Topic 1

Cells and tissues

Human biology june 2023
4HB
Cell
Saturday at 8;00 a.m
Sunday at 7 :00 p.M

Tissue : a group of cells with similar structure that works together to perform specific function
Example :

Muscles

Smooth muscles Skeletal muscles Cardiac muscle

Involuntary muscles Voluntary Involuntary
Yet need to be stimulated by nerve Need to be stimulated by electrical / Doesn’t need to be
impulses nerve impulse to be set to them stimulated by nerve
through nerves impulses

Slow contraction in walls of gut, blood Yet nerve impulses are needed
Attached to bones, responsible for
vessels in arteries and veins , uterus, to regulate the rate of heart
making bones move beats
trachea , bronchioles , bronchi

One nucleus per cell

One nucleus per cell
Striated , non branched Branched to spread out the
Non striated , not branched with
With many nuclei per cell contraction/ striated to increase
tapered ends strength of contraction
1. Muscle tissue
2.Blood tissue
3.Bone tissue
Read to understand
4.Nervous tissue
5. Epithelium tissue Epithelial cells …..cells lining inner or outer layer of an organ

Epithelium ..tissue
Epithelial ….cell Ciliated epithelial cells Squamous ( flat ) epithelium
Lining trachea Flat cells
Capillaries . Alveoli

Es
Epithelial cells with microvilli in ileum

°
 Cell structure
Cell membrane : Partially
Light microscope : lower resolution permeable membrane that
Electron microscope : higher resolution and magnification so we Controls the movement of
can use to see smaller organelles substances in and out of cell.

Vesicles ….transport
material inside or
B B outside the cell .

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Modification of proteins made in
Golgi body
ribosomes
And transportation of proteins . Modification of
proteins
Packaging and
transporting inside
1. Nucleus
secretory vesicles
A. Contain genes / DNA
B. Control cell activities Mitochondrion
C. Contains genes that code Site of aerobic respiration
for protein synthesis P To produce ATP
Nucleolus
D. Controls cell division Ribosome
Assemble the ribosome ADP
1. Site of translation
( protein synthesis ) ATP
29/10/2022
Part 1
Microscope
Specialised cells
DNA structure
 Light microscope Electron microscope

Use light beams Use electron beams

Can show smaller organelles with
We can only see large organelles by LM details as it has higher resolution and
As it has lower resolution and magnification magnification
Example :
Nucleus Examples :
1. Mitochondria
2. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
How to use a light microscope : 3. Ribosomes
1. Prepare a slide ( specimen) ,,, 4. Nucleolus
2. Place on the stage 5. Golgi body
3. Look through eye piece
4. And use the objective lens with required
magnification .
5. And adjust the image by using coarse focus then
fine focus .
 A M
Eye piece
Image size
Magnification =
Actual size
1 cm = 10 mm
1 mm= 1000um
I
Objective lens

Stage

Quick focusing
Coarse focus
Fine focus
Light source
Precise
focusing
 DNA
Specialisation
Same

MuD
Sperm Zygote Embryo
Egg
Specialisation and differentiation
Where some of the genes turned on
and others remain turned off .

&
Nerve cells
Red blood cell Egg and sperm cells Muscle cells
Beta cells in
WBCs
pancreas
Gene coding for
release insulin
Antibodies is being
activated
 Examples :

Cilaited epithelial cells 1. Goblet cells secrete mucus ( sticky) to trap dust and
bacteria

iiini.FFSEcells
2. Cilia beats to sweap mucus out of the lungs back to the
throat
Thus keeping air ways clean

Red blood cells Destination point is a must

Function : transport oxygen to all body cells
Adaptaion :
1. Biconcave :
Increase surface are to speed up rate of diffusion of oxygen in and out of RBC
2. Contains no nucleus to have more haemoglobin forming more oxyhameoglobin to transport
more oxygen to ALL BODY CELLS .
3. Flexible : squeeze itself through tiniest capillary
4. Small in size : with almost same size as capillary .. to be closer to the surface of capillary wall
foe shorter diffusion distance ..fo faster diffusion and gas exchange between blood and alveoli,
between blood and respiring cells .
Sperm cells

-☒ Acrosome
Flagellum/tail beats for Middle part is full of contains
swimming movement. mitochondria for hydrolytic
Nucleus
energy for Contain
enzymes to help

movement genetic penetrate the egg

material cell ( dissolve jelly
Haploid . like material )
Egg cell

my
Jelly like material.

