CONTENTS Page Prologue . eves Preface vil Acknowledgements, “ali (Chapter One "Thin Lenses. 1 ‘Types of Lenses 1 Definition of Terms 4 Ray Diagrams 6 Linear Magnification vs 1 ‘The Lens Fortula 4 Power of a Lens 26 Applications of Lenses 2 Revision Exercise I ae) Chapter Two Uniform Citeular Me Angular Displacement. 37 Centripetal Acceleration... 40 Centripetal Force a2 Case Examples of Citcular Motion. 47 Applications of Circular Motion 54 Revision Exercise 2 = Chapier Three Floating and Sinking.. Cause of Upthrust Uphrust in Gases Law of Flotation. Upthrust and Relative Density Archimedes’ Principle and Moments ‘Applications of Archimedes’ Principle and Relative Density .....74 Revision Exercise 3 7 (Chapter Four Electromagnetic Spectrum, nm Properties of Blectromagetic Waves. 50 Production and Detection of Electromagnetic Waves. 81 Applications of Electromagnetic WaveS on. 82 Hazards of some Electromagnetic Waves. 85 Revision Exercise 4 8s Chapter Five Electromagnetic Induction ee 86 Induced Electromotive Force. 86 Fleming's Right-hand Rule. 93Mutual Induction 7 Radiation Detectors. 72 Applications of Electromagnetic Inducto | Background Radiation 176 Revision Exercise 5 mm Decay Law 176 Chepter ste Applications of Radioactivity 181 Mains Electricity Hazards of Radiation 182 Sources of Mains Electricity 17 Nuclear Fission 183, Power Transmission 7 Nucleae Fusion 184 Domestic Wiring 2 esslon xercea 1, 104 Electrical Energy Consumption and Costing 12s Per Eleven Revision Exercise 6 128 leetronics oo Chapter Sever Energy Band Theory 187 Cathode Rays and Cathode Ray Tube. sss BU Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors 189 Thermionie Emission BI 1 type semiconductor 190 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 133, psype semiconductor. 190 ‘The Television Tube ui The p-n Junction 192 Revision Exercise 7. 142 Semiconductor Diode 194 Applications of Junction Diodes in Rectification 198 Chapter Eight Revision Exercise I] 201 X-Rays. = = 1 144 Production of X-Rays 4s Sample Paper One 203 Properties of X-Rays. Mas Sample Paper Two 208 Energy of X-Rays 146 Sample Paper Three. 2a Hard and Soft X-Rays ur Sample Paper Four 21 Uses of X-Rays 14s Dangers of X-Rays 149 Revision Exercise 8 19 Chapter Nine Photoelectric Etfect = 151 Light Energy and Quantum Theory 153 Einstein's Equation of Photoelectc Effect. 153 Factors affecting Photoelectric Effect 136 Applications of Photoelectric Effect 160 Revision Exercise 9 163 Chapter Ten Radioactivity 166 Atomic Structure 166 Types of Radiations 167 Radioactivity 168 Penetrating Power 170 Tonising Effect ofthe Radiations mACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘The Managing Director, Kenya Literature Bureau would like to thank the following ssiters who participated in the revision of this book: Oliver Minishi — _Koyonzo Mixed Secondary School, Mumias Erastus K. Muni — District Education Office, Nyeri uma Okuma = Ukwula Secondary School, Ukwala Philip Mutat — Kipsigis Girls’ High School, Kericho Grace Mwangasha — Murray Girls’ High School, Wundanyt Hesbore Omolo “— Aluor Girls" High School, Kisumu Francis Munyeke District Bacation Office KiifiChapter One ‘THIN LENSES ‘Alensis generally a transparent material with a least one curved surface. Lenses ae usu nate of s]8, clear plastic or perspex. They are found in cameras, spectacles and even human eye. Alens works by refracting the light raversing i ‘Types of Lenses ‘There are two types of lenses, namely, convex (converging) and concave (diverging) ler ‘Convex lenses ae thickest at the middle while concave lenses ar thinnest atthe middle. figure 1.1 (a) and (). | } a { | | | Fig. 11: Types of lenses Effects of Lenses on Parallel Rays of Light ‘EXPERIMENT 1.1: To investigate the effect of lenses on parallel rays of light (@) Using Rays from the Sun Apparatus ‘Card with parallel sits, plane miter, eylindtical bi-convex lens, white sheet of paper, cyliné bi-concave lens. RE a. |2 SECONDARY PHYSICS ‘par win par [THIN LENSES 3 Procedure 1” Direct a parallel beam of light from a ray box towards # convex lens, as shown in figure 1.3, Observe what happens to the rays on the white sheet of paper + Repeat the procedure with a concave lens. Observation | When a convex leas is used, the rays are converged at a point onthe paper and ten diverge es they continue. When a concave lenis used, then rays diverge as if they were from a point in frontof the lens, se Figure 14 (a) and (). - —— : = ® © Fig 1.2: fot of eses on paral ay of ig Procedure + Using a plane mirror, direct a beam of sunlight onto the parallel slits placed on the white sheet of paper, as show in figare 1.2. + Place the bi-convex Jens in the path of parallel beam obtained from the slits. Observe ‘what happens to the rays. + Repeat the procedure using bi-concave lens () Using Ray bor Apparatus Ray bor, cylindrical lenses (convex and concave), white sheet of paper. Fig 1a Efe af lence on parila of ge Explanation ‘Alens can be considered as an assembly of prisms, as shown in figure 1.5 (a) and (b). Each ‘prism react light as inthe diagram. The mid-segment acts ike & glass block (rectangular) and aray of light incident normally passes on undeviated, —=SES 2 ° SS HG Paral aye from aay box Converging lens Fig 13: Pra ay of light towards come ent Fig 15: Lens os easel of primes4 SECONDARY PHYS ‘The diagrams explain why convex lenses have a converging effect and concave lenses g diverging effect. The point of convergence or divergence is referred to as the principal focus. For 3 ‘converging lens, the principal focus is real (actual rays converge at the point) while fora ‘diverging lens, the principal focus is virtual (rays appear to come from the point) Definitions of Terms Centre of Curvature, C ‘The centre of curvature isthe centre ofthe sphere of which the surface of the lens is part. Since 4 lens has two surfaces, it has two centres of curvature, se figure 1.6 (a) and (b) In the case of plano-convex or plano-concave lens, the lens has only one centre of. curvature, since the centre of the plane surface is at infinity ® FZ is y Ay Fig 16: Cones and radi of crate Radius of Curvature, ¢ ‘The radius of curvature is the radius of the spaere of which the surface of the lens is pat. In figure 1.6 (a) and (b), itis given by r, andr, Principal Axis ‘he principal axis is the imaginary line passing through the centres of curvatures. Oprical Centre, O ‘The optical centre isthe point on the principal axis midway between the lens surfaces. Any ay of light through this point passes on undeviated. THINLENSES : Principal Focus, F - For a converging len, the principal focus isthe point on the principal axis to which rays parallel and close to the principal axis converge after refraction by the lens, For a diverging fens, its that point on the principal axis from which rays parallel and close tothe principal sxis appear to diverge after refraction by the lens, see figure 1.7 (a) and (b), Fig 17: Pri ocus F ~ Principal focus. ‘O- Optical cente. £ — Focal length ‘lens has two principal foci, one on sther side, The principal fowus uf a converging lens 1s real while that ofa diverging lens is virtual. Rays that are parallel and close to the principal axis or make very small angles withthe principal axis are known as paraxial rays. Those rays parallel and far away from the peincipal axis aye known as marginal