory of its unique antiquity rests on a mere inference of
Scott, which there are no sufficient facts to warrant. More than this, the ballad could not have
been preserved from so remote a period, in any near resemblance to its present literary form;
and the absence of any references to it in the older writers is almost proof positive that it had no
existence until towards the close of the sixteenth century.
28

While there is not enough detail to settle the question fully, it does not seem likely that the
King of Scotland deliberately intended harm to Sir Patrick Spens. Instead, we see in this poem
the familiar problem of too great a distance between those who command and those who obey,
the fatal separation between the generals who give orders and the privates who must carry
them out. The king has an urgent mission that he wants completed, involving the movement of
“the king’s daugher of Norway” to Scotland:

THE king sits in Dunfermline town

Drinking the blude-red wine;
‘O whare will I get a skeely skipper
To sail this new ship o’ mine?’

Note the way the king has asked the question: he has demanded to be told of a “skeely”
(skilful) captain. Given this, we need not doubt that the advice of the “old knight” is sincere:

‘Sir Patrick Spens is the best sailor

That ever sail’d the sea.’

The asked question has been answered, and a skilful sailor nominated. The question that
no one has asked, no doubt because it has occurred to no one, is whether it is a good idea to
go on a voyage at all at this time of year.

When Sir Patrick receives the order, we note that he laments it loudly, but does not think
of questioning it:

‘O wha is this has done this deed

And tauld the king o’ me,
To send us out, at this time o’ year,
To sail upon the sea?

It is of course possible that the King has meant Sir Patrick’s doom, or that the person who
nominated him did it with malicious intent, but on the other hand, the King has sent Sir Patrick
on a royal mission whose failure will reflect badly on the King himself, will rob him of a number
of his lords, and will probably strain relations with Norway, which will not appreciate its princess
being drowned due to Scottish carelessness. Again, the person who makes the nomination is
an old knight, not a sailor. It seems more likely that the King and his old knight have concentrated
too narrowly on the mere question of skill, and have forgotton or disregarded how difficult it
 29

must be for a man like Sir Patrick to question or defy a direct royal order delivered in writing and
presented as a matter of urgency.

Conclusion

No doubt the ballad of Sir Patrick Spens remains a favourite because of its universal
appeal.

2.8 Definition of sonnet and characteristics of sonnet form

Section C Section 3 Sonnet Wyatt’s and Surrey

Plan of study - In this lesson you will be made familiar with the sonnet form of literature,
the distinguishing features of the sonnet, detailed summary and analysis of the sonnets of
Wyatt and Surrey

Contents

1 What is a sonnet

2 Characteristics of a sonnet

3. About Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl Of Surrey

4. Sonnet 1A Renouncing Of Love by Wyatt

5. Sonnet 2Description of Spring” by Surrey

6. Conclusion

2.8 Definition of sonnet and characteristics of sonnet form

1. What is a sonnet

The sonnet began in Italy in the 13th century, Thomas Wyatt 1503-1542, was one of the
first English poets to translate and utilize the form. He used the Petrarchan octave but introduced
a rhyming couplet at the end of the sestet. His friend the Earl of Surrey also initiated more
rhyme.

Surrey was for generations considered the more accomplished poet, but Wyatt, who was
almost fifteen years older, is for many modern readers the more rewarding. His meters are less
polished than Surrey’s, but the human voice speaks through this very lack of smoothness. The
30

best lines in his characteristically rugged, dramatic style have been compared with the poetry of
John Donne.

2. Characteristics of the sonnet

The Italian form was restricted to 5 rhymes. After Wyatt and Surrey the sonnet could have
7 rhymes. They also shifted the sonnet away from the slightly more intellectual and argumentative
Petrarchan form, and gave new importance to the ending, declamatory couplet.

The defining features of the Wyatt/Surrey sonnet are:

 aquatorzain, written with a Petrarchan octave followed by an envelope quatrain

ending with a rhyming couplet.

 metric, primarily iambic pentameter.

 the rhyme scheme is abbaabbacddcee.

 it is composed with the volta (non physical gap) or pivot (a shifting or tilting of the
main line of thought) sometime after the 2nd quatrain.

 distinguished by the declamatory couplet.

2.9 Introduction to Wyatt and Surry

3. About Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, are generally considered the
inaugurators of the golden age of English poetry in the reign of Elizabeth I. Both men were
educated in the humanistic tradition, and they early became familiar with the polished lyric
poetry of the Italians and the French. They attempted to demonstrate in their own works that
English, too, was a language flexible and elegant enough for court poetry. Skillful experimenters
with metrics, they imitated a number of the verse forms popular on the Continent, including the
sonnet, ottavarima, terzarima, and the rondeau. Many of the lyrics of both poets are based
upon the Petrarchan conventions of the cruel, scornful lady and her forlorn, rejected lover; a
number of the sonnets are, in fact, either translations or close adaptations of Petrarch’s works.

While Wyatt and Surrey are most often mentioned as precursors of Elizabethan poetry, it
has been pointed out that their poetry is, in fact, quite different from that of Sidney, Spenser,
and their followers. In the work of Wyatt and Surrey there is a directness, a simplicity, and an
awareness of the natural world that seems closer to Chaucer and his contemporaries than to
 31

the Renaissance poets. They form, in a sense, a bridge between the medieval world and the
Elizabethan Age.

Like Donne, Wyatt often conveys a strong sense of personal emotion in his works, even
in those which are translated from the Italian and full of the conventional poses of the sonneteer.

2.10 Sonnet 1 A Renouncing Of Love by Wyatt

FAREWELL, Love, and all thy laws for ever;
Thy baited hooks shall tangle me no more:
Senec, and Plato, call me from thy lore,
To perfect wealth, my wit for to endeavour;
In blind error when I did persever, 5

Thy sharp repulse, that pricketh aye so sore,

Taught me in trifles that I set no store;
But scaped forth thence, since, liberty is lever:
Therefore, farewell, go trouble younger hearts,
And in me claim no more authority: 10

With idle youth go use thy property,

And thereon spend thy many brittle darts:
For, hitherto though I have lost my time,
Me list no longer rotten boughs to clime.

Summary of sonnet “:A Renouncing Of Love by Wyatt”

Lines 1-8

The poet first bids goodbye forever to Love personified and its rules. He states that the
‘baited hooks’ will no longer ensnare him. He is called away from Love by Seneca and Plato to
the real riches of wit and intellect.

He gives the reason for this change of heart in line 5 and 6, as he sees that when he
made ignorant mistakes, the cruel words of Love pricked him, and instructed him instead in
pointless lessons that he no longer cares for. In line 8 he says that he has escaped since
freedom is his lever. Another interpretation of this line utilizes preferable as the meaning for
‘lever’; Wyatt is saying freedom is preferable to love.
32

Lines 9-14

In the final sestet, the poet takes his leave of Love, directing it to ‘younger hearts’. He
claims that Love no longer has any authority over him, and suggests it takes its offerings to the
young and lazy. In line 12 he suggests that Love uses up its fragile arrows, as although he has
lost time over Love, he will no longer climb rotten branches to reach his goal.

Analysis

It is important to remember that Wyatt’s use of punctuation was limited and sporadic. He
did not capitalize to indicate personification, so later editors capitalized ‘Love’. It is still likely,
however, that love is being personified here. In renouncing the ‘laws’ of love, the poet is rejecting
the rules of court and society as well as the emotional effects of intense relationships. The
metaphor of ‘baited hooks’ works as an allegory for fishing, but also presents as an oxymoron
in the ‘bait’ being the pleasure and the ‘hook’ being the painful consequence of the former.

By the third line, the poet tells us that he is now drawn to more cerebral concerns, namely
studying the philosophies of Plato and Seneca. Seneca was commonly studied at universities
in Tudor times. A Stoic, Seneca asserted that there were three choices of how to live; a life of
theory, a life of politics and a life of pleasure. Here the poet is advocating leaving pleasure
behind to focus on a more ‘perfect wealth’ of education and politics. It is possible to read
‘perfect’ as a verb as well as a noun; and this interpretation would imply that the poet is to
devote his time to greater study and self-improvement.

He explains in line 5 how he was forced into ‘blind error’, implying that he has been
blinded by love to make poor choices. The reader may be reminded of the lines from
Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice –

‘But love is blind and lovers cannot see

The pretty follies that themselves commit’ (Act II Scene 6)

However, Shakespeare did not compose these lines until 1596. It is likely that the theory
of blinding love had circulated in popular consciousness before Shakespeare immortalized the
words.

The narrator was pricked by the cruel insults and feels he was instructed in things he now
considers pointless. In line 8 the narrator explains that he has escaped, devoting himself to
freedom which extracts him from the bonds of love. He tells love to seek out ’younger hearts’,
 33

indicating more naïve and innocent lovers who have yet to develop the cynicism he now feels.

He is relieved by line 10, as he realizes that Love no longer has power and authority over
him. He directs Love to the young who are less busy on other affairs (we know Wyatt himself
had an extensive political portfolio as part of the court) and to share the wealth of love with
them. He suggests Love uses its ‘brittle darts’ on these more vulnerable prey as, although he
has lost time in his pointless dalliance with Love, he has learned to not pursue a pointless
objective, which is illustrated in the metaphor forming the last line of the poem – ‘Me list no
longer rotten boughs to clime.’

The poet’s message may intentionally be being conveyed to others at court, pointing out
that the various relationships and complications within the social environment of the court often
distracted officials from their true courtly duties. The point may perhaps even have been directed
at Henry VIII himself, as indeed his sexual desires and changes of attentions led to deaths,
charges of treason and even major changes of law to facilitate the king’s desires.

2.11 Sonnet 2Description of Spring” by Surrey

5. Sonnet 2Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. 1516–47

‘Description of Spring” by Surrey( “The Soote Season “)

THE soote season, that bud and bloom forth brings,
With green hath clad the hill and eke the vale:
The nightingale with feathers new she sings;
The turtle to her make hath told her tale.
Summer is come, for every spray now springs:
The hart hath hung his old head on the pale;
The buck in brake his winter coat he flings;
The fishesflete with new repairèd scale.
The adder all her slough away she slings;
The swift swallow pursueth the flies smale;
The busy bee her honey now she mings;
Winter is worn that was the flowers’ bale.
And thus I see among these pleasant things
Each care decays, and yet my sorrow springs.
Analysis of “Description of Spring”?
34

The theme of Henry Howard’s poem “Description of Spring” is change. The speaker of
the poem is reflecting on the spring which is to come.

 If you look at the title, you see that the poem is about spring and the rebirth of
nature. This is an Elizabethan sonnet whose rhymes are ababababababaa. The
speaker exposes the beauty of nature´s revival in springtime; however, his last
couplet shows his sadness for not being part of this renewal.

 The poem is rich in visual imagery. Thus, “With green hath clad the hill and eke the
vale” (line 2), makes the reader to see the rebirth of the flowers, and the greenness
in the hills and valleys. Moreover, the poet uses consonance, which is the repetition
of a consonant in the beginning of the word. For example you have “Summer is
come, for every spray now springs” (line 5), in which the consonant s is repeated in
the words “summer”, “spray” and “springs”. Or in:” The hart hath hung his old head
on the pale ;”( line 6), in which H is repeated. The speaker also uses metaphors,
when he refers to the hart hanging his old head, or the buck flinging in his winter
coat. Those devices help the reader to perceive the changes in nature. The first
twelve lines connote exaltation and euphoria, whereas the two last couplets imply
sorrow and unhappiness.

 If you look again to the title you see that “Wherein each thing renews, save only the
Lover”. The word “save” comes from the Latin word “salvus” which means except.
Thus, the theme of the poem is alterations and changes in nature, in which the
speaker is not included. The poet Henry Howard lived in the early fifteenth century,
which explains the complex and intrinsic language and the use of old English words.

 Henry Howard’s summery sonnet, in summary, is about the coming of summer and
the various ways in which a world previously in a sort of stasis or hibernation is now
springing into life. (‘Soote’ in ‘Soote Season’ means ‘sweet’.) However, despite this,
the poet’s sorrow also springs into new life at this time. . The Earl of Surrey makes
his sorrow all the more piquant precisely because it is surrounded by reminders of
joy, life, activity, and vibrancy.

‘The soote season’ is not only one of the first English sonnets written in English; it was
written by the very man who invented the sonnet form that Shakespeare would later put his
indelible stamp on.
 35

 “Eke” here is another medieval throwback; it means “also”.

 It is the interconnectedness, and interactivity, of the natural world which give this
poem its power. The turtle is telling a tale to the nightingale , whereas the speaker
remains isolated.

 A hart is an old word for a stag dear, from the Old English “heorot”. The Dutch word
for deear remains “hert”.

 “Flete” means literally “float”, although we would probably use the verb “swim” here.

Conclusion

Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1516/17-1547) was the poet who invented the
Shakespearean sonnet, sometimes known as the English sonnet. It was the Earl of Surrey who
made the innovation of ending the sonnet with a rhyming couplet, and in ‘The Soote Season’ he
uses this to brilliant effect. This is one of the first sonnets written in English, but it’s not as well
known as it perhaps should be. Wyatt and Surrey continue to hold an indomitable position as
far as the sonnet form is concerned.