Cell membrane

Cytoplasm is dense with large food storage

As a source of energy needed for early
development of embryo

Large surface area : for sperm to attach this increasing

chance of penetration of sperm so increasing chance of
fertilisation
DNA structure
Phosphate
group

to Sugar
&

Function :
1. Make up our genes
prove Nitrogenous base

2. Carry genetic code that codes for proteins ( protein synthesis )

3. Controlling cell activities .
4. Passing on the genetic material /information from one generation to another .

Structure OF DNA
1. Made from 2 strands which are made from nucleotides
2. With 4 types of bases …which are adenine , thymine , cytosine
and guanine .
3. They pair up according to complementary base pairing role where
A pairs with T and C pairs with G . Nitrogenous base .
4. Hydrogen bonds are formed between bases ( between A and T , Adenine , Thymine , Cytosine ,
there are 2 hydrogen bonds , and between C and G there are 3 guanine.
hydrogen bonds ) .
Hydrogen bond
Holding the 2 DNA strands together
5. The 2 strands twist to form a double helix
 Triplet code
Sugar phosphate back Nucleotide with adenine
C base ( nitrogenous base )
bone / DNA strand

&
C
G

A
f
T
A

Double helix

Hydrogen bond

ATCCGGTTAATCAATTGGGCCTAA

TAGGCCAATTAGTTAACCCGGATT

Gene : length of DNA , made from specific sequence of bases , coding ' for a specific protein

Genetic code : code formed by order of bases in DNA , that determine the characteristic of an
organism by coding for specific protein .
DNA replication

DNA molecule =
adenine 23%
Guanine

Thymine = 23%
Cytosine +guanine
= 100- 46= 54
Guanine is 54/2
= 27%
1. The DNA untwist
2. The 2 polynucleotide strands separate by breaking down the hydrogen bonds

3. Each strand act as a template strand for the the formation of a new strands
DNA polymerase assembles / joins nucleotides into 2 new DNA strands according to complementary base
pairing role

4. Two identical DNA molecules formed , each DNA molecule contains one old strand from the parent and
another new strand .
 MRNAIRePuuracil

&
Protein synthesis

A
Nuclear pores
-
DNA …..gene …..mRNA ……………………………………………………..ribosome

2) I t "d ann
-
AAA

Translation in ribosome which assembles the amino a

Transcription making a copy of gene ..mRNA
into a protein molecule

Transcription :
1.gene untwist and unzip where the hydrogen bonds are broken down
2. RNA nucleotides line up along the template strand , according to complementary base pairing role
3. RNA nucleotide joined together forming mRNA
4. mRNA leave the nucleus through nuclear pores in the nuclear envelop
5. DNA helix zip again .
 g5zEwn
Translation in ribosome :

AUG

- is
& it
11 I
UAC
anticodon.

Codon
*
1. mRNA carry a complementary base sequence of the genetic code ( carry a copy of gene ).
2. Leave the nucleus through nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope
To attach to the ribosome in the cytoplasm
3. Where the t RNA bring specific amino acid to the ribosome
4. Where the tRNA anticodon pair up / link up with the corresponding codon on mRNA
5. According to complementary base pairing role
6. Bring amino acids close together to allow the formation of peptide bond between amino acids
7. Until stop codon which terminate the translation ( UGA, UAG , UAA) .
8, so that the ribosome assemble the amino acids into a protein molecule / polypeptide chain
5/11/2022
Part 2
Mitosis
Mutation
 DNA RNA

Double stranded Single stranded

Larger in size Smaller in size
Made from DNA nucleotides Made up of RNA nucleotides
Has deoxyribose sugar Has ribose sugar
Thymine base Uracil instead of thymine
One type 2 types of RNA ( mRNA , tRNA )
Has hydrogen bonds holding the two strands mRNA has no hydrogen bonds
together

Both are made from nucleotides

Both have nitrogenous bases
Both have sugar and phosphate groups in their nucleotides
 Mutation
Mutation : sudden random change in genetic material ( gene mutation / chromosomal mutation)

Gene mutation :
Sudden , random change in base sequence ( in gene)
Result in production new allele ( allele means different form for the same gene)
Result in change in the sequence of amino acids
So different protein and phenotype ( phenotype means outer feature/ observable characteristic )
+ add example of mutation ( deletion / insertion / substitution/ inversion ) .
By mutagen …….
Which an agent increase the rate of random mutation
Example ionising radiation , chemicals ( tar and mustard gas ) .
 Mutation ( definition + type)
Frame shift , where each triplet after mutation is changed
No frame shift , each triplet after mutation hasn’t been changes , only one

I
triplet changed
Duplication /
Deletion Susbtitution
insertion Inversion

I (
Insert thymine base ( third base
Gene mutation by deletion of
in the first triplet) twice …
causing a frame shift ( every thymine in first triplet ..entire Thymine base has been replaced Sequence of bases in second
triplet after mutation is changes base sequence is altered / triplet code is reversed
so coding for different amino by Guanine base in the first
changed . So code for
acidS . So coding for an entirely
triplet ..so only one triplet code …so only one triplet code
different protein. entirely different protein .
altered ..so it might code for
Frame shift altered ..so it might code for
different amino acid . All other
different amino acid . All other
triplet codes after mutation
triplet codes after mutation are
are not affected
not affected

Triplet code ….. 3 bases

Silent mutation
We have 4 bases ….A. T …C….G
Where the new codon / triplet will still code for same
So we have 4 64 …coding for 20 amino amino acid as we have 20 amino acids and 64
acids codons / triplets
6 Errors in DNA replication can give rise to mutations.
The diagram shows the bases in a length of DNA. '

µ
-

"

Length of DNA A T G C T C A T T T A C C A T C G A

Base number 1 2 O
3 4
0.0
5 6
.
7 8 00
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

The table shows the genetic code for the amino acids.