rays. Focal Length, f ‘The focal length is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus. The focal length of a converging lens is real, while tha ofa diverging lens is virtual Focal Plane Consider parallel rays of tight, which are not parallel tote principal axis and incident toa lens as shown in figure 1.8 (a) and (), Pig 18 Fal pane6 SECONDARY PHYSICS ‘After refraction by the lens, therays converge a or appear to diverge from a point Pon a plane perpendicular to the principal axis and passing through the principal focus F. This plane i, called the focal plane. Ray Diagrams ‘There are tee important rays that are used in diagrams forthe location of images formed by lenses: (i) A Ray of Light Parallel tothe Principal Axis This ray passes through the principal focus (for a convex lens) or appears to emerge from the principal focus (for a concave lens) after refraction by the lens, see figure 1.9 (a) and (). @ Co) ig 19: Arey of igh paral prbipal xis (ii) A Ray of Light Passing (or appearing to pass through) the Principal Focus F "This ray emerges parallel tothe principal axis aftr refraction by the lens, se figure 1.10, ® ®) Fig 1.10:A ray of ight hough F (or appearing to pass dough) (itl) A Ray of Light Through the Optical Centre This ray passes on undevisted, see figure 1.11 (a) and (b). ‘THON LENSES Fig ls Arey hough the optical entre Image Formation by Lenses Ray diagrams can be used to locate images formed by lenses, I is important to note that: @ _realrays and real images are drawn in fll lines. G)_virwal rays and virmal images are drawn in broken ines. (to locate the image, two (or three) rays from the tip ofthe object are drawn (these should be rays whose direction after refraction by the lens are known). ‘Where the rays (real or virtual) intersect after refraction by the lens gives the tip of the image. Ifthe object stands and is perpendicular to the principal axis, the image will also be perpendicular to the principal axis. To complete the image, a line is drawn perpendicular tothe principal axis from the tip ofthe image. (iv). should the foot ofthe object cross the principal axis, the method explained in (i) above ‘is used to get the foot ofthe image. The top is joined tothe foot to get the image. (9) converging and diverging lenses are represented by the symbols shown in figure I.12(a) and (0) respectively. > —< k @ ) Pig, 112: Symbols ed for lenses8 SECONDARY PHYSICS Characteristics of Lmages formed by Lenses Converging Lenses Object at Infnisy @ ‘THIN LENSES ees lk (i) diminished. {iv) formed between F and 2F, on the other side of the lens. ‘This set-up is used in the camera and human eye, Object at 2F Fig. 113: Objet tify ‘The parallel rays from the object converge after refraction by the lens. The image is: (real Gi) inverted (i) diminished (Gv) formed at F ‘This set-up is used inthe objective len ofa telescope. Object beyond 2F Fig. 1.14: Object beyond 2F © real, GD inverted Fig 115: Objet ‘The image is: @ wal (inverted. (Gi) same size as the object. is) formed at 2F, on the other side ofthe lens. "The set-up i used in the terrestrial telescope. Object between F and 2F Fig. 116: Object between Fond 2F ‘magnified. (iv) formed beyond 2F, on the other side ofthe lens ‘This set-up is used in projectors, microscope objective and photographic eslarger.10 SECONDARY PHYSICS Object at F [THIN LENSES un Fig 117: Objects ‘The rays emerge paralle! after refraction by the lens. The image is formed at infinity. This set-up is used in searchlights and spodights Object beeween F and Lens Fig 1.18: Ober beeen P and lent ‘The rays diverge after refraction. If hey are produced backwards, they meet at M. The image @ virwal cree, (ii) magnified. iv) formed on the same side as object. ‘This set-up is used in magnifying glasses andthe microscope. Pig 118: Formation of mages by dering leer For concave lances, raya diverge after refraction. When produced backwards they intersect at 1M, see figure 1.19. IM isthe virtual image of OB. The image is always: (virtual (i) erect, Gi) diminished. This set-up is used in spectacles (to correct short sightedness), inthe peephole (since concave leases have a large field of view), and as eyepiece in the Galilean telescope. Linear Magnification ‘The lnear magnification, m, is defined a the ratio ofthe height of mage othe height ofthe object. fagnifcation, m= Bet of image Magnification, m= Teieét of object (Consider an object OB placed infront of a convex lens, as show figure 1,20 Pig 1.2: near magaiicaton2 SECONDARY PHYSICS TaN LENses 13 ‘OB isthe height of the object and TM the height ofimage. Let ube the abject distance, PO, and isthe ei )) 1655 cm from the lens, on the opposite side ofthe lens. V the image distance, PI. real The tangles POB and PIM are stir, Therefore; (iv) diminished Mee (9), invered o> 70 Bxample2 ‘ris, iMageheight _ image distance ‘An abject 1 cm high is placed 2 cm from a converging lens of focal length 2 em. Find, by ‘object ht ‘object distance raphical construction, the position, size and nature ofthe image. ‘image distance, Magnification, m ~ Cyect distance Example 1 ‘An object 10 cm high is placed 2¢ cm from a converging lens of focal length 10 ci, By scale drawing, find the position, size and nature of the image, Solution Seale: Horizontal: 1 cm rep Lem, Vertical: | em rep I em, Fea ‘The image is 6 cm from the lens, om the same side a the object i) ema, Seale: (ii) viral Horizontal: 1 em rep Sem, Foret Vertical: | em rep Sem, as ° | Beample 3 “The image is: | An object 2 em high is placed 5 cm from a diverging fens of focal length 2 em. Find, by @ 65cmull | srical construction, the poston, size and nature ofthe image.oe SECONDARY PHYSICS Solution Scale Horizontal: em rep 1 em, Vertical: ! em rep 1 em, Big 128 “The image is (@__ 14cm from the lens, on the same side asthe object GH) 06 cm tal (Gi) virral, (©) diminished, "The Lens Formul Consider an image formed by a converging lens, as shown in the figure 1.24 Fig 124 Lens forma THON Lenses 15 inthe Sigur, PO is the object distance, u, PI the image distance, v and PF the focal length, f p=PH ‘Tangles POB and PIM are similar. Therefore; Bi B= Silay angle PFH and FM oe sini So oH) @ Sobstuting these values in esation 2), Bet, ° Combining equations (1) and (3); ‘This equation is known as the lens formula and holds for both converging and diverging lens. Note: When numerical values off, v and v are substituted in the formula, their appropriate signs ust also be included, ‘The sign convention of Real-is-positive is adopted here. Example 4 ‘An objects placed 15 em infront of a convex lens of focal length 10 em, Calculate the image Gistance and the magnification, Solution dedad16 SECONDARY PHYSICS Example 5 ‘An object i placed 4 cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 6 om. Find the positon, nature and magnification ofthe image. ‘v= -12.em (implying the image is virtual) me f= Bos ‘The image is: three times the size ofthe objec. Gi) vrtal (ii) erect, (iv) 12 em from the lens, on the same side as the object. Example 6 ‘Allens forms an image that is four times the size of the object on a screen, The distance between the object and the sereen is 100 em when the image is sharply focused, (a) _ State with reasons what type of lens was used. ©) Calculate the focal length ofthe lens. Solution (2) The lens used was a converging one. This because the image formed is real, [THIN LENSES 1 ‘Ap object of height 10.cm stands before a diverging ‘of 20m from the lens. Determine: (@) the image distance. ()_ the height of he image. (©) the magnification. 