References

http://www.poetrymagnumopus.com/index.:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Spenser

https://www.enotes.com/topics/epithalamion

https://www.enotes.com/topics/lyric-poetry-spenser

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/

A G George Studies in Poetry

David Daiches 1981n A critical History of English Litrerature

36

UNIT 3
POETIC FORMS DURING THE 17TH CENTURY
Contents
3.1 Definition of Metaphysical Poetry

3.2 About John Donne

3.3 The Canonization

3.4 Analysis of Poem - The Canonization

3.5 Poem no 2 Introduction to The Ecstasy by John Donne

3.6 Poem no 2 Detailed Analysis to The Ecstasy by John Donne

Review of past learning : This section will introduce you to the English poetic forms and
poets of the 17th century and their distinctive characteristics especially about metaphysical poets.
A study of these varied poetic forms will improve understanding of the different poetic genres.
It demands some understanding of the social conditions that existed in England during the 16th
and 17thcenturies .

Thematic linkage :The background especially knowing the political; and the personal
background of the writers will give a better understanding of the works that are to be discussed
in detail here.

Plan of Study
1. Definition of Metaphysical Poetry

2. Features of Metaphysical Poetry

3. About John Donne

4. The Canonization

4.1 About The Poem

4.2 Summary Of The Poem

4.3 Analysis Of Poem

4.4 Structure Of The Poem - Detailed Analysis

 37

4.5 Conclusion

5. Poem no 2 Extasie

____________________________________________________________

3.1 Definition of Metaphysical Poetry

According to T. S. Eliot, it is extremely difficult to define metaphysical poetry. The poetry
of Herbert, Vaughan, Crashaw, Cowley and Donne is usually called metaphysical. However, it
is difficult to find any precise use of metaphor, simile or other conceit, which is common to all
these poets. Donne and often Cowley, “employ a device which is sometimes considered
characteristically metaphysical: the elaboration of a figure of speech to the farthest stage
to which ingenuity can carry it”.

We can say that metaphysical poetry is the elaboration of far-fetched images and
communicated association of poet’s mental processes.e.g.Donne develops a comparison
of two lovers to a pair of compasses.

2. Features of metaphysical poetry

Johnson employed the term ‘metaphysical poets’, apparently having Donne, Cleveland and
Cowley chiefly in mind. In their poetry, he remarks:

the most heterogeneous ideas are yoked by violence together.

Eliot adopts the opposite method to define metaphysical poetry. Instead of calling these
poets metaphysical, Eliot calls them “the poets of the seventeenth century”. He assumes
that these poets were the direct and normal development of the precedent age. Without
prejudicing their case by the adjective ‘metaphysical’, we may consider “whether their virtue
was not something permanently valuable”.

Eliot lays emphasis on the synthetic quality in these poets. Eliot praises the metaphysical
poets for their successful attempt to unite what resists unification. To unite thought and feeling,
the poetic and unpoetic, form and content, was the main quality of the metaphysical
poets. Eliot points out the difference by dividing the poets into two kinds: intellectual
poets and reflective poets.
38

Dissociation of Sensibility

The poets of the 17th century possessed a mechanism of sensibility which could
devour any kind of experience. They are simple, artificial, difficult or fantastic. In the 17th
century dissociation of sensibility set in and Milton and Dryden, the two great poets carried on
with this process. While the language became more refined, the feeling became cruder. The
language became unnatural and artificial. But this development of language reduced the
importance of feeling. The logical conclusion of the influence of Milton and Dryden was that:

The sentimental age began early in the 18th century and continued.

In Shelley and Keats, there are traces of a struggle towards unification of sensibility. But
they died and reflective poets Tennyson and Browning held the ground. If there had been no
gap between the 17th and 18th centuries, poets like Donne would not have been called
metaphysical.

Eliot defends the metaphysical poets that the charges such as quaintness, obscurity,
wittiness and unintelligibility are found even in serious poets. The metaphysical ideas are not
simply the possession of this group of poets. They are found in other poets as well.

In conclusion we can say that

*the main quality of the metaphysical poets is their fidelity to thought and feeling, an
attempt to merge into one whole the most heterogeneous ideas;

*, if dissociation of sensibility has not taken place during the 17th century and a gap had
not occurred, they would not have been called metaphysical;

* modern poets are tending to become like them in their use of language and ideas and
hence the metaphysical poets are in the direct current of English poetry.

3.2 About John Donne

John Donne (1572-1631) was arguably the first of the ‘metaphysical poets’, Donne writes
about love in a refreshingly direct and honest way. And yet, as the label ‘metaphysical’ suggests,
his poetry is also full of complex and convoluted images and analogies, and
decidedly indirect ideas that circle around the thing he is discussing.
 39

By 1610 Donne had begun to write polemics against his own faith, Catholicism. It is not
clear exactly what turned Donne away from this faith which his family had so famously adhered
to in the face of adversity in years past. Perhaps Donne did have a true spiritual change of
heart, or perhaps the difficulties of his faith and the needs of his growing family made him
accept (or at least pretend to accept) the dominant faith of his time.

In 1611 Donne printed his first poem, an elegy for Sir Robert Drury’s daughter. Anne
Donne died after giving birth to their twelfth child (stillborn) in 1617.

After Anne’s death, Donne devoted himself wholeheartedly to religion and theology, and
he became a successful clergyman and a highly sought sermonist.

As was the fashion and custom of the day, Donne’s poems were mostly circulated in
manuscript form. A collection of them was not made until after his death in 1633. The fashion
of poetry was slowly changing from the Elizabethan freedom of expression to a more restrained
style. Donne’s existing ouevre spans his early sensuality and intellectual experimentation up to
his most dogmatic and theological works of his later years. His style, though recognizable
throughout, changed with his changes in status and the events around him.

3.3 THE CANONIZATION

4.Poem No 1 THE CANONIZATION
Introduction

4.1 About The Poem

4.2 Summary Of The Poem

4.3 Analysis Of Poem

4.4 Structure Of The Poem - Detailed Analysis

4.5 Conclusion

“THE CANONIZATION”

IntroductionDonne has enjoyed a rather cyclical popularity with critics and the reading
public, going through phases of celebration and ignorance. He is, for most readers, a difficult
poet. Other metaphysical poets, such as Andrew Marvell, have enjoyed a steadier, if less
glamorous, regard, since much of their poetry is more accessible. Donne, who almost never
40

seems completely accessible even at his most seemingly transparent, requires great dedication
on the part of the reader—and, perhaps, gives more lasting rewards.

A division in Donne’s poetry can be drawn between his early, sensual love poetry (often
full of Christian imagery but carnal in tone) and his later, largely sacred poetry. There are
exceptions, but this is a generally useful distinction. It will be noted that in almost no edition of
Donne’s works are dates hazarded for most of his poems, and it is difficult in some cases to
make even this basic division. Even though publication dates may be available for some poems
during Donne’s lifetime, it is important to remember that his poems were often circulated for
many years in manuscript before publication was sought. Therefore, the dates of printing are
meaningless as origination dates except as the latest possible date for any particular poem.

ABOUT THE POEM

The Canonization” is a poem by English metaphysical poet John Donne. First published
in 1633, the poem is viewed as exemplifying Donne’s wit and irony. It is addressed to one friend
from another, but concerns itself with the complexities of romantic love: the speaker presents
love as so all-consuming that lovers forgo other pursuits to spend time together. The poem’s
title serves a dual purpose: while the speaker argues that his love will canonise him into a kind
of sainthood, the poem itself functions as a canonization of the pair of lovers.

The speaker begs his friend not to disparage him for loving, but to insult him for other
reasons instead, or to focus on other matters entirely. He supports his plea by asking whether
any harm has been done by his love.The speaker describes how dramatically love affects him
and his lover, claiming that their love will live on in legend, even if they die. They have been
“canonized by Love”.

SUMMARY OF THE POEM

The speaker asks his addressee to be quiet, and let him love. If the addressee cannot
hold his tongue, the speaker tells him to criticize him for other shortcomings (other than his
tendency to love): his palsy, his gout, his “five grey hairs,” or his ruined fortune. He admonishes
the addressee to look to his own mind and his own wealth and to think of his position and copy
the other nobles (“Observe his Honour, or his Grace, / Or the King’s real, or his stamped face /
Contemplate.”) The speaker does not care what the addressee says or does, as long as he lets
him love.
 41

The speaker asks rhetorically, “Who’s injured by my love?” He says that his sighs have
not drowned ships, his tears have not flooded land, his colds have not chilled spring, and the
heat of his veins has not added to the list of those killed by the plague. Soldiers still find wars
and lawyers still find litigious men, regardless of the emotions of the speaker and his lover.

The speaker tells his addressee to “Call us what you will,” for it is love that makes them
so. He says that the addressee can “Call her one, me another fly,” and that they are also like
candles (“tapers”), which burn by feeding upon their own selves (“and at our own cost die”). In
each other, the lovers find the eagle and the dove, and together (“we two being one”) they
illuminate the riddle of the phoenix, for they “die and rise the same,” just as the phoenix does—
though unlike the phoenix, it is love that slays and resurrects them.

He says that they can die by love if they are not able to live by it, and if their legend is not
fit “for tombs and hearse,” it will be fit for poetry, and “We’ll build in sonnets pretty rooms.” A
well-wrought urn does as much justice to a dead man’s ashes as does a gigantic tomb; and by
the same token, the poems about the speaker and his lover will cause them to be “canonized,”
admitted to the sainthood of love. All those who hear their story will invoke the lovers, saying
that countries, towns, and courts “beg from above / A pattern of your love!”

3.4 Analysis of Poem - The Canonization

ANALYSIS OF POEM

“The Canonization” refers to the process by which people are inducted into the canon of
saints. In the first stanza, the speaker obliquely details his relationship to the world of politics,
wealth, and nobility; by assuming that these are the concerns of his addressee, he indicates his
own background amid such concerns, and he also indicates the extent to which he has moved
beyond that background. He hopes that the listener will leave him alone and pursue a career in
the court, toadying to aristocrats, preoccupied with favor (the King’s real face) and money (the
King’s stamped face, as on a coin). In the second stanza, he parodies contemporary Petrarchan
notions of love and continues to mock his addressee, making the point that his sighs have not
drowned ships and his tears have not caused floods. (Petrarchan love-poems were full of claims
like “My tears are rain, and my sighs storms.”) He also mocks the operations of the everyday
world, saying that his love will not keep soldiers from fighting wars or lawyers from finding court
cases—as though war and legal wrangling were the sole concerns of world outside the confines
of his love affair.
42

In the third stanza, the speaker begins spinning off metaphors that will help explain the
intensity and uniqueness of his love. First, he says that he and his lover are like moths drawn to
a candle (“her one, me another fly”), then that they are like the candle itself. They embody the
elements of the eagle (strong and masculine) and the dove (peaceful and feminine) bound up
in the image of the phoenix, dying and rising by love. In the fourth stanza, the speaker explores
the possibility of canonization in verse, and in the final stanza, he explores his and his lover’s
roles as the saints of love, to whom generations of future lovers will appeal for help. Throughout,
the tone of the poem is balanced between a kind of arch, sophisticated sensibility (“half-acre
tombs”) and passionate amorous abandon (“We die and rise the same, and prove / Mysterious
by this love”).

Cleanth Brook’s in his collection of critical essays, The Well-Wrought Urn, writes that a
poet “must work by contradiction and qualification,” and that paradox “is an extension of the
normal language of poetry, not a perversion of it”. Brooks analyses several poems to illustrate
his argument, but cites “The Canonization” as his main evidence. According to Brooks, there
are superficially many ways to read “The Canonization,” but the most likely interpretation is
that, despite his witty tone and extravagant metaphors, Donne’s speaker takes both love and
religion seriously.

STRUCTURE OF THE POEM - DETAILED ANALYSIS

“The Canonization,” Donne sets up a five-stanza argument to demonstrate the purity and
power of his love for another. Each stanza begins and ends with the word “love.” The fourth and
eighth lines of each stanza end with a word also ending -ove (the pattern is consistently
abbacccaa), all of which unifies the poem around a central theme.

In the first stanza the poet complains that his verbal assailant is misguided. Has he no
more important work to do than criticize others’ love? He could just as easily attack Donne’s
“gout” or “palsy” (line 2) or even his “five gray hairs” (line 3), but he should get a job or go to
school or enter a profession, so long as he leaves the poet alone. The king’s “stamp’d face”
(line 7) most likely refers to coinage with the king’s likeness. The things of the world can be left
to the critic and the world, so long as the critic “will let me love (line 9).

They may destroy themselves in the act of burning with passion for one another, yet by
the middle of the poem, Donne translates their love to a higher plane. First he compares himself
and his beloved to the eagle and dove, a reference to the Renaissance idea in which the eagle
 43

flies in the sky above the earth while the dove transcends the skies to reach heaven. He
immediately shifts to the image of the Phoenix, another death-by-fire symbol (the Phoenix is a
bird that repeatedly burns in fire and comes back to life out of the ashes), suggesting that even
though their flames of passion will consume them, the poet and his beloved will be reborn from
the ashes of their love.