Genetic Amino Genetic Amino Genetic Genetic

Amino acid Amino acid
code acid code acid code code
AAA CAA GAA TAC
Lysine Glutamine Glutamic acid Tyrosine
AAG CAG GAG TAT
TCA
AAC CAT GAC TCC
Asparagine Histidine Aspartic acid Serine
AAT CAC GAT TCG
TCT
ACA CCA GCA
ACC CCC GCC
Threonine Proline Alanine TGG Tryptophan
ACG CCG GCG
ACT CCT GCT
CGA GGA
AGA CGC GGC TGC
Arginine Arginine Glycine Cysteine
AGG CGG GGG TGT
CGT GGT
CTA GTA
AGC CTC GTC TTA
Serine Leucine Valine Leucine
AGT CTG GTG TTG
CTT GTT
ATA
TTC
ATC Isoleucine Phenylalanine
TTT
ATT
Lo t

ATG Methionine

The genetic codes TAA, TAG and TGA are stop codons.
(a) State the sequence of the first four amino acids coded for by this length of DNA.
(1)
Methionine, leucine , isoleucine, tyrosine
. . . . . . . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ............................................................................................................................... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14
*P62792RA01428*
Examples of mutation :

1. Cystic fibrosis Caused by a mutant recessive allele

More production of a THICK STICKY MUCUS

Air ways : mucus not easily removed by cilia

Sperm duct :
Difficulty in breathing and less gas exchange
Male infertile ( sperm cant leave the body of male )
So less oxygen reaching to body cells
So less respiration
So no enough energy
+ bacteria replicate causing chest infection. Pancreatic duct :
Pancreatic juice with digestive enzymes cant reach to
duodenum , less digestion of proteins , carbohydrates .
Block intestine :
Poor absorption of nutrients
Name example : APL
Less amino acids so less growth Amylase Lipase
Less iron …anaemia Protease
Trypsin
Treatment ;

Treatment ;
1.Medication to reduce the severity of symptoms
2. Trying to use gene therapy …by inserting the functioning gene ( coding for normal mucus production) into
a harmless virus ( as vector) …the introducing into the body of the person with cystic fibrosis .
Didnt work as lung defense against the virus ..stopping virus from entering affected cells .

Enclose gene in oil droplet and

spray them into patients lungs * …
showed improvement .

2. Effect of exposure of ultra violet light from sun :

1. Sun burns
2. Can lead to damage to skin tissue
3. U . v rays cause damage to the chromosome / nucleus
4. More mutation in skin cells
5. Can lead to skin cancer .
 Mitosis
https://youtu.be/5bq1To_RKEo

In preparation
of mitosis where
DNA doubles
1 DNA 1 DNA

e
molecule molecule 2 sister
chromatids
attached by
centromere
Ending up by 2 genetically
identical daughter-cells with same

Chromatin no. Of chromosmes and same

characteristics …both diploid
( uncondensed Chromosome ( 2 DNA molecules )= condensed
chromatin
chromosomes ) .
 A C
Interphase
DNA replication Ending up by 2 genetically ' identical
Chromosomes appeared as chromatin daughter-cells with same no. Of
chromosmes and same characteristics
B …both diploid
Mitosis
A) prophase …chromatin condense into chromosomes
Each chromosome made from 2 sister chromatids attached by centromere
Nuclear envelop disappear

B) metaphase
Spindle fibres formed
Lined chromosomes at the equator

C) anaphase
The spindle fibres shorten
Pull sister chromatids apart of each other
Chromosomes reach to poles of the cell

D) telophase
Chromosomes reach poles of the cell . Nucleus reforms …then cytoplasm starts to divide
 46 Diploid 2n

Interphase

' 92

46 46
Describe the new cells
Amount of DNA
produced : 2C
2C
1. Diploid ¥
2. Genetically identical to parent cells
3. Same number of chromosomes as the
C
; Mitosis c
the parent cells with same characteristics l l

'
l 1.

Time
 46 Diploid 2n
46 Diploid 2n
Interphase ( DNA
Homologous
Interphase ( DNA replication) g.

replication)
92 92 ,norÉ°
÷,
Meiosis I
Mitosis a-
Separation of the homologous pair of
chromosomes
46 46
46 46
Meiosis II

Describe the new cells v3 Haploid

is 23 is

produced :
1. Diploid
2. Genetically identical to parent cells Describe cells produced by
3. Same number of chromosomes as the meiosis :
the parent cells with same characteristics
1.genetically different from
each other and from the
2C

parent cell
2. Haploid ( half number of
gÉÉÉ
chromosomes ) Meiosis
 Mitosis Meiosis

Occurs in all body cells Only in reproductive organs ( to produce gametes )

One division Two division

Produce 2 genetically Produce 4 genetically non

identical daughter cells identical daughter cells

Produce diploid cells

Produce haploid cells
No variation
Show variation

No crossing over
Crossing over Causes of
variation

1. Separation of homologous pair of chromosomes

2. Crossing over involves the exchange of
genetic material.