1s of focal length 30 cm and at distance ‘Thus, the image is formed 12 em from the ens and on the same side asthe object. The negative sign implies thatthe image is virtual, = image distance : “8 3 ‘Thus, the image is diminished. Determination of the Focal Length of a Converging Lens Different methods are used in the determination of focal lengths of lenses. The following ‘experiments illustrate some of the methods used EXPERIMENT 1.2: To estimate the focal length of converging lens By Focusing a Distant Object Apparatus Metre rule, lens, a lens holder, sereen18 SECONDARY PHYSICS Conver tens _—— Paral ays tom _adstant object, Fig. 1.25: Estimation of foal egth Procedure + Mount a convex lens on lens holder and fix a metre rule on a bench using plasicine + Place a white screen at one end of the rule + Move the lens to and fro along the metre rule to focus clearly the image of a distant object, like a tee or window frame, ‘+ Measure the distance between the lens and the screen ‘The distance between the lens and the screen gives a rough estimate ofthe focal length ofthe lens. This is because parallel rays from infinity are converged atthe focal point on the sereen, EXPERIMENT 1.3: To determine the focal length ofa converging lens by plane mirror method: (@) No-parallax Method Apparatus TK cum) eo \ \ ij acre || — nwa 7777 77772 a Fe. no paral method THIN LENSES 19 recede r Set up the apparatus as shown in figurel.26 Bears re ono pars bervoen the object pin and it image ot Beane terween te esate pin vse foal ent of ees () Using an Hluminated Object Soros of light, plane mirror, mete rule, lens mounted on alder, cardboard with eross-wires tits centre Pane image of the ‘Carcoara win source of tight @ ® Fig 127: Determination of fasing init object Procedure + Set the apparatus as shown in figure 1.27 (a), ‘The illuminated object consists of cross-wires mounted ona circular hole in a cardboard, + Move the object along the metre rule until sharp image ofthe cross-wires is formed alongside the object cross-wires, as shown in figure 1.27 (b). ‘+ Measure the length f using the metre rule. Repeat the process and find length average focal Resulis ‘The length f gives the focal length of the les. Explanation From (a) and (b), the rays from the object atthe principal focus Fare refracted and emerge parallel, striking dhe mirror normally The plane mirror reflec them back parallel tothe principal axis according to the principle of reversibility of ligh, forming an image at F,2 SECONDARY PHYSICS EXPERIMENT 1.4: To determine the focal lengthofa convex lens using the lens formula method Apparatus ‘Mette rule, ens on a lens holder, cardboard wit: cross-wires, screen, soutoe of light ‘Object tance, a" Image Fig, 125: Determination of fusing formal Procedure ‘+ Setup the apparatus as shown in figure + Place the object at zero centimetre mark, ‘+ Set the object distance by placing the lens ata reasonable distance, say 80 cm mark. ‘+ Adjust the sereen until a sharp image in otained + Determine the object and image distances u and v respectively + Reduce the object distance u by, say 5 cm, and obtain new values of w and v + Repeat the procedure o get diferent sets of values of w and ¥. + Record your results as shown in table 1.1. Table 11 [Object distance u (cm) | Image distance v (cm) | 4 (om!) 4 (en! THIN LENSES a Pig, 1.29: Graph of Laine 1 From the lens formata, $ when f= 0.then } - when 4 =0, then } = f ‘Thus, the intercepts onthe and 4 axcs ar both eqalto }, The vale offcan therefore be determined Beample 8 In an experiment to determine the focal length of a converging lens using the lens formula ‘method, a student obtained the results shown inthe table 1.2. Use the table to plot a graph of aginst. Hence, determine the focal length ofthe lens + Use the table o plot a graph off egsinw Results and Explanations Figure 1.29 shows the expected graph [object distance w(em) | Image distance vom) | tem) | tem") 20 00 0030 | 0017 35 375 0.040 0.027 300 0.033) 0.033, L 30 3s [ 263 0.029 0.038, 40 L 240 0.025 0012 0022 0.044 45a SECONDARY PHYSICS, Solution sume censes 2 Solution Fig. 130 Intercept on axis = 68% 102 cr! 2 fe 109 sof 14.7 om Inercepton {axis = 6.510% em! fe1S4om ‘Average focal length = 7-515 = 1S.Lem Example 9 In an experiment to determine the focal length ofa converging lens, several values of image distance v comesponding to different valucs of object distance u were determined and a graph of (u-+ ¥) against wy plotied, as shown in figure 1.31. From the graph, calculate the focal Jength ofthe lens defo feted ad uve Ww ‘Therefore, «graph of (a+ v) agaist w isa tight ine of slope From the graph, slope = 738= 72 Apparatus Lens on a holder, screen, board with crosswires, source of light, metre rule24 SECONDARY PHYSICS Fig 1.32: esermination of by placement method Procedure + Estimate the focal length of the lens by using a distant objec. Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 1.32 (ensure that the distance between the object and the sereen is equal to, or more than 4. Obtain the image ofthe illuminated object onthe screen when the lens is at position L, Without changing the postion of the object on sereen, move the lens to position L., here another clear but diminished image is formed on the screen, Measure u and v for positions L, and the new distances u’ and v” for position L, + Determine the displacement d Results and Calculations o Therefore, d= v—u ‘Adding (1) and (2); Desed sed t @ Subtracting (2) from (1); asd Substituting these values of u and v in the lens formula; in =a” i 2 2 wat de rum uimisus 2s 264d) +25 a) = *G-06+0 Sines end dare aown, can be found methods uel for measuring the foal length of ens thats not accessible trom ie above equation, G'= fs. Ths, «graph of ~ agains se tight line eet og snd of slope 4 vet apm is performed by changing the distance between he bjt andthe seen nj thes calculating the eonespoding és repeated for eiferent vals of: The two eons Land Lf teens are kno 8 conogate pins eatonship between Magniicton and Foal Length me Jebed ity lds by vet yd pred ‘ut Y = magnification, m. Tito, Fe m+1 — BF fol ight ine of slope } “Thus, a graph of m against visa straight line of slope 4 Example 10 Ta an experiment to determine the focal length of a converging Tens, the following readings were oblained: Tible 13 [Tnage distance, vlem) | 133 | 180 [ 167 | 200 |” 300) agnicaton oa-[_0s_| 07] 10 | 20 Plot a graph of m against v and determine the focal length of the lens from the graph.6 SECONDARY PHYSICS Solution HEL Intercept on v-axis = focal length Wem Slope ofthe graph — 1 S0,f ‘The average focal length is 10 em, Power of a Lens The power of lens is propery of is focal length and is a measure ofits refracting ability. The power of a lens is given by: Powe Teal eng a eS The unit of power is dloptres(D), A lens of short focal length refrats light more than one of large focal length. Ths, a lens of small focal length is more powerful than that of larger focal length. Converging lenses have a positive power while diverging ones negative, For example, the power of a converging lens of focal length 10 cm is given by UN EENSES 2» 