In their resurrection, their relationship has become a paradox. The key paradox of love is
that two individuals become one. By uniting in this way, they “prove/Mysterious by this love”
(lines 26-27). These words may imply the mystery of marriage as it reflects the relationship
of Jesus and his church, as stated by Paul in I Corinthians. Indeed, the new union is unsexed
even though it incorporates both sexes: “to one neutral thing both sexes fit,” just like in Christ
there is no longer any male or female (Galatians 3:28). Compare the story of love in
Plato’s Symposium where the original human beings had the marks of both sexes before they
were split into male and female, each person being left to seek his or her other half.

The fourth stanza opens out to consider the legacy of the poet’s love with his beloved.
Their love will endure in legend; the language of “verse” and “chronicle” suggests canonization
at nearly the level of Scripture, which is counted by verses and has books called Chronicles.
Even if their love is not quite at that level, songs will be sung and sonnets composed
commemorating their romance.

On the one hand, their love is self-contained and perfect, like a “well-wrought urn.” (This
is a phrase that would become famous after poet John Keats wrote “Ode on a Grecian Urn” and
critic Cleanth Brooks wrote a book treating each poem like its own beautifully and carefully
crafted urn, full unto itself.) On the other hand, the ashes in this urn are meant to spread, in this
case covering half an acre but symbolic of spreading the tale of perfect love throughout the
world.

The final stanza voices the poet’s sense of future vindication over the critic. The poet
expects that the rest of the world will “invoke” himself and his beloved, similar to the way Catholics
invoke saints in their prayers. In this vision of the future, the lovers’ legend has grown, and they
have reached a kind of sainthood. They are role models for all the world, because “Countries,
towns, courts beg from above/A pattern of your love” (lines 44-45). From the lovers’ perspective,
the whole world is present as they look into each other’s eyes; this sets the pattern of love that
the world can follow.
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CONCLUSION

Donne had had several reverses in his life, including the deaths of his parents, the deaths
of several of his children at birth and under the age of ten, financial difficulties and, perhaps
most poignantly, the early death of his wife. His hardships as an adult would eventually change
him from the young spendthrift and sometime soldier who wrote “The Sunne Rising” to the
somber, almost death-obsessed writer of the Holy Sonnets and the Meditations of Devotions
upon Emergent Occasions.

Useful generalizations about so large and varied a body of work as Donne’s are not easy.
He was a profoundly religious poet, with a peculiarly strong hold on and interest in the physical
things of life. He used a unique lens to view his world, creating spectactularly unlikely comparisons
that enlightened the reader on the nature of both of the things compared, sometimes in surprising
ways. He continues to be read and discussed today, four hundred years after he lived.

3.5 Poem no 2 The Ecstasyby John Donne

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Analysis of the poem

5.3 The Exstasie - Summary

5.4 Conclusion

Lesson 5 Poem no 2 Introduction to The Ecstasy by John Donne

Introduction

The poem The Ecstasy is one of John Donne’s most popular poems, which expresses his
unique and unconventional ideas about love. It expounds the theme that pure, spiritual or real
love can exist only in the bond of souls established by the bodies. For Donne, true love only
exists when both bodies and souls are inextricably united. Donne criticizes the platonic lover
who excludes the body and emphasizes the soul.

John Donne (1572-1631) didn’t write ordinary love poems. Arguably the first of the
‘metaphysical poets’, Donne writes about love in a refreshingly direct and honest way. And yet,
as the label ‘metaphysical’ suggests, his poetry is also full of complex and convoluted images
and analogies, and decidedly indirect ideas that circle around the thing he is discussing. This
 45

paradox of Donne’s poetry is neatly exemplified by ‘The Ecstasy’ (sometimes the poem’s title is
given as ‘The Extasie’, preserving its original Early Modern spelling),

Analysis of the poem

The literal meaning, and origin, of that word, ‘ecstasy’: from the Greek ekstasis, ex stasis,
literally ‘outside standing’ – i.e. standing outside of oneself, or apart from oneself. A truly ‘ecstatic’
experience is always, to some extent, an out-of-body experience.

‘The Ecstasy’ is not a short poem, it runs to nineteen quatrains. Donne begins by describing
where he and his sweetheart are: in a pastoral setting, upon a riverbank in springtime (there are
violets growing along the bank), he and his beloved sit, holding hands, gazing adoringly into
each other’s eyes. The third stanza makes it clear that this is all they’ve done so far:held hands
and looked in each other’s eyes.

In the fourth and fifth stanzas, Donne tells us that, while their two bodies remain motionless
there, like ‘statues’ as they sit holding hands on the bank, their two souls are in negotiations,
like two great armies. In the sixth and seventh stanzas, Donne says that if anyone had been
nearby to hear their souls speaking to each other, he would have experienced an exchange of
souls so pure and refined that he would have left richer than he was before.

Donne then says that hearing their souls speak to each other has made plain the nature
of their feelings for each other: they didn’t know before, but their souls have made it plain. But
Donne doesn’t want their souls to do all the talking: he wants to be joined in physical union (‘But
O alas, so long, so far / Our bodies why do we forbear?’).

The poem, The Extasie, is a clear and coherent expression of Donne’s philosophy of
love. Donne agrees with Plato that true love is spiritual. It is a union of the souls. But unlike
Plato, Donne does not ignore the claims of the body. It is the body which brings the lovers
together. Love begins in sensuous apprehension and spiritual love follows upon the sensuous.
So the claims of the body must not be ignored. Union of bodies is as essential as the union of
souls. Thus, Donne goes against the teachings both of Plato and the Christian Divines in his
stresses on sensuous and physical basis even of spiritual love.

The passion and certainty of The Extasie make it one of Donne’s greatest poems. The
essence of a metaphysical poem is the bringing together or juxtaposition of opposites, and in
this poem the poet, John Donne has brought together and reconciled such opposites as the
46

medieval and the modern, the spiritual and the physical, the metaphysical and the scientific, the
religious and the secular, mystical beliefs and rational exposition, the abstract and the concrete,
the remote and the familiar, the indoor, the human and the non-human. This is largely done
through imagery and conceit in which widely opposite concept are brought together and the
shift from the one to the other, is both swift and natural.

3.6 Detailed analysis - the Ecstasie

The Exstasie -Summary

Two lovers, each the best man and woman in the eyes of the other, sat near the bank of
a river, which was raised high, like a pillow on a bed, as if to provide place for rest to the
reclining heads of violets. Their (lovers) hands were firmly clasped from which emitted a fragrant
balm. Their eyes met and reflected the image of each other. Thus they were one by holding
their hands; but their images reflected in their eyes were all the propagation they did.

As between two equally matched armies, Fate might hold victory in the balance, so their
souls which had escaped from their bodies to rise a state of bliss and quietude, hung between
her and him. And while their souls held converse out of their bodies, they lay still and motionless
like lifeless statues, all day they neither moved nor spoke.

If any, so purified by his sincere and exalted love that he understood the language of
souls, stood nearby (though he knew not which soul spoke because both meant and spoke the
same thing), he might have had a re-blending or re-mixture of the different elements that make
up his soul, and depart far purer than he came. It was ecstasy to which their souls ascended;
and it made clear to them the mystery of love. As the result of this, they realised that love is no
sex experience – they saw what they did not see before, i.e., what love reality is that it is a thing
of the soul, not of the body.

Conclusion

Donne was a profoundly religious poet, with a peculiarly strong hold on and interest in the
physical things of life. He used a unique lens to view his world, creating spectactularly unlikely
comparisons that enlightened the reader on the nature of both of the things compared, sometimes
in surprising ways. He continues to be read and discussed today, four hundred years after he
lived.
 47

References
1. , Leonard. Donne’s Poetry and Modern Criticism. Chicago: Henry Regnery Company,
1950. 26–30.

2. Hunt, Clay. Donne’s Poetry: Essays in Literary Analysis. New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1954. 72–93.

3. e Brooks, Cleanth. “The Language of Paradox: ‘The Canonization’.” John Donne: A

Collection of Critical Essays. Ed. Helen Gardner. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice
Hall, 1962. 100–108.

4. T S Eliot The Metaphysical Poets 1992, Faber and FSaber ltd

48

UNIT 4
SATIRE
Contents
4.1 Introduction - About the poet - John Dryden and definition of satire

4.2 Features of Satire used by Dryden

4.3 About Absalom and Achitophel

4.4 Absalom and Achitophel as a political satire

4.5 Detailed Analysis -Part 1 Absalom and Achitophel

4.6 Part 2 - Absalom and Achitophel-Portrayal of the three classes

4.7 Part 3 Absolam and Achitophel - portrayal of the kings friends

4.8 Summary of Poem - Absalom and Achitophel

4.9 Important characters in Absolam and Achitophel

Preview of past learning : This section will introduce you to the English poetic forms and
poets of the 17th century and their distinctive characteristics with a special focus on satire. A
study of these varied poetic forms will improve understanding of the different poetic genres. It
demands some understanding of the social conditions that existed in England during the 16th
and 17th centuries .

Thematic linkage : having a knowledge about the background especially knowing the
political; and the personal background of the writers will give a better understanding of the
works that are to be discussed in detail here.

Plan of Study
1. About the poet

2. Definition of Satire

3. Features of satire used by Dryden

4. About Absalom and Achitophel

5. Absalom and Achitophel as a political satire

6. Absalom and Achitophel –Detailed Analysis

 49

7. Summary of Poem

8. Questions to test your understanding of the poem

9. Important Characters

4.1 Introduction - About the poet - John Dryden and definition

of satire
After John Donne and John Milton, John Dryden was the greatest English poet of the
seventeenth century.As a writer of prose he developed a lucid professional style, relying
essentially on patterns and rhythms of everyday speech.

Dryden the poet is best known today as a satirist, although he wrote only two great original
satires, Mac Flecknoe (1682) and The Medall (1682) and he wrote the greatest political poem
in the English language, Absalom and Achitophel (1681).

Definition of Satire

Satire is a form of literature, the proclaimed purpose of which is the reform of human
weaknesses or vices through laughter or disgust. Satire is different from scolding and sheer
abuse, though it is prompted by indignation. Its aim is generally constructive, and need not
arise from cynicism or misanthropy. The satirist applies the test of certain ethical, intellectual
and social standards to men and women, and determines their degree of criminality or culpability.
Satire naturally has a wide range; it can involve an attack on the vices of an age, or the defects
of an individual or the follies common to the very species of mankind.

4.2 Features of Satire used by Dryden

John Dryden claimed that Absalom and Achitophel was carefully planned to promote
political reform. To gain this end, Dryden used satire, the true aim of which he defined as “the
amendment of vices by correction.” The particular vices he wanted to correct were those of the
Whigs of his day, who were seeking to secure the succession of the duke of Monmouth,
illegitimate son of Charles II, to his father’s throne. Second, realizing that direct satire might
defeat its purpose by incurring resentment, Dryden chose to attack the Whigs by casting them
as characters in the biblical story of Absalom’s revolt against David. Third, to increase his
satire’s effectiveness, he cast it in verse, “for there’s a sweetness in good verse, which tickles
even while it hurts.”
50

Written in heroic couplets, Absalom and Achitophel is often called Dryden’s best poem,
and it is one of the most famous political satires ever written. Its direct literary influence reaches
from Dryden’s contemporaries to Alexander Pope and Charles Churchill in the eighteenth century
and to Lord Byron in the nineteenth century. In the poem, Dryden indicates similarities between
the biblical story, which tells how the wicked Achitophel urged King David’s illegitimate son
Absalom to rise up against his father, and events in England between 1678 and 1681, when
Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, a leader of the Whiggish opposition to the king,
was accused of persuading James Scott, duke of Monmouth and illegitimate son of Charles II,
to rebel against his father.

Perhaps Dryden intended his poem, published in November, 1681, to help in convicting
Shaftesbury, on trial for treason for his part in the rebellion. If so, Dryden was not successful:
The jury, friendly to Shaftesbury, declared it did not have sufficient evidence for a conviction
and acquitted Shaftesbury. Dryden’s devastating satire probably helped to create an atmosphere
so hostile to the earl that soon after the trial he fled to Holland, where he remained until his
death several years later

4.3 About Absalom and Achitophel

Absalom and Achitophel satirizes the Whig Party, which sought to prevent the succession
of James, Duke of York, to the English throne. Dryden ridicules the Whigs and present favorable
portraits of James’ supporters. In the end, the Whigs succeed, and Charles II takes the throne.

In Absalom and Achitophel, the leader of the group of antagonists to King David (Charles
II) is Achitophel (Anthony Ashley Cooper), the first Earl of Shaftesbury. Achitophel exploited the
anti-Catholicism created by the Popish Plot, and placed his support behind the Exclusion Bill,
which would prevent James from succeeding his brother Charles to the throne. Achitophel
selects Absalom (King Charles’ illegitimate son) as the fittest candidate for kingship.