4 power = fy =+ 10D or simply 10D. “That of diverging lens of the same focal length is given by; -4 power = by =-10D [APPLICATIONS OF LEN: [Lenses have many uses, especially in optical instruments, Some optical instruments that use tenses ae the magnifying glass, compound microscope and the human eye ‘Simple Microscope or Magnifying Glass ‘Wen an object is placed between a convex lens and its principal focus, the image formed is virmal, erect and magnified, When used this way, the lens serves as simple microscope or ‘magnifying glass, Usually, a lens of shoet focal length (high power) is preferred. Figure 1.33, shows a simple microscope. _ ih ° Pea Observer ‘Compound Microscope ‘There are two cases under which a converging lens ean produce magnified images, namely: (@) when the object is between F and 2F. (ii) when the object is between the lens and F. Acompound microscope combines the two. It consists of two converging lenses of short focal Teagth, The lens next to the object is known asthe objeetive lens and the one next to the eye is known as the eyepiece or ocular. The objective leas is of short focal length. The eyepiece is ‘also of short focal length, but longer than that of the objective lens. Figure 1.34 shows the ‘compound microscope.SECONDARY PuYSICS Eyapiase Objective ons Fig.135-A compound microrcope aroma odhsonen! The object to be viewed is plaved between F_and 2F, of the objective lens so that a rel, inverted and magnified image is formed. This iinage is infront ofthe eyepiece and acts as an ‘object to it. The eyepiece is adjusted so that this image falls between is principal focus F, and itself. This way, the eyepiece arts as @ magnifying glass and produces a final image that is really magnified, as shown in the figure ‘A.compound mieroscope evercomes the limitations ofa simple microscope by use of an objective Jens with many lenses and an eyepiece with more then one lens, ‘otal Magnification produced by Compound Microscope ‘compound microscope has wo lenses and each magnifies, es shown in igure 1.34 Magnifition of objective lens, m= where visthe distance of frst mage rom L, and uthe object distance. Taking fs focal length ofthe objective lens, we 1 1 , from lens formule; + a) uty? Multiplying through by v reors ¢ Substituting m,= Ys Lem= 2 i, 1 @ T THIN LENSES 29 D Likewise,m,= P.1, where Dis the isunce of from the eyepiece. The total magnification is product of m, and m,; ‘Total magnification = D_yiv P-oGe Example 11 ‘A compound microscope with objective lens L, of focal length 0.8 cm and an eyepiece lens L, ‘of focal length 2.5 em is shown in figure 1.35. An object O is placed infront ofthe objective Jens ata distance u, of 1.2 em. The system forms a final image I, ata distance of 10 em from L,_ Determine the distance of separation of lenses L, and Ly Solution The first image 1, is formed between L, and L,. From lens formulas Hence, separation distance is 5,733 em. ‘The Human Eye ‘The human eye isa natural optical instrument, is main features are shown in figure 1.36.T 0 SECONDARY PHYSICS _ tore layor (ita ote eye) mn \ = EE layer SS — Retina comes up Vitreous hurour Aqueous humour ine 0 Cryst ns“ itary muses suepansory kgamonis \ Fig 137. The haan oe Sclerotic Layer This is a hard shell dat encloses the eye and is white. The front pat ofthe sclerotic layer is transparent and spherical Its called the cornea. Most of the bending of ligt entering the eye occurs at the comes, Aqueous Humour This is clear liquid between the cornea and the lens. It helps the eye to maintain its shape. is This is the colouring ofthe eye. It has an opening known as the pupil, through which light centers the eye. The iis controls the amount of light entering the eye by cianging the sizeof the popil Crystalline Lens ‘This is a converging lens. Itean change it focal Length by action ofthe ciliary muscles for fine using, This is achieved by the muscles either contracting or relaxing. Vitreous Humour This isa transparent jelly like substance filling another cham between the lens and the Retina This is where images are formed. Itis made of cells that ae sensitive to light, Fovea “This is cental pat ofthe retina. The eye exhibits best details and colour vision at this place, {TuIN LENSES 3 ‘lind Spot ‘This contains cells that are not light-sensitive Ciliary Muscles ‘These are muscles on which the lens is suspended inside the eye, They control the shape of the lens by either contracting or relaxing. Relaxation of tho muscles enab 2 focus distant, ‘objects, Contractions on the other hand reduce tension inthe lens, making it have a shorter, focal length, thus focusing near objects, This fine adjustment to accommodate images of objects at different distances on the retin by the lens is called accommodation. the lens to increase its focal length, hen Near Point ‘The closest point which the normal eye can focus clearly is called the near point. For the normal eye, its 25 em. This distance is also known as the least distance of distinc vision. Te farthest point which can be seen clearly by an unaided eye is called the far point. It is at infinity forthe normal eye. Defects of Vision Short Sight (Myopia) In tis defect, the eye can only see clearly near objects but not ones that are far away. Rays from a near object are clearly focused on the retina whereas those from a distance object are ‘ocused infront ofthe retina. Hence, abjecs appear blurred, se figure 1.37 (a) and (b). ays rome aero ~ = tate « » Fig. 138 Shor sghodnse The cause ofthis defect i cither the eye lens having a short focal length or the eyeball being too long. Diverging lenses are used to correct short sightedness. They cause the parallel rays to diverge and appear as if they are coming from O, as shown in figure 1.38, These rays are then brought to focus on the retina.2 SECONDARY PHYSICS Diverging Long Sight (Hypermetropia) Inthis defect, the eye can see distant objects leerly, but not near ones. Images of near objects are formed behind the retina and heace appear blurred. Those of distant objects ae focused on the retina, as show in figure 1.29. Rays toms sear ene bay toma 4 beat ° o © Fig. 140 Lag sghevess use of this defects either the focal length ofthe lens being too long or the eyeball being too short. The defect is corected by using converging Tenses. The lens slightly converges the rays before they reach the eye, se figure 1.40. The rays appearing to come from are then AGS ones Og | we) ig 1s Corectng on sighted TT [THIN LENSES B ‘The Camera ‘A.camera isan instrument used fort photographs. Itconsists of light-tight box blackened ‘on the inside, a system of lenses, a shutter and photographic film for receiving the image, see figere 141, Leng system Spoot Film Shutter Stop / | (lapiragm) Pig 118: Comers ‘The lens focuses light from an object wo form an image ofthe object on the fm. Focusing is one by adjusting the distance between the lens and the film ve moving the camera away from ‘or towards the object. The stop is an adjustable aperture that controls the amount of light centering the camera, The shutter allows light to reach the film only for a precise period when {he camera is operated. The inside is blackened to abyonb any sray light. Similarities between the eye and the camera Be Camera The eye has a crystalline convex lens. | ‘The camerahas a convex lens -ye is black. | The camera box is painted black inside ‘The eye has the retina, where images | The camera has a light-sensitive film, where are formed, images are foemed, Gv) The iris controls the amount of ight | The diaphragm controls the amount of entering the eye lighe entering "The choroid layer ofthe the camera, Differences (@) The focal Length ofthe eye lens is variable while that of a camera is fixed. Cameras (with zoom lens) have variable image distance while the eye has a constant image distance (ii) Only one photograph ean be taken af atime when the shuter of the camera opens. The eye is always open to form constantly changing pictures Revision Exercise 1 1. (a) Define the following terms: (@ Focal length. Gi) Radius of convatue ii) Linear magnification.x4 SECONDARY PHYSICS (©) With the aid of a diagram, describe an experiment to determine the focal length of a conver lens 2 (@)_ Distinguish between real end viral image. () Allens may be used as a magnifying sla. (Name the type of lens used inthis way. (ii) With the aid of a ray diagram, show the position ofthe image in this case 3. The figures below show parallel beams of light incident on a convex and concave lens y sh —+ to F a © ‘Complete the ray diagrams to show the emergent beam in each case @ 4, The figure below shows an object placed in front of « convex lens , J * ‘Complete the ray diagram to show the postion of the image, ‘Acconcave len has a focal length of 12 cm. By use of accurate scale drawing, locate the position ofan image of an object placed at each of the following distances from the lens: (@) lcm. ©) 30cm. State the nature of the image formed in exch case 6 Anobject 15 cm high is placed 30m from a convex lens of focal length 12m. By seale raving, find! (@) the position of the image formed. (b) magnification ofthe image. (e) the beight of the image 7. Aconvex lens forms aa image five times the sizeof the object ona screen. I the distance ‘between the object and the sereen in 120 em, determine: (@) the object and image distance. () focal length of the lens. 10. “THIN LENSES 35 ‘The table below shows values of object distance w and corresponding value of image distances v for a convex lens ° Ohjectdistancewlem) | 10 | 13] 0] 3S 30735 Tinage distance v(em) | 400 | 171 | 133 | M8 | 109 | 104 Plot suitable graph and from the graph determine the focal length of the lens. ‘The figure below shows ax 4 1 image I formed by a convex lens: nnn (On the same grid Construct a ray diag-am to locate the position of the object. ‘The figure below shows two convex lenses 1, and L, placed 14 em apart. The focal length of Lis 2.5 cm and that of L, is4.5 em. An object S mm tll i placed 4 em from the lens L,An observer positions his eye as shovin. mit rem +} Const an scurry diagram show the poston ofthe final image as seen bythe observer. * A photographer fos his came onan object 2m from the lens. Givea thatthe focal ih of the lens and the height ofthe film ere 10 cm and 4 em respectively, determine36, SECONDARY PHYSICS (@) image distance (©) linear magnification ofthe image. (©) maximum height ofthe object, if its image i to fit onthe film. 12, Adefective eye focuses a distant object as shown in the figure below. (@) State the defect. (@) Suggest a suitable Tens to correct the defect, LA (| te (©) Draw a suitable diagram to show the correction of the defect. 13, The figure below shows « compound microscope withthe objective and eyepiece lenses having a focal length 0.8 em and 2.5 em respectively. The objective lens forms an image [A’B’ ata distance of 16 em from it. The eye positioned close tothe eyepiece views the virtual image AB, a a distance of 25cm, Chapter Two UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION ‘cases of bodies moving in circular paths abound in our day to day experiences These include the merry-go-reund, tumtabl, a wheel turing round the exle and & stone whirisd atthe end of ‘asiring, Other examples are the earth and other planets revolving round the sua in their orbits and a motorist or cyclist moving along a curved path. The motion of such bods is described as circular motion. When the speed of a body moving ina circular path is constant, the body is, said to be moving with uniform circular motion. Eyepiece Objctve lens Calculate the total magnification. 14 (@)__Aneye has afar point of 5.0 m and a nocmal near point. Determine the focal length ofthe lens used to correct the defect () _Along-sighted individual has a fr point at infinity and a ear point of ‘400 mun away. Determine the focal length ofa suitable correcting lens. Fig 2: Mery go-round Angular Displacement Consider a particle moving along the arc from A to B shown in figure 2.2 The radius OA sweeps through an angle ©.38 SECONDARY PHYSICS The are AB represents the distance, S, while the angle subtended by arc AB is the angular + Plota graph of F against w? Observation ‘When & graph of force Fis plotted against a, stright line passing through the origin is obtained. This shows thatthe centripetal force is directly proportional co the square of the angular velocity (Foc), see figure 2.8, Fore) Fad iet) Pig28: Graph of Fagan a? EXPERIMENT 2.2: To investigate the variation of speed with radius, keeping force constant Apparatus ‘Same asin experiment 2.1.46 SECONDARY PHYSICS, Procedure + Sette apparatus asin experiment 2. The force is made constant by keeping the length of the spring constant + Measure and record r,, the length OP. + Increase the speed ofthe motor gradually ual the bulb lights, + Time 20 revolutions and ealeulate the period T. + Determine the speed of rotation using the elation v T + Displace the ball and the metalic pegs by the same margin x tothe tight, a shown in figure 2.9 (this keeps the length of the spring constant and reduces the radius of the ball from, the cente of rotation). + Again increase the speed of the motor until the bulb just lights, + Record time for 20 revotutions + Calculate T and measure the new radius 2. Compute the new speed as before. + Repeat the experiment for other values of rand record your results, + Plota graph of v? against Observation AA graph of vZagainstr isa straight line passing through the origin, see figure 2.10, Fig. 2.10: Graph of againat UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION, a7 Results and Caleulation From the experimental results, it can be concluded thatthe centipetal force required to keep an object in a circular path increases with: {i) an increase in the mass m ofthe body: {) anncrease in the speed v ofthe object. (i) decrease in the radius r of the eicular path Hence, Px m= $0,F = BY, where k= 1 Since v=10, F= mu? Also,a= 32 F =ma (Newton's second law), Example 4 ‘A body having a mass of 0.5 kg is tied toa string and whirled in a horizontal cirele of radius 2m with a speed of 3.16 ms", Caleulate: (@) the centripetal acceleration. (©) tho tension inthe string Solution = 316% 2 = 4.99 ms? (©) The centripetal force is provided by the tension i the sting 1 ma = 05x49 230N Case Fxamples of Circular Motion A Car Rounding a Level Circular Bend When a car travelling with uniform speed passes a level circular path it experiences a ‘centripetal force, see figure 2.11 (8).48. SECONDARY PHYSICS 2 OF a Fig 21074 cron horizontal bend ‘The frictional force between the tres and the road provides the centripetal force. The centripetal force is always directed towards the