With studied flattery and art, Achitophel begins a long temptation speech to seduce Absalom
to this rebellious cause. Absalom is told that the country anxiously desires him to become King.
King Charles has lost popular support since the promulgation of the Popish Plot. Besides, the
King has no allies anymore, and Egypt (France) would help Absalom win the throne. Absalom
has not only royal blood but the complete support of the people. He thus would be a much more
powerful ruler than a King by succession (James, for example).
 51

Absalom has been made drunk by flattery and his ambition has been kindled. He, however,
defends his father in generous terms. David, he believes, is a good King, and has also been
personally good to him. Hence he should not turn against his father. He points out that the
crown should rightfully be given to David’s brother who also possesses every royal virtue. Absalom
knows that his illegitimate birth gives him no legal right to the throne, he laments and even
rejects his mother for having no royal blood, and wishes he had been born higher.

At this display of momentary weakness, Achitophel renews his temptation. The throne
needs someone like Absalom who has a powerful nature. King David, by contrast, has become
weak and gives the people more than they need. Achitophel assures that he has carefully
weakened the nation’s willingness to accept either Charles or James, then it is their right to
select their own King. Further, James watches Absalom’s popularity with much suspicion and
envy, so that, if James assumes power, he will seek to eliminate Absalom. Therefore, Absalom
should exercise the right of self-defense.

Achitophel advises Absalom to take up arms in apparent defense of King David, and to
accuse James of plotting to murder the King. Thus Absalom will be able to force David to grant
him succession to the throne. And it is probable, Achitophel argues, that David wants to do this,
but wishes to be pressured into it. In this matter, the King is like a woman who appears to resist
a man’s advances, but secretly wishes to be taken. Achitophel urges Absalom to “commit a
pleasing rape upon the crown”, This final argument convinces Absalom who again regrets that
his illegitimate birth has debarred him from the throne. This brings to a close Achitophel’s
temptation of Absalom. The gullible youth is by now fully beguiled to the prospect of the crown
into becoming the tool of a malevolent counselor as the popular Protestant contender for the
throne.

4.4 Absalom and Achitophel as a political satire

Absalom and Achitophel is a landmark political satire by John Dryden. Dryden marks his
satire with a concentrated and convincing poetic style. His satiric verse is majestic, what Pope
calls: ”The long majestic march and energy divine”. Critics have unanimously remarked on
Dryden’s capacity to transform the trivial into the poetical; personal envy into the fury of imaginative
creation. The obscure and the complicated is made clear and simple. All this transforming
power is to be seen at the very beginning of Absalom and Achitophel. The state of ‘Israel’ is
easy to understand and yet Dryden shows himself a master both of the Horatian and the
Juvenalian styles of Satire. He is urbance witty devastating and vigorous, but very seldom petty.
52

Dryden is correctly regarded as the most vigorous and polished of English satirists
combining refinement with fervour. Dryden is unequalled at debating in rhyme and Absalom
and Achitophel displays his power of arguing in verse. It may be said that Absalom and Achitophel
has no rival in the field of political satire. Apart from the contemporary interest of the poem and
its historical value, it appeal to the modern reader lies in its observations on English character
and on the weaknesses of man in general. His generalisations on human nature have a perennial
interest. Dryden triumphed over the peculiar difficulties of his chosen theme. He had to give,
not abuse or politics,but the poetry of abuse and politics. He had to criticise a son whom the
father still liked; he had to make Shaftesbury denounce the King but he had to see to it that the
King’s susceptibilities were not wounded. He had to praise without sounding servile and he had
to criticise artistically. Dryden achieves all this cleverly and skilfully. Achitophel’s denunciation of
the king assumes the shades of a eulogy in Charles’ eyes. Absalom is a misguided instrument
in Achitophel’s hands. The poem is certainly a political satire, but it is a blend of dignity with
incisive and effective satire.

4.5 Detailed Analysis - Absalom and Achitophel (Part 1)

The theoretical dispute over the mode of political succession gets mythologized and
mystified. Parliament’s struggle to control succession becomes a blasphemous, ultimately Satanic
revolt against “heavens Anointing Oyle.” Absalom’s sacrilegious revolt against David gets
reenacted in contemporary history. The evil counselor Achitophel becomes Anthony Ashley
Cooper, third Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the leaders of the Parliamentary party, who was
caricatured repeatedly in ways reminiscent of Shakespeare’s treatment of Richard III. Dryden
adds the further fillip of overlaying Miltonian pattern: Achitophel/Shaftesbury becomes Satan
tempting an anti-Messiah to be the people’s “Saviour.”

Dryden wrote Monmouth into a text from which he could not escape. David threatens at
the end, “If my Young Samson will pretend a Call / To shake the Column, let him share the Fall.”
David’s urge, on the other hand, is to be lenient. But Monmouth never did heed the poet’s
advice; he led a revolt upon his father’s death in 1685 and was executed. Moreover, as with the
biblical David, Dryden’s David/Charles is trammeled up in the consequences of his adultery.
Dryden opens again brilliantly:

In pious times, e’er Priest-craft did begin,

Before Polygamy was made a sin;
When man, on many, multiply’d his kind,
 53

E’r one to one was, cursedly, confind:

When Nature prompted, and no law deny’d
Promiscuous use of Concubine and Bride;
Then, Israel’s Monarch, after Heaven’s own heart,
His vigorous warmth did, variously, impart
To Wives and Slaves: And, wide as his Command,
Scatter’d his Maker’s Image through the Land.

However wittily Dryden opens the poem, the ultimate point of its portrayal of David’s
promiscuity is that “No True Succession” can “attend” the “seed” of David’s concubines. When
Absalom and David both later complain that Absalom was born too high but not high enough,
they may blame “Fate” or “God,” but the fault is clearly David’s own, as it was in 2 Samuel when
God punished David with Absalom’s rebellion for David’s adultery with Bathsheba and the murder
of her husband, and as Dryden’s pointed reference to Bathsheba would remind his audience.”

After praising Achitophel/Shaftesbury for being an excellent judge, Dryden breaks out in
calculated lamentation:

Oh, had he been content to serve the Crown,

With vertues only proper to the Gown; ...
David for him his tunefull Harp had strung,
And Heaven had wanted one Immortal song.

That is, David would not have had to write Psalm 109 attacking Achitophel. “But,” Dryden
continues with studied sadness:

wilde Ambition loves to slide, not stand;

And Fortunes Ice prefers to Vertues Land:
Achitophel, grown weary to possess
A lawfull Fame, and lazy Happiness;
Disdain’d the Golden fruit to gather free,
And lent the Croud his Arm to shake the Tree.
Now, manifest of Crimes, contriv’d long since,
He stood at bold Defiance with his Prince:
Held up the Buckler of the Peoples Cause,
Against the Crown; and sculk’d behind the Laws.
54

Shaftesbury’s prince had been lenient with him, forgiven him for supporting Cromwell.
Nevertheless, “Restless, unfixt in Principles and Place,” Shaftesbury was not content to await
the descending benefits of a merciful king but, because of ambition, preferred “Fortunes Ice.”
By his very nature or character, Shaftesbury cannot remain fixed; driven by desire, he “loves to
slide, not stand.”

Dryden’s portrait of Absalom also appears balanced. He is like one of Dryden’s noble
savages. But the difference is that he does not turn out to be the legitimate heir, and he knows
it, acknowledging David’s “Right” to rule and that of his “Lawfull Issue,” if he should have any, or
of his “Collateral Line,” that is, his brother. When through ambition fostered by his noble nature
Monmouth succumbs to Achitophel’s Satanic temptation, Dryden again assumes the strategy
of lamentation:

Unblam’d of Life (Ambition set aside,)

Not stain’d with Cruelty, nor puft with Pride;
How happy had he been, if Destiny
Had higher plac’d his Birth, or not so high!
His Kingly Vertues might have claim’d a Throne,
And blest all other Countries but his own:
But charming Greatness, since so few refuse;
’Tis Juster to Lament him, than Accuse.

4.6 Part 2 - Portrayal of the three classes

Dryden’s next justly famous portraits are representatives of the three classes. From the
truly rebellious aristocrats (implicitly a mere fringe group) he selects his old enemy Buckingham,
whom he portrays as similar to Shaftesbury, too inconstant in his moods, postures, and political
positions to remain constant to any one—or, by implication, to the king:

Some of their Chiefs were Princes of the Land:

In the first Rank of these did Zimristand:
A man so various, that he seem’d to be
Not one, but all Mankinds Epitome.
Stiff in Opinions, always in the wrong;
Was every thing by starts, and nothing long:
But, in the course of one revolving Moon,
 55

Was Chymist, Fidler, States-Man, and Buffoon:

Then all for Women, Painting, Rhiming, Drinking;
Besides ten thousand freaks that dy’d in thinking.

Dryden’s representative of the middle class is the hypocritical Puritan Shimei (Slingsby
Bethel, sheriff of London), whose animosity against the office of king itself is so strong he fears
not to curse “Heavens Annointed,” and whose very religion is simply a means for his personal
“Gain.” As do modern satirists with televangelists, Dryden turns Shimei’s canting rhetoric against
him:

For Shimei, though not prodigal of pelf,

Yet lov’d his wicked Neighbour as himself:
When two or three were gather’d to declaim
Against the Monarch of Jerusalem,
Shimei was always in the midst of them:
And, if they Curst the King when he was by,
Would rather Curse, than break good Company.

Dryden’s representative of the lower class is Corah, who stands for Titus Oates, the
weaver’s son who was the archwitness of the Popish Plot. Dryden portrays him with dripping
sarcasm:

His Memory, miraculously great,

Could Plots, exceeding mans belief, repeat;
Which, therefore cannot be accounted Lies,
For humane Wit could never such devise.

Purloining Locke’s own concept of prudence, Dryden then asks in his most conciliatory
mode, “Yet, grant our Lords the People Kings can make, / What Prudent men a setled Throne
woud shake?” While Dryden appears to be adopting a Burkean conservatism based on the
weight of tradition—as is obvious from all the references to God’s involvement in anointing and
supporting kings throughout the poem—the grammatical uncertainty of the first line images
forth the political anarchy that would ensue if anyone but God—lords, commoners, kings
themselves, by tampering with succession—were to make a king.”
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4.7 Part 3 Absolam and Achitophel - portrayal of the kings

friends
Dryden then proceeds to portray the king’s friends as a loyal group of peers, bishops,
judges, and even the former speaker of the (now rebellious) House of Commons. Unlike the
conspirators, these men kept their words of loyalty and, like Dryden the poet, used their words
to defend the king and to rebut his attackers—most notably, perhaps, Jotham, who represents
George Savile, Marquis of Halifax, whose golden tongue in debate turned the tide against the
Exclusion Bill in the House of Lords.”

The greatest wielder of words in the poem is David himself, who comes forward finally to
vindicate his power and position. Weary of abuse despite his wonted clemency and long-suffering,
David insists that even if he has only a part of government, the part belongs to him, cannot be
attenuated by any other part, and is “to Rule.” Dryden endows his speech with magisterial
authority:

Without my Leave a future King to choose,

Infers a Right the Present to Depose:
True, they Petition me t’approve their Choise,
But Esau’s Hands suite ill with Jacob’s Voice.
David becomes more aggressive as he progresses:

What then is left but with a Jealous Eye

To guard the Small remains of Royalty?
The Law shall still direct my peacefull Sway,
And the same Law teach Rebels to Obey.

Thus Dryden stakes out for David/Charles a middle ground between extremes of arbitrary
or anarchic rule. He insists on the king’s lawful prerogative granted by the unwritten constitution
and forming part of a balanced system of government. The other parts of that balance have
threatened the very Ark of the Covenant, and so David himself now threatens, “Law they require,
let Law then shew her Face,” for “Lawfull Pow’r is still Superiour found.” So David will punish the
transgressors, who will actually devour themselves by turning against each other. Dryden closes
the poem by underwriting David’s words with the Word of God: “He said. Th’Almighty, nodding,
gave Consent: / And Peals of Thunder shook the Firmament.” Dryden’s final touch, then, is a
kind of apotheosis: David and God become one: “And willing Nations knew their Lawfull Lord.”
 57

Absalom and Achitophel was a celebration of Charles’s triumph over his foes in the
Exclusion Crisis. As it was published in November of 1681, Shaftesbury was on trial for treason.
But that triumph seemed short-lived, for Shaftesbury, to Dryden the archconspirator, got off
scot-free, and his supporters cast a medal in his honor. Early in 1682 Dryden published another
attack on Shaftesbury and his followers, The Medall. A Satyre against Sedition. He relinquished
the moderate stance of the earlier poem and wrote a scathing Juvenalian satire, prefaced by an
equally scathing “Epistle to the Whigs.” The controlling fiction of the poem is the two sides of
the medal, one with a portrait of Shaftesbury, the other with a portrait of the City of London.
Again portraying Shaftesbury’s political inconstancy as a function of inconstancy of character,
Dryden says sardonically of the medal, “Cou’d it have form’d his ever-changing Will, / The
various Piece had tir’d the Graver’s Skill.” Dryden traces him through his tortuous twists of
allegiance until his final revelation of the “fiend” within.”

On the other hand, Dryden addresses “London, thou great Emporium of our Isle” again in
a lamentory mode, and one cannot help remembering his praise of the city in Annus Mirabilis as
the emporium of England’s imperialist trade. As in Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden spares the
virtuous Londoners from blame, but he stridently attacks the “Fool and Knave” who corruptly
misdirect the city’s great energies. Here one sees as plainly as anywhere Dryden’s fear of and
contempt for the rising middle class that couched its political ambitions in religious rhetoric:

In Gospel phrase their Chapmen they betray:

Their Shops are Dens, the Buyer is their Prey.
The Knack of Trades is living on the Spoyl;
They boast, ev’n when each other they beguile.
Customes to steal is such a trivial thing,
That ’tis their Charter, to defraud their King.