centre ofthe curvature, see figure 2.11 (b) Thus, F,= F,, where F, is te frictional and F, the centripetal force ‘Therefore, F,= MN Ifthe road is slippery, the fictional force may not be sufficient to provide the centripetal force. Asa result, skidding may oceur To prevent skidding, the car should notexceed a certain speed limit referred tos the eritical speed, which depends on the radius ofthe bend. One may successfully negotiate a bend ona flat level toad ata higher critical speed if the radius ofthe bend is big Other factors may also come in, suchas the condition ofthe car tyres and the nature of the road surface, Now car tyres and a rough road surface are necessary for sufficient frictional force to be produced Banked Track ‘Sports cars can negotiate comers al extremely high speeds without running the risk of skidding ‘of overturning. This is made possible by gradually raising the road from the inner side ofthe bend, so thatthe track attains a saucer-like shape. The road is then said to be banked, see figure 2.12 Fig. 2B Some [UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 2 Inthe ase of theft level road, the centeipetal force is provided by the frictional force between the tyes and the road surface. In a banked road, the banking angle is such thatthe centripetal force acting on the eax comes from the reaction R of the road see figure 2.13, m Foose Ay re § Fig 2.13: Acar ona baad sack Consider car mass m and travelling round abend of radius rvith speed v."The bend is banked at an angle 8, Itcan be shown that @ Fr=Rsin@, and, {i)_mg=Reos 0 Hence, tan 8= Fora given banking angle 8, the critical speed can be obtained from the equation In general, the critical speed depend on radius rand banking angle @ Aira Banking ‘An aircraft turns inthe air at extremely high speed without overtumming. Ths is made possible by the aeroplane gradually lowering a wing on one side and rising the othe, see figure 2.14 uit toce \ Weight of arr = mg Fig, 2.14 An era banking provide centripetal force48 SECONDARY PHYSICS @ ® | Fig lv Acar on horizontal bend “The frictional foree between the tyes and the road provides the centripetal force. The centripetal force is always directed towards the cenue of the curvature, see figure 2.11 (b). Thus, F.=,,where F, isthe fictional and F, the centripetal fore, Therefore, F, If the roads slippery the frictional force may not be sufficient to provide the centripetal foros, Ava recult, skidding may oceur. To prevent skidding, the car should not exceed a certain speed limit referred o as the eritial speed, which depends on the radius ofthe bend. One successfully negotiate a bend on a fat level road at a higher critical speed ifthe radius ofthe bend is big. (Other factors may also come in, such asthe condition of the car tyres andthe nature of| the road surface. New car tyres and a rough road surface are necessary for sufficient fictional, force to be produced. Banked Track Sports cars can negotiate corners at extremely high speeds without running the riskof skidding or overturning, This is made possible by gradually raising the road from the inner side ofthe bend, so thatthe track attains a saucer-like shape. The road is then said to be banked, see figure 2.12. Fig 27: Sane ie track UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 49 Inthe case ofthe flat evel road, the centripetal force is provided by the frictional force between the tyres and the road surface. In a banked road, the banking angle is such that the centripetal force acting on the car comes from the reaction R of the roa, see figure 2.13. —— an) Fig 213:A car ona band ack Consider acarmass mand taveling round bend of rads with peed . The bend banked ‘at an angle 8. It can be shown that; ° Fe Rein, an Gag Reos0 Hence, an @ = estan O= Ye Fora given banking angle 0, the critical speed can be obtained from the equation alan 8 In general, the critical speed depend on radius r and banking angle Aircraft Banking An aircraft turn inthe air at extremely high speed without overturning, This is made ly ut overturning, This is made possible by the aeroplane gradually lowering a wing on one side and raising the other, see figure 2.14 tt toes \ Fig. 2.1 An alco baking 0 provide centripetal fo0. SECONDARY PHYSICS rT A oyelist Moving Round a Circular Track Figure 2.15 a) shows a cyclist turning round a curved comer. The forces acting on the eyclist are his weight and the normal reaction R. The frictional free F provides the centripetal force, which is directed towards the centre. ig, 213; Acyelit ona cela rack “he centipeal fore is uabalanced and his cates ceniptlaceleion If the frtooa force ot sfc provide he cent ore, he yeti skids, Th ante in averse the prablem of stdin, immo practice forthe clit o lean inward, ee figure 213 (O, By so dang, te normal eaton andthe fttoval forces protace he tanng effec inthe lvkwise and te anlocowie directions respectively, ace Fue 2.156 or no skidding to oar, taking moments bout te ceteof gravity Gi By=Rx BuUR=mg F, From tan = Fg F,=mgian 6 [UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION, si since F, = pime, where 1 is the coefficient of friction; mngtan 6 = amg So, tan @= p. Skidding therefore occurs when tan 0 > jt Conical Pendulum Figure 2.16 shows a ball moving ina horizontal circle and the forces acting on it ZZZZZL GEOL PRON Fig 160A body moving ba horiontal ile When the angular velocity @ increased, the ball rises. Hence, the angle @ also increases, ‘The working ofthe mechanical speed govemer and merry-go-round lean heavily on this behaviour. ‘Motion in a Vertical Circle Figure 2.17 (a) shows a ball of mass m tied to one end of a string and moving with uniform speed ina vertical circle of radius mg Fig-2.17: Abel moving tx vertical moron The forces acting on the ball at any instant ae its weight mg, which ats vertically downwards ‘nd the tension T, which is always directed towards the centre of cicle. The tension in the string changes in magnitude at different postions of the balFy 32 sucospany puysics ‘When the bal is at position A in figure 2.17 (b), the tension T, and the weight mg provide the centripetal force. wT +mg @ ‘When the ball is at B, which is the lowest point of the path itis acted upon by te tensional {force T, and its weight mg, The centripetal force is therefore provided by the resultant force T, ~me); =1,-me ® Re-aranging equations (1) and 2); T= 3 —me GB) T= cme “ From equations (3) and (4), itis evident that T, > T, “The tnsion in the string is therefore maximum when the object is atthe lowest point and, the string is mos likely o snap at this position. Also clear from above is thatthe tension is ‘minimum when the object is at the highest point ofthe circle. Its at this position that a certain ‘minimum speed must be maintained in order to keep the string tau. For minimum velocity, T,=0 —mg-0 ve Practical examples of motion ina vertical plane ae: (@ _abucket of water whirled ina vertical circle without the water spilling, see figure 2.18, Fig, 2.18:A bucket coneining water being whe ina cite Gi) apilot not strapped to his scat in a “loop the loop’ manoeuvre without falling off. (©) ball bearing “looping the loop’ on a curtain rail lying in a vertical plan. (@)_atoy car ona ‘loop the loop” tack, sce figure 2.19. UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOON 3 Fig 2.19% Atay coronal the lop" rack