Dryden has perceived the inherent danger of bourgeois individualism and incipient
capitalism: the selfish, predatory accumulation of wealth by means of fraud and tax evasion.
These are descendants of the Commonwealth’s men who murdered a previous king and who
are still bent on the destruction not only of “Kings” but of “Kingly Pow’r” per se.”

In both sections of the poem, Dryden satirizes the political theory of the Whigs. Almighty
Crowd, thou shorten’st all dispute;
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Pow’r is thy Essence; Wit thy Attribute!

Nor Faith nor Reason make thee at a stay,
Thou leapst o’r all eternal truths, in thy Pindarique way!

Dryden follows his sarcastic reference to the crowd as “Almighty” with a pseudovoluntarist
position, reducing reason or “Wit” to a mere “Attribute.” But, as he had suggested early in his
writing,

If Sovereign Right by Sovereign Pow’r they scan,

The same bold Maxime holds in God and Man:
God were not safe, his Thunder cou’d they shun
He shou’d be forc’d to crown another Son.

As he comes closer to his own time, he wickedly asserts, “Crowds err not, though to both
extremes they run; / To kill the Father, and recall the Son.” His most scathing indictment of this
creeping relativism occurs in the following lines:

Some think the Fools were most, as times went then;

But now the World’s o’r stock’d with prudent men.
The common Cry is ev’n Religion’s Test;
The Turk’s is, at Constantinople, best;
Idols in India, Popery at Rome;
And our own Worship onely true at home:
And true, but for the time; ’tis hard to know
How long we please it shall continue so.
This side to day, and that to morrow burns;
So all are God-a’mighties in their turns.

Instead of mythologizing the political theory he defends, Dryden attempts to justify it on

pragmatic grounds, that their British forefathers attempted to avoid factional civil war by securing
peaceful succession of both power and property through primogeniture. His concluding prophecy
seems a bitter wish-fulfillment:

Thus inborn Broyles the Factions wou’d ingage,

Or Wars of Exil’d Heirs, or Foreign Rage,
Till halting Vengeance overtook our Age:
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And our wild Labours, wearied into Rest,

Reclin’d us on a rightfull Monarch’s Breast.

If as at the end of Absalom and Achitophel Dryden is again collapsing both earthly and
heavenly monarch together, his vision has progressed from apotheosis to apocalypse, the
ultimate curse of the satirist.

4.8 Summary of Poem - Absalom and Achitophel

Absalom and Achitophel a widely celebrated satirical poem written by John Dryden,
first published anonymously in November of 1681. It is written using the heroic couplet form,
and is considered one of the finest English political satires of all time. It is credited with being
the first written satire in the English language, and tells the Biblical story of Absalom, who rebels
against King David. This, however, is commonly understood as an allegorical reading, and the
events of the poem are actually about Dryden’s contemporaries, Charles II and the Exclusion
Crisis. In writing the poem, Dryden hoped to rouse the populous against The Earl of Shaftesbury,
along with the Whig Party. These groups had sponsored and advocated for this Exclusion Bill,
which if successful, would prevent James II from succeeding to the throne. The bill was blocked
by the House of Lords on two separate occasions. This was during the era of the Popish Plot,
which took place during the years 1679 to 1681. The allegory begins by representing England
as the Biblical land of Israel, and the Englishmen as the Jews. The group of antagonists in the
poem are working against King David, whose modern representation is Charles II. The First
Earl of Shaftesbury takes on the role of Achitophel, the leader of this group. He exploits the Anti-
Catholicism which was created during the Popish Plot. Achitophel decides that Absalom (in
contemporary terms, King Charles’ illegitimate son) is the best candidate to take the throne
instead. Zimri, Shimei, and Corah, followers of Achitophel, are described in detail throughout
the conversation between Achitophel and Absalom. Achitophel begins a very long speech, during
which he attempts to convince Absalom to join his rebellion. He tells Absalom that the country
cries for him to take the throne in secret. He says King Charles is not popular anymore because
of the Popish Plot, and he has no other allies. Achitophel says that Egypt (modern translation
here is France) will help Absalom to claim the throne as his own. He not only has the royal blood
that is necessary to gain support of the people, but would be a much better King than anyone
who would inherit the throne by means of succession. Here the reader is meant to understand
the reference to James. Absalom defends his father, saying David is a good King and has
always treated him with kindness. But Absalom is also ambitious, and is fighting against the
60

constant flattery that Achitophel is giving him. Absalom refuses to turn against his father. He
says the crown should go to the person who rightfully deserves it, David’s brother, who has all
the royal virtues. He admits his illegitimate birth makes him unsuited for the job, and wishes he
had been born higher. Achitophel renews his persuasion tactics. He implores Absalom to save
the “religion, commonwealth and liberty” of their country. The throne needs someone powerful,
like Absalom. David, on the other hand, is weak and gives the people too much. The nation has
been carefully weakened, and they have a right to choose their own king. James is also jealous
of Absalom, who should claim the throne as an act of self defense. Achitophel tells Absalom to
pretend defense of King David, and then accuse James of plotting to murder the King. This will
allow Absalom to force David to grant him, Absalom, succession. Achitophel also argues that
David wants to do this anyway, but will not without some external pressure. David, Achitophel
says, is like a woman who pretends to avoid a man’s advances but secretly wants them. This
rather troublesome argument finally convinces Absalom to “commit a pleasing rape upon the
crown.” The youth has now been gulled into becoming a tool for Achitophel’s ambitions. The
rest of the poem then deals with the beginnings of the rebellion, led by Achitophel (Shaftsebury),
all within the very powerful and resonant allegory of the Bible. Absalom makes a very successful
public speech promising peace to the people. The poem finally ends with King David’s speech,
during which he upholds his traditional rights, offers conciliation to all the rebels, but also
demonstrates firmness in his decisions.

Questions to test your understanding of the poem

a. What is the purpose of Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel?

b. How does Dryden satirize the English people in Absalom and Apithophel?

c. Why was Absalom unwilling to revolt against his father?

d. With what two matters is Absalom discontented?

e. Describe the people whom Achitophel united into a single party to overthrow the
king.

f. Consider the portraits of the Royal faction in Absalom and Achitophel.

g. Explain the Exclusion Crisis.

h.. Discuss Absalom and Achitophel as a political allegory.

i. Describe the adverse effects of the Popish Plot.

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4.9 Important characters in Absolam and Achitophel

Corah

Corah is a Biblical name who led a rebellion against Moses. In Absalom and Achitophel,
he stands for Titus Oates, who invented the Popish Plot and led the persecution of Catholics.

Barzillai

Barzillai is a biblical character who lived beyond the Jordan River and sustained David
during Absalom’s rebellion. In Absalom and Achitophel, he stands for the Duke of Ormond
(1610-88) who was a patron of Dryden and one of the most devoted servants of Charles. He
accompanied Charles II during his exile and served him faithfully during the tie of his misfortunes
on many important occasions.

Zadoc

Zadoc is the archbishop of Canterbury.

The Sagan of Jerusalem

The Sagan of Jerusalem is the bishop of London.

Adriel

Adriel was the son of Barzillai. Here he stands for John Sheffield, 3rd earl of Mulgrave. He
supported Dryden and James, Duke of York, and he opposed Monmouth.

Jotham

Jotham stands for George Savile, Marquis of Halifax, and nephew of Shaftesbury. The
marquis of Halifax had once supported Shaftsbury but, alarmed at his excess, had become a
supporter of the Court. It was entirely by his eloquence that the Exclusion Bill was defeated in
the Lords in 1680.

Hushai

Hushai, David’s friend, here stands for Lawrence Hyde, Earl of Rochester, Charles II’s
First Lord of the Treasury. He fought against the Exclusion Bill.
62

Amiel

Amiel stands for Edward Seymour, speaker of the House of Commons and treasurer of
the Navy.

Jews

In Absalom and Achitophel the jews stand for the English people especially the Whigs
who are unfriendly to the king.

Bathsheba

David had a child with Bathsheba while she was married; he then sent her husband into
battle, where he was killed. David later married her. Here she stands for Louise de Keroualle,
duchess of Portsmouth, one of Charles II’s mistresses.

Michal

She was the daughter of Saul and the wife of King David. She stands for Catherine of
Braganza who was the daughter of John IV of Portugal and wife of Charles II.

Saul

Saul was the first king of Israel. He defeated the Philistines in their first battle.

References

https://rpo.library.utoronto.ca/poems/absalom-and-achitophel
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UNIT 5
EPIC
Contents
5.1 Definition Of Epic Poem and features of epic poetry

5.2 Epic Conventions

5.3 About John Milton

5.4 About Paradise Lost Book I Invocation And Introduction Of Theme lines
1-26

5.5 Lines 27-83 2 Satan’s Revolt

5.6 LINES 84-127 Satan’s Speech To Beelzebub

5.7 LINES 128-191 Beelzebub’s Reply And Satan’s Second Speech

5.8 LINES 192-282 Satan’s And Beelzebub’s Quitting The Lake Of Fire

5.9 LINES 283-621 Satan Rallies His Subjects

5.10 LINES 622-669 Satan’s Speech To The Devils

5.11 LINES 670-798 The Building Of Pandemonium

5.12 Understanding The Poem In Detail – Summary

5.13 Character Of Satan/ Speeches Of Satan

5.14 Critics On Milton’s Grand Style

5.15 Grand Style Of ”Paradise Lost”

Preview of the past learning : This section will introduce you to the English poetic forms
and poets of the 17th century and their distinctive characteristics with special focus on epic
poetry. A study of these varied poetic forms will improve understanding of the different poetic
genres. It demands some understanding of the social conditions that existed in England during
the 16th and 17th centuries .

Thematic linkage : The background especially knowing the political; and the personal
background of the writers will give a better understanding of the works that are to be discussed
in detail here.
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5.1 Definition Of Epic Poem and features of epic poetry

a. DEFINITION OF EPIC POEM

Traditionally, an epic poem is a long, serious, poetic narrative about a significant event,
often featuring a hero. Before the development of writing, epic poems were memorized and
played an important part in maintaining a record of the great deeds and history of a culture.
Later, they were written down and the tradition for this kind of poem continued. Epics often
feature the following: a hero who embodies the values of a culture or ethnic group; something
vital that depends on the success of the hero’s actions; a broad setting, sometimes encompassing
the entire world; intervention by supernatural beings. Examples of epics include Gilgamesh,
the Odyssey, and Beowulf.

b.FEATURES OF EPIC POETRY

1) The hero is a figure of great national or even cosmic importance, and represents a
culture’s heroic ideal.

2.) The setting of the poem is ample in scale, and may be worldwide, or even larger.

3.) The action involves superhuman deeds in battle.

4.) In these great actions, the gods and other supernatural beings take an interest or
an active part.

5.) An epic poem is a ceremonial performance and is narrated in a ceremonial style

which is deliberately distanced from ordinary speech and proportioned to the grandeur
and formality of the heroic subject matter and the epic architecture.

5.2 EPIC Conventions

c. EPIC Conventions

There are also some commonly adopted conventions in the structure and in the choice of
episodes of the epic narrative; prominent among them are these elements:

1.) The narrator begins by stating his argument, or theme, invokes a muse or guiding
spirit to inspire him in his great undertaking, then address to the muse the epic question, the
answer to which inaugurates the narrative proper.
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2.) The narrative starts in medias res, i.e., “in the midst of things,” at a critical point in the
action.

3.) There are catalogs of some of the principle characters, introduced in formal detail.

Length And Structure

The most notable characteristic of an epic poem is its sheer length. The “Odyssey,” for
example, has 15,000 lines, while the “Iliad” has 12,000. Early epics were oral compositions,
and poets utilized rigid, tonally melodic rhyme schemes to manage and organize the narrative.
Virgil’s “Aeneid,” one of the earliest written epics, continued this trend in order to approximate
the high-minded style and gravitas of Homer’s works. Both Homer and Virgil used dactylic
hexameter, while English epics often employed the simpler pentameter. Dante’s “The Divine
Comedy” makes use of terza rima, a series of interlocking triplets.

Historic Setting and Sweeping Scope

Epics purport to relate historic events, often from a remote era, in an attempt to define a
cultural heritage or transmit societal values. The history that informs an epic’s narrative takes
place on a grand scale, often over the course of years. The “Iliad” portrays the decade-long
Trojan War, an actual event that took on legendary significance.

The Epic Hero

Literary epics, while invoking large casts of characters, center on the outsized exploits of
a central hero. The hero, while presented as a mortal, tends to possess superhuman abilities.
In the “Iliad,” Achilles is a peerless fighter characterized as the perfect instrument of war. In the
“Odyssey,” Odysseus possesses exceptional wit and superhuman abilities as an archer. The
epic poem follows these heroes for years as they accomplish feat after feat, and allow the
cultures that generate them to claim mythic, powerful forebears that embody treasured traits
like strength, intelligence and bravery.

Presence of the Supernatural

All epics invoke the supernatural, often through the direct intervention of the gods into
worldly affairs. This characteristic, along with the heroic main characters, serves to emphasize
the otherworldly significance of the portrayed events, and posits divine legitimacy for the cultural
history on display. In the “Odyssey,” gods like Athena and Poseidon both help and hinder
Odysseus
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5.3 About John Milton

About the poet – John Milton

John Milton was born in London on December 9, 1608. Milton seems to have had a happy
childhood. Milton became a student at St. Paul’s school, which was attached to the great cathedral
of the same name. St. Paul’s was a prestigious English public school. . He had also learned
Latin well, was competent in Greek and Hebrew, had a smattering of French, and knew Italian
well enough to write sonnets in it.

In 1625, Milton matriculated at Christ’s College, Cambridge, intending to become a minister.

After Milton’s graduation, he began a six-year stay at his father’s recently purchased
country estate of Horton with the stated intention of becoming a poet. One of his first great
works, Comus, a Masque, was written around this time. In 1637 he wrote a memorial poem
Lycidas, which has become one of the most recognized elegiac poems in English.

At this time, Milton began writing prose pamphlets on current church controversies.

In 1674, Milton published the second edition of Paradise Lost, revising it to make a total
of twelve books. Mostly he rearranged rather than rewrote. For example, he made what had
been Book X into Books XI and XII. After the publication of the second edition, his health
deteriorated, and on November 9, 1674, Milton died of complications from a gout attack.

____________________________________________________________________

5.4 About Paradise Lost Book 1 Invocation and introduction

of theme (1-26)
With these lines, Milton begins Paradise Lost and lays the groundwork for his project,
presenting his purpose, subject, aspirations, and need for heavenly guidance. He states that
his subject will be the disobedience of Adam and Eve, whose sin allows death and pain into the
world. He invokes his muse, whom he identifies as the Holy Spirit. He asserts his hopes that his
epic poem will surpass the other great epic poems written before, as he claims that his story is
the most original and the most virtuous. He also asks his muse to fill his mind with divine
knowledge so that he can share this knowledge with his readers. Finally, he hopes this knowledge
and guidance from his muse will allow him to claim authority without committing any heresies,
as he attempts to explain God’s reasoning and his overall plan for humankind.
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It is characteristic of a classical epic that the poet invokes the aid of his patron muse.
Milton marries his Christian theme and neo-classical method by invoking, as hismuse, the Holy
Spirit, third Person of the Trinity. This section is a prayer, in which Milton states his subject, and
asks for divine assistance in giving voice to it. Milton states that his purpose is to:

“Assert eternal providence

And justify the ways of God to men.”

Note that this section contains only two sentences. The main verb, in the first, is the thirty-
ninth word in the sentence. The various indirect objects of the verb “sing” reflect the magnitude
of the poem’s subject and its author’s task: “disobedience...Death…woe...loss of Eden...one
greater Man.”

5.5 Satan’s revolt ( lines 27-83)

Note how easily Milton moves from prayer into an account of Satan’s fall, by asking who
or what caused man to fall. According to Milton, Satan’s motive was to be above his peers. The
expulsion of Satan from Heaven is depicted more fully in Book 6 (his revolt, partly, in Book 5)
of Paradise Lost.

Satan is cast out of Heaven, together with his “horrid crew”. Nine days they lie on a lake
of fire, then regain consciousness to find themselves in Hell.

5.6 Satan’s speech to Beelzebub (lines 84-127)

Satan acknowledges how utterly his confederate, Beelzebub, has been changed, for the
worse, by the devils’ defeat, but stresses fact that they are still united in their fall. He recognises
God’s superior strength, but points out that he now knows the extent of God’s power, previously
unknown because untried. Despite the change they have outwardly undergone, Satan stresses
the unchanged nature of his attitude to God’s Son, “the potent Victor”. “All is not lost” because
Satan will never submit freely to God’s authority. Satan suggests that God’s rule was endangered
by his revolt, that he will never sink to the indignity of asking forgiveness, and outlines his
intention of conducting further warfare against God. Satan’s speech smacks of wishful thinking;
he speaks boastfully, but at the same time tortured by pain and profound despair.
68

5.7 Beelzebub’s reply and Satan’s second speech (lines 128-

191)
Beelzebub acknowledges Satan’s trial of God’s might, bewails loss of Heaven, and the
punishment the fallen angels are suffering, though this will not be alleviated by death. He suggests
that God has deliberately left devils their strength, to be His slaves, carrying out “his errands in
the gloomy deep” of Hell.

Satan replies that the devils’ task must be never to do anything good, but always to strive
to pervert to evil ends whatever God does, turning to evil His good actions. Satan suggests
leaving the lake of fire in which they lie, and reassembling their forces.

Note Satan’s resolution and his taking the initiative. As the poem continues we also note
Beelzebub’s support of Satan, his ready agreement with all he says - Beelzebub is very shrewd:
he makes sure he defers to his superior. Milton gives some account here of the topography of
Hell.

5.8 Satan’s and Beelzebub’s quitting the lake of fire (lines

192-282)
Satan and Beelzebub leave the lake of fire and fly to land. Milton compares Satan with the
sea-monster, Leviathan, and stresses the fact that it is only with God’s permission that the
devils quit the lake. Satan acknowledges the horrible nature of Hell, but argues that, for him, to
be in Heaven would be Hell (being subservient to God) and it is better to reign where he is than
serve in Heaven. Beelzebub repeats Satan’s suggestion, advising him to call to other angels,
who will be revived by sound of their leader’s voice.

5.9 Satan rallies his subjects (lines 283-621)

Satan, “the superior fiend”, goes to the edge of the burning lake and calls to his legions
who are lying inert on its surface. Note his sarcastic humour: he asks, in effect, “Are you having
a rest? Have you chosen to lie in the lake as a way of adoring God (by readily bowing to His
will)?”

The devils, waking, stir themselves, fly up into air, and assemble around Satan The chief
devils are Moloch, Chemos ,Astarte ,Thammuz ,Dagon ,Rimmon ,Osiris, Isis, Orus , and Belial.
 69

The devil host assembles in military fashion. The devils move forward, and come to a halt
ready for inspection by Satan. Milton describes the martial prowess and glory they retain despite
their fall, and notes how moved Satan is by this display of loyalty.

5.10 Satan’s speech to the devils (lines 622-669)

Satan opens his address to his followers by praising them, claiming that none save the
Almighty could have matched their strength. He claims that it is hard to believe the fallen angels
will not re-ascend to Heaven, and regain their rightful position. Satan blames God for apparently
holding His position by “repute” and the ready submission of the angels, while concealing His
true strength, and thereby tempting the followers of Satan to rebel.

Satan mentions the rumour, heard in Heaven, of the creation of a new world, and suggests
the idea of exploring it, as “celestial spirits” will never be held in bondage by the “infernal pit” of
Hell. Satan finishes by insisting that war of some kind “must be resolved”. As he concludes his
speech, the devils affirm their loyalty, striking their shields with their swords, “hurling defiance”
at Heaven.

5.11 The building of Pandemonium (lines 670-798)

Utilising the natural mineral wealth of Hell, the devils, under the guidance of the materialist
Mammon, construct a great council chamber. This is Pandemonium (“All devil place” or “place
of all devils” ). Satan’s heralds proclaim a solemn assembly to be held in Pandemonium, and
the devils scale themselves down in size, till they are small enough to be “at large” in the hall.
(“At large” means having enough space in which to move freely - but Milton puns on the
expression) The chief devils, however, retain their full dimensions, and the “great consult” begins.

5.12 Understanding the poem in detail : SUMMARY

Part 1 Summary: Lines 1–26: The Prologue and Invocation

Milton opens Paradise Lost by formally declaring his poem’s subject: humankind’s first
act of disobedience toward God, and the consequences that followed from it. The act
is Adam and Eve’s eating of the forbidden fruit of the Tree of Knowledge, as told in Genesis,
the first book of the Bible. In the first line, Milton refers to the outcome of Adam and Eve’s sin as
the “fruit” of the forbidden tree, punning on the actual apple and the figurative fruits of their
actions. Milton asserts that this original sin brought death to human beings for the first time,
70

causing us to lose our home in paradise until Jesus comes to restore humankind to its former
position of purity.

Milton’s speaker invokes the muse, a mystical source of poetic inspiration, to sing about
these subjects through him, but he makes it clear that he refers to a different muse from the
muses who traditionally inspired classical poets by specifying that his muse inspired Moses to
receive the Ten Commandments and write Genesis. Milton’s muse is the Holy Spirit, which
inspired the Christian Bible, not one of the nine classical muses who reside on Mount Helicon—
the “Aonian mount” of I.15. He says that his poem, like his muse, will fly above those of the
Classical poets and accomplish things never attempted before, because his source of inspiration
is greater than theirs. Then he invokes the Holy Spirit, asking it to fill him with knowledge of the
beginning of the world, because the Holy Spirit was the active force in creating the universe.

Milton’s speaker announces that he wants to be inspired with this sacred knowledge
because he wants to show his fellow man that the fall of humankind into sin and death was part
of God’s greater plan, and that God’s plan is justified.

Lines 27–722: Satan and Hell

Immediately after the prologue, Milton raises the question of how Adam and Eve’s
disobedience occurred and explains that their actions were partly due to a serpent’s deception.
This serpent is Satan, and the poem joins him and his followers in Hell, where they have just
been cast after being defeated by God in Heaven.Satan lies stunned beside his second-in-
command, Beelzebub, in a lake of fire that gives off darkness instead of light. Breaking the
awful silence, Satan bemoans their terrible position, but does not repent of his rebellion against
God, suggesting that they might gather their forces for another attack. Beelzebub is doubtful;
he now believes that God cannot be overpowered. Satan does not fully contradict this
assessment, but suggests that they could at least pervert God’s good works to evil purposes.
The two devils then rise up and, spreading their wings, fly over to the dry land next to the
flaming lake. But they can undertake this action only because God has allowed them to loose
their chains. All of the devils were formerly angels who chose to follow Satan in his rebellion,
and God still intends to turn their evil deeds toward the good.Once out of the lake, Satan
becomes more optimistic about their situation. He calls the rest of the fallen angels, his legions,
to join him on land. They immediately obey and, despite their wounds and suffering, fly up to
gather on the plain. Milton lists some of the more notable of the angels whose names have
been erased from the books of Heaven, noting that later, in the time of man, many of these
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devils come to be worshipped as gods.Among these are Moloch, who is later known as a god
requiring human sacrifices, and Belial, a lewd and lustful god. Still in war gear, these fallen
angels have thousands of banners raised and their shields and spears in hand. Even in defeat,
they are an awesome army to behold.Satan’s unrepentant evil nature is unwavering. Even cast
down in defeat, he does not consider changing his ways: he insists to his fellow devils that their
delight will be in doing evil, not good. In particular, as he explains to Beelzebub, he wishes to
pervert God’s will and find a way to make evil out of good. It is not easy for Satan to maintain
this determination; the battle has just demonstrated God’s overwhelming power, and the devils
could not even have lifted themselves off the lake of fire unless God had allowed it. God allows
it precisely because he intends to turn their evil designs toward a greater good in the end.
Satan’s envy of the Son’s chosen status led him to rebel and consequently to be condemned.
His continued envy and search for freedom leads him to believe that he would rather be a king
in Hell than a servant in Heaven. Satan’s pride has caused him to believe that his own free
intellect is as great as God’s will. Satan remarks that the mind can make its own Hell out of
Heaven, or in his case, its own Heaven out of Hell.Satan addresses his comrades and
acknowledges their shame in falling to the heavenly forces, but urges them to gather in order to
consider whether another war is feasible. Instantly, the legions of devils dig into the bowels of
the ground, unearthing gold and other minerals. With their inhuman powers they construct a
great temple in a short time. It is called Pandemonium (which means “all the demons” in Greek),
and the hundreds of thousands of demonic troops gather there to hold a summit. Being spirits,
they can easily shrink from huge winged creatures to the smallest size. Compacting themselves,
they enter Pandemonium, and the debate begins.

Important questions

Questions “Milton contrives to make his devils sympathetic and arresting figures, even
when utterly condemning them.” Examine his treatment of Satan and his followers with this
remark in mind.

Consider some of the means by which Milton enables us to imagine events and scenes
that lie outside any possible human experience.

“The essential theme of epic poetry is heroism.” Consider Paradise Lost, Books 1

Examine the character of Satan as displayed in the first book of Paradise Lost.
72

By what means does Milton create a vivid impression of Hell?

Examine Milton’s treatment of Satan’s confrontation of Sin and Death?

“It is because he appears human that Satan stirs our feelings so strongly.” Discuss.

“Milton describes the might, intellect and eloquence of the fallen angels with such power
that the defiance which they hurl towards the vault of Heaven seems for the moment something
more than an empty boast.” How far do you agree?

What do you find most interesting in language and in thinking in Milton’s presentation of
the devils’ debate?

Show in what ways Milton at the same time presents the strengths and the weaknesses
of the devils.

Questions on Book 1

“Late angels, new devils” : does Milton succeed in describing the fallen angels thus in
Book 1 of Paradise Lost?