Example 5 ‘A car travels over a lumpback bridge of radius of curvature 40 m. Calculate the maximom. speed of the ear if its wheels ae to say in contact with the bridge. Assume g is 10 ms“ Solution Fig 220 mg-R= me [As v increases, R must decrease, since mg is constant. Inthe limiting case, when the wheels ae just abont to leave the ground, R comg= my For maximum speed, v Since r= 40 m and g = 10; v= {40x10 v=20ms!st SECONDARY PHYSICS Applications of Circular Motion, Centrifuges A centrifuge is w for separating particles in suspension in liquids o liquids of diferent densities, Itconss of small metal container tubes which can be rotated in crcl, ain figure 221 ae guia 1 < RB) Suspontion ) Teste, » 4k | Seapension Qe pares Centituge top view sete ate bat ® The pressure difference created ata distance r fromthe centre of rotation exerts a foree, which then provides the centripetal force. For lighter particles, the centripetal force would be t00 areat according to the elation F = mr, and r would thus become smaller. The les dense Particle is thus drawn inwards towards the centre of rotation, see Figure 2.21 (b) and (c). If the particles have a mass mand the liquid mass m,, the net force which provides the centripetal force required to make the particles move towards the centre is given by: F=(m-m)10* Saielies Whea two bodies of mass m, and m,are at a distance + apart, they experience a mutual force of| attraction piven by Gm,m, 12 where Gis.aconstan called the universal gravitational constant. The expression is called Newton's law of universal gravitation, Consider satellite of mass m set in an orbit of radius r round the earth as in figure 2.22, UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 58 “The gravitational force of aration between te satellite and the earth provides the centripetal force. Ths, BY = GMI, where m is mass of satelite, M the mas ofthe eat and v the velocity ofthe satellite, cM So, Hence, vcr This shows thatthe velocity ofa satellite increases with decrease inthe radius ofits orbit 'A satelite will appear stationary to an observer at e particular point on the earth if its periodic time (time taken to complete one revolution) is equal to that ofthe earth, Such stelites fare said o be ina parking orbit, and are used in weather forecast and telecommunications. Speed Governor ‘The principle of the conical pendulumis used inthe operation of speed govemors, Figure shows a speed governor used ina steam engine. 23 Fig. 225: Sped govemor Aste masses marked m rotate with an increasing angular velocity the vertical angle increases ‘The collars then moved by the arms which in tun pull the lever up. "The lever is connected to a steam valve which regulates the flow of steam. The axis of the governor is connected to a drive shaft of the engine which tus it. By controlling the rate of low of steam or fuel, the speed of the engine can be controlled. Revision Exercise 2 |. Incircular motion, there is acceleration, et the speed is constant. Explain, 2 Explain how a centrifuge may be used to separate cream from milk56 SECONDARY PuYSICS gravitational field still acts on him, Explain. " ies te cae GDistingut ete anlar and near velo 0) How ith ceatpctl farce ret fon ay te fr? (©) A sone whe with nit ped in ozo cel having rath of 10 em, Italie sore 10 scons descent em, Clas ( thewulrveoiy (3) linear vlsty vo te sou. te pede de 5 The figure shows a path of a particle ina circle in a vert al plan (@) Write down an expression showing the relationship between the tensional forces ‘Ty T, and T, inorder of their increasing magnitude (6) What contributes to the centripetal force atthe positions marked A, B and C? € —(@) Statea condition necessary fora body travelling on a banked road not to skid. (©) Acaris moving in an unbanked circular path Sketch a diagram of the motion and show the forees acting on the ca. State what provides the centripetal free. 7. (@)_ To avoid skidding and overturning roads are usually banked. What do you understand. by the term “banking”? (b) Copy the diagram shown and indicate all the forces acting onthe ct Crcuiar —_ inained plane 6 10 UNIFORM CRRCULAR MOTION 2 {pilot in a jt plane * loops the loop’ ina vertical circle with a diameter of 0.8 km at ‘constant speed of 260 kanh Tf the mass ofthe pilots 75 kg: (a). sketch a graph showing the maguitud of the forces acting on him in a complete loop. (©) calculate the minimum speed the pilot must maintain for him not to fal off atthe top of the loop, |Abob having a mass of | kg is movingin uniform circular path ina vertical plane having ‘aradius of Im, Itis whirled with a frequency of 2 cycles per second. (a) Caloulate: {@) the tension in the supporting string when the bob i at the topmost part of the circle. Gi) the tension when the bob isa the bottom of the circle (b) at what positon ofthe object is the string likely to break? ‘child whirls a stone of mass 05 kg ina vertical circle on the end ofa string 40 cm long. ‘At the lowest point ofthe ciele, te velocity ofthe stone is 3 ms, Caloulate the tension con the string at this point. ‘A mass of 1-5 kg moves in a cicular path witha constant speed of 3 ms“ on a horizontal fiictionless surface. The mass is held o the circular path by alight cord 2.4 m long that has one end fixed and the other end atached to the mass. Calculate the tension inthe cord. ‘A cord 2.8'm long has a breaking strength of 600 N. One end of the cord is fixed and a 2g mass attached tothe free end moves in a horizontal circular path on a frictionless level surface. What isthe maximum speed ifthe cord is not co break?Chapter Three FLOATING AND SINKING Asteel ferry floats on water although steel is den ser than wate, se ‘immersed im water and then in Ss immediatly est heavy stone when itis immersed in water than ven it isin. igure 3.1. When a cork ig to the surface. It is easier 0 Lig Pig 3: Perey crsing ore These observations show that there is always an u one immersed i liquid. This upward fore is referred to as upthrast. Thus, a bly when Palo fay mee ina ape va pp ahs etal Ts spel a ‘weight is equivalent to the upthrust force. vemsen ‘ spward force acting on a Hosting objector EXPERIMENT 3.1: To investigate th displaced ” ‘otis Apparans Spring calibrated in newions, object, ¢., stone, sting, FLOATING AND SINKING so a LJ @ ® ° (LLL Fig 32: Demonstration of pthrat Procedure 2 Tie the object with the string, then suszend it on the sping blanc as in figure 3.2 (a. + Record the weight of the object in ait. ill he Eureka can with water until it lows out frely thro that position + Weigh the empty beaker (a beam balarce may be used and the mass converted to weight). + Putthe beaker in position under the spout and then partially immerse the object ito the water, as shown in figure 3.2 (b), Wet uatil the dripping stops, then weigh the beaker plus the contents + Record the weight ofthe partially immersed object. + Remove the object from the watec Repeat the experiment with the objec totally immersed, ee figure 3.2 (). he spout, Leave the can in Results and Calculation Weight of object in sir= W, Weight of object whea partially immersed in water = W. ‘Weight of empty beaker ‘Weight of beaker + water displaced (object partially immersed) = W, Weight of object when totally immersed in water = W, Weight of beaker + water displaced (object totally immersed) Object partially immersed ‘Appazent loss in weight ‘Weight of water displaced% SECONDARY PHYSICS Object totally immersed Apparent loss in weight = W,~ W, ‘Weight of water displaced = W, — W, Observation and Conclusion ‘When the objects panially immersed, the apparent loss in weight (W, ~W,) equals the weight of water displaced (W,—W,) Similarly, when the object is toully immersed, the apparent loss in weight (W, ~ W.) ‘equals the weight of water displaced (W, —W)). The results above are a verification of Archimedes’ principle which states that when a body is partially or totally immersed in a fluid, t experiences an upthrust equal to the ‘weight of the fluid displaced, Note: The object used in the experiment should not be porous, soluble and or one that ean react with the liquid used, Cause of Upthrust Consider a cylindrical solid of cross-sectional area A, totally immersed ina fluid of density p, as shown in figure 3.3. 