Write an essay on the pictorial element in Book 1 of Paradise Lost.

Is Satan, as he appears in Book 1 of Paradise Lost, too great and attractive for his functional
role as villain?

“Milton’s scene demands in general the opposite of realistic minuteness: he needs to give
the idea of Hell, not a road map.” Discuss, with reference to Book 1 of Paradise Lost.

“An unconquered will in conflict with irresistible destiny.” In the light of this remark, discuss
the position and character of Satan in Book 1 of Paradise Lost.

Discuss the grandeur of the presentation of the scenes, events and characters in Book 1
of Paradise Lost.

How powerful do you find Milton’s presentation of the series of events in Paradise Lost,
Book l? Give reasons.

What effects does Milton achieve in Paradise Lost, Book 1, by giving Satan and his fallen
host superhuman forms but the minds of men?
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6. Glossary of difficult words

 bash’t (595) embarrassed and ill at ease; abashed.

 abyss (405) Theol. the primeval void or chaos before the Creation.

 Adamantine (48) of or like adamant; very hard; unbreakable.

 alchymy (516) an early form of chemistry studied in the Middle Ages, whose chief
aim was to change base metals into gold and to discover the elixir of perpetual
youth. Milton uses the word in this instance in its meaning of “metal.”

 Amarantin (78) dark purplish-red.

 ambrosial (245) of or fit for the gods; divine.

 Apocalypse (2) any of various Jewish and Christian pseudonymous writings (c. 200
B.C-c. A.D. 300) depicting symbolically the ultimate destruction of evil and triumph
of good.

 apostate (172) one who has abandoned his belief, faith, cause, or principles.

 Archangel (41) a chief angel; angel of high rank.

 arede (962) advise.

 arrogate (27) to claim or seize without right.

 Atlantean (305) of or like Atlas; strong.

 behemoth (467) a large beast mentioned in the Bible; in Milton’s time the term
probably referred to the elephant.

 blasphemed (411) to have spoken irreverently or profanely of or to God or sacred

things.

 brand (643) [Archaic] a sword.

 catarrh (483) inflammation of a mucous membrane, esp. of the nose or throat,

causing an increased flow of mucus.

 Causey (415) a causeway.

 Champaign (2) a broad plain; flat, open country.

 Chaos (421) the disorder of formless matter and infinite space, supposed to have
existed before the ordered universe Milton personifies.
74

 Cherub (157) one of the winged heavenly beings that support the throne of God or
act as guardian spirits.

 colloquy (455) a conversation, esp. a formal discussion.

 contemned (432) to treat or think of with contempt; scorn.

 Cope (215) a large, capelike vestment worn by priests at certain ceremonies;

anything that covers like a cope, as a vault or the sky.

 corporeal (109) physical; bodily; not spiritual.

 descry (228) to catch sight of; discern.

 discount’nanc’t (110) ashamed or embarrassed; disconcerted.

 effeminate (634) having the qualities generally attributed to women; unmanly; not
virile. Milton uses the term in the sense that a man allows a woman to take his place
in the natural hierarchy in which, for Milton, women were inferior to men, especially
in terms of reason and intellect.

 efficacy (660) effectiveness.

 Empyreal / Empyrean (430) the highest heaven; among Christian poets, the abode
of God.

 enthrallment (171) [Now Rare] enslavement.

 Ethereal (45) not earthly; heavenly; celestial.

 euphrasy (414) eyebright; any plant of the figwort family having pale lavender flowers
in leafy clusters.

 fealty (344) loyalty; fidelity.

 Fiend (430) here, Satan.

 firmament (261) the sky, viewed poetically as a solid arch or vault.

 foreknowledge (118) knowledge of something before it happens or exists;

prescience.

 glozing (93) [Obs.] to fawn or flatter. Used by Milton to describe Satan’s lies.

 gripe (264) [Archaic] to grasp or clutch; to distress; oppress; afflict.

 Hail (385) a greeting, used by Raphael specifically to suggest the same greeting
the angel of the Annunciation will used when he comes to Mary in Luke i, 28.
 75

 harbinger (13) a person or thing that comes before to announce or give an indication
of what follows; herald.

 Hesperian (632) may refer to the Cape Verde Islands which were called the
Hesperides; or could, in context, simply mean the setting sun, which is the older
meaning of the word.

 Hierarchies (191) the leaders or chiefs of religious groups; high priests. Milton
uses the term to represent all the angels who make up the Heavenly Host.

 hyaline (619) transparent as glass; glassy.

 imperious (287) overbearing, arrogant, domineering.

 impregn (500) impregnate.

 incarnate (315) endowed with a body, esp. a human body; in bodily form. The Son
will become incarnate to save Man.

 intercessor (96) one who pleads or makes a request in behalf of another or others.

 irriguous (255) moist, well-watered.

 jocund (372) cheerful; genial.

 justify (26) to show to be just, right, or in accord with reason; vindicate.

 lantskip (491) landscape (a Dutch word whose form had not changed in English in
Milton’s time).

 Lazar-house (479) a house of the diseased and dying, especially for lepers.

 Limbo (495) in some Christian theologies, the eternal abode or state, neither heaven
nor hell, of the souls of infants or others dying in original sin but free of grievous
personal sin, or, those dying before the coming of Christ; the temporary abode or
state of all holy souls after death.

 loath (585) unwilling; reluctant.

 marish (630) [Archaic] a marsh; swamp.

 nuptial (339) of marriage or a wedding.

 obdurate (205) stubborn; obstinate; inflexible.

 obliquities (132) not level or upright; inclined.

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 omnific (217) creating all things.

 oracle (182) any person or agency believed to be in communication with a deity.

 orison (145) a prayer.

 ounce (466) lynx or panther.

 Pandemonium (756) any place or scene of wild disorder, noise, or confusion; here,
the capital of Hell.

 patriarch (376) the father and ruler of a family or tribe; Adam is identified in Paradise
Lost as the patriarch of all Mankind.

 plebeian (442) one of the common people.

 prevenient (3) antecedent to human action.

 Prime (170) a part of the Divine Office orig. assigned to the first hour of daylight;
Milton uses Prime in the sense of dawn, the first hour of daylight.

 progeny (503) children, descendants, or offspring.

 propitiation (34) gracious.

 puissant (632) powerful; strong.

 Purlieu (404) orig., an outlying part of a forest.

 quaternion (181) a set of four.

 redound (739) to come back; react; recoil (upon).

 rue (414) an herb with yellow flowers and bitter-tasting leaves.

 sagacious (281) having or showing keen perception or discernment and sound

judgment.

 sapience (195) knowledge, wisdom.

 sedulous (27) working hard and steadily; diligent.

 Seneschal (38) a steward or major-domo in the household of a medieval noble.

 Seraph, Seraphim (667) any of the highest order of angels.

 solace (419) an easing of grief, loneliness, discomfort.

 spume (479) to foam or froth.

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 Stygian (239) of or characteristic of the river Styx and the infernal regions; infernal
or hellish.

 Styx, Acheron, Cocytus, Phlegethon (577) the four rivers of Hell.

 Synod (661) any assembly or council. Milton uses the word to describe a meeting
or conjunction of the stars astrologically.

 transpicuous (141) transparent; esp., easily understood.

 tumid (288) swollen; bulging.

 unctuous (635 ) oily or greasy; made up of or containing fat or oil. Milton uses the
word to describe one of the elements of ignis fatuusor fool’s fire, a phenomenon
like St. Elmo’s Fire which often led the foolish astray.

 usurp (421) to take or assume power, a position, property, rights, etc. and hold in
possession by force or without right.

 vagaries (614) an odd, eccentric, or unexpected action.

 vassal / vassalage (253) a subordinate, subject, servant, slave, etc.

 verdant (500) covered with green vegetation.

 visage (116) the face, with reference to the expression; countenance.

 wanton (211) [Now Rare] luxuriant (said of vegetation, etc.).

 welkin (538) the vault of heaven, the sky.

 wicket (484) a small door or gate, esp. one set in or near a larger door or gate.
Used by Milton for Heaven’s Gate.

 wont (32) accustomed: used predicatively.

5.13 Character of SATAN/ Speeches of Satan

Satan of Book-I Paradise Lost, is one of the glorious examples of political leadership and
political oratory. His speeches are the key to his character and his art of oratory excels the best
of Roman rhetoric. He is the leader of the rebel-angels in Heaven and the uncrowned monarch
of Hell. By following his lead, the fallen angels are deprived of “happy fields, where joy forever
dwells.” Satan has now the task of retaining their loyalty and does so by the sheer magic of his
high-pitched oratory. There is a certain pathetic grandeur of injured merit in them which wins
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the hearts of his followers. Around the character of Satan, Milton has thrown a singularity of
daring, a grandeur of sufferance and a ruined splendour, which constitute the very height of
poetic sublimity.

Satan is the first to recover from the stupor into which all the rebel angels fall. Soon he
notices his first lieutenant, Beelzebub, weltering by his side. He finds that his compeer is much
changed. So he makes a cautious approach, for he is not sure whether his friend is in a mood
to blame him or he still loves him.

First Speech. Satan’s speeches reveal pure Miltonic lyricism. His opening speech to
Beelzebub is a magnificent set-piece. It reveals the character of Satan - a defiant rebel and a
great leader. He encourages and sympathizes with his followers with bold words and sentiments.

Satan first takes pity on the change in his friend. Then he refers to their friendship of the
hazardous enterprise in heaven and in their present misery. He is ashamed to admit the might
of God. But he will not allow it to change his mind. He has nothing but contempt for God who
insulted his merits. It is a sense of injured merit that makes him wage war against the tyrant of
Heaven. As for the battle, it has been an equal match and the issue uncertain. It is not their
want of merit but God’s new and secret weapon that won the war. There is an irony through
Satan’s speech which continually reduces his stature even when apparently it seems to be
building it up. Satan’s historical of “high disdain” and “sense of injured merit” have overtones of
the ludicrous. It seems weak and childish.

A single victory does not permanently ensure God’s victory. For the present, they may
have lost the field, but that does not mean they have lost everything.

What though the field be lost?

All is not lost-the unconquerable will.

And study of revenge, immoral hate,

And courage never to submit or yield.

And what is else not to be overcome?

He, who failed to conquer these things cannot be said to be victor at all. Defeat is complete
only when the spirit and the will too are subjugated. The bow down before God is worse than
defeat. So he is determined to wage eternal war by force or guile.
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Satan’s question “what though the field be lost?” is “an exposure of himself and his inability
to act in any other way other than what he enumerates.”

Though the speech is one of high rhetorics there is barrenness; no suggestion of action
at all except to brood on revenge and hate. Revenge will be eternally “studied” and have sustained
yet it is so grandly expressed that we are thrilled by the implied suggestion to wage ceaseless
war against hopeless odds, this appears as admirable.

Second Speech. With his second speech, Satan sweeps off all doubts from his friend’s
mind. “To be weak is miserable, doing or suffering.” If God attempts to turn evil into good, it
must be the sacred duty of the fallen angels to foil his attempts and turn all good to evil. God
has now withdrawn all his forces and is in a confounded state. They should not let this opportunity
slip. It is imperative that all of them should assemble and consult how they may hereafter most
offend their enemy, best repair their own loss.

The audacity and superb self-confidence of Satan are well brought out in these words. He
seizes the opportunity to mobilize his forces once again, conscious of the crushing defeat that
he and his followers have suffered. Satan is trying to infuse fresh courage into them. His
speech shows a heroic quality.

Third Speech. After winning over Beelzebub and putting new courage in him, Satan
asks him whether they are forced to exchange this mournful gloom for celestial light. Now that
they have become avowed enemies of God, the farther they are from him the better. So he
welcome the dismal horrors of the infernal world. For him Hell is as good a place as Heaven, for
his mind remains unchanged by place or time.

The mind is its own place, and in itself

Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven.
In Hell they are free from servitude. It is “better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven.”

“Farthest from him is best” is a statement of heroic defiance and of moral alienation.
Once again the appeal is to the law of nature and God’s monarchy is presented to be based on
force not on reason.

The line “Receive thy new Possessor” is characteristic of the Satanic mind and its passion
for over lordship.
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Satan’s speech is “full of ringing phrases expressed with a deliberate sonority.” The brief
elegiac note gives way to rhetorical assertions of self-confidence. Again irony underlies the
rhetoric. The ringing line “Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven” with its melodramatic
tone scarcely conceals the mixture of pride and spite which it expresses.

Fourth Speech. Taking Beelzebub with him, he addresses other angels, with a resounding
voice. He directly touches their ego by calling them, “Princes, Potentates, Warriors, the Flower
of Heaven.” He ask them whether they are sleeping thus on account of physical exhaustion or
in despair. He exhorts them to “wake, arise or be forever fallen.”

Initially, Satan sarcastically addresses his fallen angels and then he tries to revive their
detached spirits. His speech is so commanding and fiery that his followers are roused out of
their stupor.

Fifth Speech. Satan addresses the assembled angels. He is filled with pride to have so
many comrades. It is impossible that these vast numbers are vanquished. They are all powerful
and still there is every hope of regaining their native seat. God has conquered them by use of
force, but such success is only a partial success. Hell cannot contain so many valiant spirits for
long. Peace of course, is despaired and therefore ruled out. The only course open to them is
war. “War open or understood.” Satan invites all of them to the great council.

Satan choked with emotion and tears, begins his speech, like a politician he indulges in
rhetoric. Without distorting facts he turns them to a different light and gives his defeated host a
margin of hope. Throughout, Satan resolves “to wage by force or guile eternal war.” Later he
places an alternative before the infernal council “op’n war or covert guile.” But now one finds
that the emphasis is on war not guile. Satan is determined to combat with God to save his own
pride. Satan makes a warlike speech full of contradictions and absurdities when examined
closely but admirable and impressive on the face of it ending with an appeal to continue conflict.

“War then war

Open or understood must be resolv’d

Besides his actions, Satan also appears heroic because the first two books focus on Hell
and the fallen angels. These facts certainly make Satan the most interesting character in the
poem — but they do not make him the hero. Because the reader hears Satan’s version first, the
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reader is unaware of the exaggerations and outright lies that are parts of Satan’s magnificent
speeches.

No matter how brilliantly Milton created the character of Satan, the chief demon cannot
be the hero of the poem. For Milton, Satan is the enemy who chooses to commit an act that
goes against the basic laws of God, that challenges the very nature of the universe. Satan
attempts to destroy the hierarchy of Heaven through his rebellion. Satan commits this act not
because of the tyranny of God but because he wants what he wants rather than what God
wants. Satan is an egoist. His interests always turn on his personal desires. Unlike Adam, who
discusses a multiplicity of subjects with Raphael, rarely mentioning his own desires, Satan sees
everything in terms of what will happen to him. A true Promethean / Romantic hero has to rebel
against an unjust tyranny in an attempt to right a wrong or help someone less fortunate. If Satan
had been Prometheus, he would have stolen fire to warm himself, not to help Mankind.

In the end, Satan calls to mind the Macbeth of Shakespeare. Both characters are
magnificent creations of evil. Both are heroic after a fashion, but both are doomed. Both are
fatalistic about the afterlife. Satan knows that he must remain in Hell; Macbeth says that he
would “jump the life to come,” if he could kill Duncan with no consequence on Earth. Both
characters are the driving force in their own works. And finally both create a kind of Hell; Macbeth’s
on Earth, Satan’s in the universe.

5.14 Critics on Milton’s Grand Style

In modern times, Milton’s style first received general criticism from T. S. Eliot. Eliot
praised Milton in “A Note on the Verse of John Milton” (Martz 12-18): “[W]hat he could do well
he did better than anyone else has ever done.” Then Eliot added, “Milton’s poetry could only be
an influence for the worse, upon any poet whatever.” The general thrust of Eliot’s criticism is
that Milton’s purposely adopted grand style is both so difficult to accomplish and so complicated
(in places) to understand that it causes a deterioration in the poetic style of those who are
influenced by it and cannot meet its demands. “In fact,” said Eliot, “it was an influence against
which we still have to struggle.”

Eliot’s prime example is from Book V as Satan addresses his followers concerning the
Son:
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Thrones, Dominations, Princedoms, Virtues, Powers,

If these magnific Titles yet remain
Not merely titular, since by Decree
Another now hath to himself ingross’t
All Power, and us eclipst under the name
Of King anointed, for whom all this haste
Of midnight march, and hurried meeting here,
This only to consult how we may best
With what may be devis’d of honors new
Receive him coming to receive from us
Knee-tribute yet unpaid, prostration vile,
Too much to one, but double how endur’d,
To one and to his image now proclaim’d? (V, 772-784).

That Satan’s point here is obscured by the language cannot be denied. Most readers are
probably unaware that a question is being asked until they see the question mark at the end of
the passage. The meaning here can be puzzled out, but it is difficult to call such writing good, let
alone great. Many readers, from put-upon high schoolers to experienced scholars took Eliot’s
criticism to heart. Often, they overlooked the fact that Eliot did not suggest that Milton was a
bad poet; rather he suggested that the grand style could lead to bad poetry, particularly by the
many who used Milton’s style as the paradigm of great English poetry.

Defenders of Milton quickly appeared to answer Eliot. C. S. Lewis, in his work A Preface
to Paradise Lost, and Christopher Ricks in Milton’s Grand Style both mounted vigorous defenses
of Milton’s style. Lewis in particular argued that Milton needed this particular style for a “secondary
epic,” his term for an epic meant to be read rather than the “primary epic,” which was presented
orally in a formal setting and meant to be heard. Lewis’ basic point was that the grand style
provided the formality of setting that the secondary epic, by the nature of its composition, lost.

Both Lewis and Ricks offered numerous counter examples to show that Milton’s style was
sublime. Certainly, aside from Shakespeare, no other writer in English could manipulate the
language as Milton did. His justly famous description of Mulciber falling soars:

from Morn
To Noon he fell, from Noon to dewy Eve,
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A Summer’s day; and with the setting Sun

Dropt from the Zenith like a falling Star (I, 742-745).

Allusions and Vocabulary

The first aspect of the grand style that most readers notice is the number of allusions and
references, many of which seem obscure, along with the arcane and archaic vocabulary. In just
the first few lines of the poem references to “Oreb” (7), “That Shepherd” (8), “chosen seed” (8),
“Siloa’s Brook” (10), and “Aonian Mount” (15) occur. The purpose of the references is to extend
the reader’s understanding through comparison. Most readers will know some of the references,
but few will know all. The question thus arises whether Milton achieves his effect or its opposite.
Further, words such as “Adamantine” (48), “durst” (49), “Compeer” (127), “Sovran” (246) and
many others, both more and less familiar, add an imposing tone to the work. Paradise Lost was
not written for an uneducated audience, but in many editions the explanatory notes are almost
as long as the text.

Sentence Construction

Besides the references and vocabulary, Milton also tends to use Latinate constructions.
English is a syntactical language using word order in sentences to produce sense. Latin, in
contrast, is an inflected language in which endings on words indicate the words’ functions
within a sentence, thereby making word order less important. Latin verbs, for example, often
come at the end of the sentence or a direct object may precede the subject. In Paradise
Lost, Milton seems purposely to strive for atypical English syntactical patterns. He almost never
writes in simple sentences. Partly, this type of inverted, at times convoluted, syntax is necessary
for the poetics, to maintain the correct meter, but at other times the odd syntax itself seems to
be Milton’s stylistic goal.

Extended Similes

Another aspect of Milton’s style is the extended simile. The use of epic similes goes back
to Homer in the Iliad and Odyssey, but Milton uses more similes and with more detail. A Miltonic
simile can easily become the subject of an essay, perhaps a book. Milton’s similes run a gamut
from those that seem forced (the comparison of Satan’s arrival in Eden to the smell of fish [IV,
166]) to those that are perfect (Eden compared to the field where Proserpine gathered flowers
[(IV, 268]). But, in all cases, a critical exploration of the simile reveals depths of unexpected
meaning about the objects or persons being compared. Once again, Milton achieves a purpose
84

with his highly involved language and similes. The ability to do this seems almost unique to
Milton, a man of immense learning and great poetic ability.

Repeated Images

Besides extended similes, Milton also traces a number of images throughout the poem.
One of the most apparent is the image of the maze or labyrinth. Over and over in the poem,
there are mentions of mazes — like the tangled curls of Eve’s hair — which finally culminate
with the serpent confronting Eve on a “Circular base of rising folds, that tow’r’d / Fold above fold
a surging maze” (IX, 498-499).

The name of Milton”, says Raleigh, “is become the mark, not of a biography nor of a
theme, but of a style - the most distinguished in our poetry.” In all that he has written he has
impressed his indomitable personality and irrepressible originality. John Milton is not only in
every line of Paradise Lost but in every line of poetry that he has written. As Macaulay has said:
“There is not a square inch of his poetry from first to last of which one could not confidently say.”
“This is Milton and no one else.”

Essentials of Miltonic Style

Since style is the expression of personality, we have to find the peculiar quality of Milton’s
style in his personality and character. In Milton’s poetic style we inevitably find the imprint of a
cultured mind, a lofty soul and an artistic conscience.

Artistic Perfection

Milton as a poetic artist is never careless or slipshod. There is hardly a line in his poetic
work which is unpoetical - hardly a word which is superfluous. All the words used by him are
deliberately chosen for fulfilling these functions: the exact expression of thought, their power for
suggestion, and the musical effects for the verse.

According to Dr. Pearce, Milton’s grand style originates from the formalities of classical
prose. “Prosaic virtues of clarity, order, strict definition, working from line to line, adjusting clause
to clause, word to word, are the real source of that classic “finish” a clear hardness of texture
which everywhere distinguishes the Miltonic line from any other.”
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5.15 Grand style of "Paradise Lost”

The greatest work of Milton is Paradise Lost, and when we speak of the style of Milton,
we usually think of the majestic style of this great epic. When Wordsworth wrote: “Thou hadst
a voice whose sound was like the sea, “he had in his mind the grand style of Paradise Lost.
When Tennyson spoke of Milton as being the “God-gifted organ-voice of England,” he was no
doubt referring to the majestic blank verse of Paradise Lost.

Miltonic style of ”Paradise Lost”

The style of the epic is always great. On the whole, it is greatest in the whole range of
English poetry. Fullness of sound, weight of march, compactness of finish, fitness of words to
things, fitness of pauses to thought, a strong grasp of the main idea , equality of power over
vast spaces of imagination, sustained splendour when he soars.

Milton’s style Paradise Lost is rich and full of splendour; it is replete with numerous
deliberate devices that heighten dignity and govern imaginative and emotional response. Milton’s
style is not totally artificial. Inspite of the numerous passages that are thickly inlaid with allusions
and references, inspite of the elevated and heightened character of its style, the basic structure
has an element of plainness.

The Poet’s Imagination

The poet’s imagination does not submit to any limitation of space and time; the whole
history of the human race and the geography of the entire globe are brought within its compass.
When the poet seeks to convey the idea of the vastness of the multitude of the fallen angels his
imagination goes back to the past, and passes over the entire continent of Europe:

A multitude like which the populous North

Poured never from her frozen loins to pass
Rhene or the Danaw when her barbarous sons
Came like a deluge on the South and spread
Beneath Gibraltor the Lybian sands.
Satan’s throne in Pandemonium calls up the vision of the whole of “gorgeous East.”
High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Onnus and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbatic pearl and gold
Satan exalted sat.
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Suggestive and Compact

“Of all English styles,” says Raleigh, “Milton’s is best entitled to the name of classic.” In
Milton’s style we have the compactness, force and reserve and the unity of emotional impression,
which are the distinctive characteristics of the true classical style. Milton was a conscientious
artist; he weighed every word he used for its meaning, weight and sound. “He taxes every line
to its fullest capacity, and wring the last drop of value from each word. “ “His poetry,” says
Macaulay, “acts like an incantation”.

Allusiveness

An essential quality of Milton’s poetic style is its allusiveness. He, no doubt pressed to the
service of his poetry all that he observed in life and nature; but his vision was often coloured by
his knowledge. The whole treasury of poetry, ancient and modern, and the whole storehouse of
learning were at his command; and he seemed to assume that they were also at the command
of his readers and so he loaded every rift of his verse with myth and legend, historical, literary,
and scientific fact. Classical and Biblical allusions are most abundant, and are woven into the
very texture of his language.

Epic Similes

A striking feature of Milton’s style in Paradise Lost is his use of epic similes. These go far
beyond the limits of comparison, and are expanded to draw complete pictures. Satan’s huge
bulk is compared to the huge Leviathan, who may be mistaken for an island.

References
 87

MODEL QUESTION PAPER

POETRY FROM CHAUCER TO THE 17TH CENTURY

CORE PAPER - I
Time : 3 hours Marks : 75

Section A

Answer any 10 (10 x 2 = 20 marks)

1. Give a definition of Satire.

2. Who was Achitophel ?
3. What is a heroic couplet ?
4. With what two matters in Absalom discontented ?
5. Why is the Knight first in the General Prologue and first to tell a tale ?
6. Define metaphysical poetry.
7. Write a note on nymphs in Prothalamion.
8. What is a sonnet ?
9. Give a brief note in Satan's revolt
10. Write a note on Pandemonium
11. What is the theme of the Monk's Tale?
12. What is a ballad ?

Section B

Answer any 5 in 250 words (5 x 5 = 25 marks)

13. Consider in detail Prothalamion as a wedding poem

14. Give an account of the Prioress's Tale in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.

15. Narrate the tale of the Physician in Chaucer's Caterbury Tales,

16. What are the characteristics of a Ballad ?

17. Give a Summary of sonnet "A Renouncing Of Love by Wyatt"

18. What are the main thoughts expressed in The Ecstasy by John Donne ?
88

Section C

Answer any 3 in 500 words (3 x 10 = 30 marks)

19. Write a detailed essay on lyric poetry with reference to the poems prescribed.

20. Summarise the main incidents in "The Caterbury Tales".

21. Give a detailed summary of the ballad "Sir Patrick Spens."

22. Explain in detail the structure of the poel - The Canonization" by Donne

23. Examine the character of Satan as displayed in the first book of Paradise Lost.