1: Presare and ptr ‘Since pressure in liquids increases with depth, pressure of the liquid atthe top ofthe solids Jess than that atthe bottom B. Pressure ofa liquid at a given depth acts equally in all directions. Hence, pressure on the sides ofthe solid cancel out. Ifis the atmospheric pressure, pressure P, tthe top ofthe solid is given by P,=P+hpg FLOATING AND SINKING 6 pressure P, atthe botiom of the solid; P,=P+hps Since fore = pressure x area, force F acting on top ofthe object is given by B= PA = Prhpea Fore Fe acting on the bottom ofthe solids R= BA + hppa ‘The resultant upward force onthe eylinder i given by F, ~F,=(P+h, pA-(P+ hppa ‘Therefore the resultant upward force is hog, where h = h, ~b,. This resultant foree isthe uptheus,U. ‘Thus, U Age = Ypg where volume V of liquid displaced by the solid is given by, V = Ah. “Mass of liquid displaced = Alp ‘Weight of find displaced = Abpg Upthzust is therefore, equal to the weight of liquid displaced. The magnitude ofthe upthrust depends on the volume of the fluid displaced and its deasiy Upthrast in Gases Like liquids, gases exert upthrust on objects in them. The upthrust in air is small owing to its low density (about 1.3 kgm), but sufficient ro make balloons filled with hydrogen (density about 0.09 kgm’) or helium (about 0.18 kgm") rise, Consider the balloon in figure 3.4 (a). If it is inflated with ai toa certain volume, the weight of air in the balloon plus its fabric is greater thatthe weight of air displaced by the balloon, since the volume of ar inthe bulloon is nearly equal to the volume of ar displaced Upthrust on the balloon due tothe aris thus less than the weight, The balloon stays on the ‘ground due to the downward resultant force, W =U. u Motonof AU Ar yarogen 7 F777 77 tw tw wou usw2 SECONDARY PHYSICS {the balloons filled with a gas which s less dense than ar, such as hydrogen or helium, the weight of the gas pios the balloon fabric is less than the weight of air displaced by the balloon. In this case, the upthrus:U exerted by the ar on the belloon is greater than the weight W of the inflated balloon, The resultant upward force U — W lifts the balloon upwards, see figure 3.4 0) Example 1 ‘A solid sphere of radius 3 em and made of material of density 2.6 gems fully immersed in & liquid of density 0.8 gem’, Determine the apparent weight of the sphere, Solution [Let density ofthe sphere be p, snd that ofthe liquid p, 4 4 1 where ris its radius, ‘Volume ofthe sphere = ‘Mass ofthe sphere = 4p, ‘Weight of sphere inst Serpe 3 ‘Volume ofa lquid displaced by the spher 4 3 Mass of the Ligui 4 3 ‘Weight of liquid displaced equals uptheus, Weight of liquid displaced = $r°p,¢ Upton the spore = 49.8 Apporeat weight ofthe phere = weight nat ~uphrst 4arp.g- 42ep.e- dar'etp,-p.) Ampg- 4°pe- $areto,-. Sincer=3em Gx 10°), 9, Apparent weight= 4 x3.142x (30x 105) x 10 @ 600-800) = 201N 6 gens (2.600 kgm?) and p, = 0.8 gem? (800 kgm}; Example 2 ‘Acylinder of length 5 em and uniform cross section area 50.24 cm* is suspended from a spring blance and totally immersed in water. Ifthe density of the material of the cylinder is 1.25 gem”, determine: (@)__theupthrust on the cylinder. (6) the veading on the spring balance (Take g = 10 mx*and density of water as 1.000 kgm”) r q FLOATING AND SINKING 6 Solution (@) Volume of the cylinder = (5 x 50.24 x 10%) 2 = 251x 104m? Volume of water displaced by the cylinder Weight of water displaced 251.x 104m? QS1x10*x 1 000x 10) = 251N ‘But weight of water displaced =upthrust on cylinder ‘Therefore, upthrust = 2.51.N (©) Mass ofthe cylinder = 2.51 x 10+x 1250 B14x 10-%kg 314x 10" 10 = 314N real weight = 314-251 0.63 Tis i the reading on the spring balance. Weight ofthe cylinder Apparent weight uptheust Example 3 ‘Astone weighs 2.0 N in air and 1.2 N when totally immersed in water, (@) the volume ofthe stone. ()_ the density ofthe stone. (Take g = 10N kg") Solution (@) Upthrust = weight in air ~ apparent weight 2.0~1.2)N = 08N Upthmust = weight of water displaced by the stone Weight of water displaced = 0.8 N = 98 Mass of water displaced = 98 = 008 kg Since density of water = 1 000 ks 0.08 1000 8.0% 10°m Volume of the water displaced Volume of tone: x10Sm? (©) Mass of te stone = 2.0 10 = 02 kg mass of stone Yolume of stone 02 kg Density ofthe stone = * 50x 10m 2.500 kgm?6 SBoONDARY pUYSICS Example 4 ‘A meteorological balloon has a volume of 36 mand is filled with helium of density 0.18 kem®, 1 the weight of its fabric is 120 N, calculate the maximum Youd which the balloon can life (Take density of air a 1.3 kgnr*) Solution Volume of air displaced by the balloon = 36 m Mass of air displaced by the balloon = (36 x 1.3) kg 36x 13x10 Weight of air displaced = 468N Weight of air displaced = upthrust = 468N Mass of helium in the balloon = (36x 18x 10" kg Weight of helium inthe balloon = (36x 1.8x 10" x 10) = O48N Weight inlatod balloon — (648 + 120) N = 1848N Upthrust = maximum load + weight of inflated balloon Maxiroum load = upthrust- weight of balloon = 468-1848 = 2832N Law of Flotation EXPERIMENT 3.2: To investigate the upthrust on a floating object Apparatus “Measuring cylinder, water, test ube, sand, weighing balance Tost ube -Measuing ELOATINGAND SINKING 6 Procedure + Hualf-fill the measuring cylinder with water and record the level + Place a clean dry test tube into the eylinder and add some sand to itso that it Floats upright, see figure 3.5. Record the new water level. + Determine the volume of water displaced + Remove the test tube from the eylinder, dry it end determine its weight + Repeat the experiment four times, addr a litle more sand each time. cord the results in table 3.1. Table 2.1 [Weight of sand and | Volume of displaced | Mass of displaced | Weight of dplaced test-tube (N) water (em?) water (ke) water (N) _ Observation Itis observed tha: the test tube sinks deeper with each addition of sand, (i) the weight ofthe test tube and its contents is equal to the weight of water displaced. Conchasion A floating object displaces its own weight of the fluid in which it floats. This isthe law of flotation. Itshould be noted thatthe law isa special case of Archimedes’ principle. sample 5 boat of mass 1 000g floats on fresh water I the boat enters sea water, determine the loc that must be added tit so that it displaces the same volume of water as before. (Take density of fresh water as 1 000 kgm and density of sea water as 1 030 kgm~) Solution Weight ofthe boat = 1.000 10 = 10000N) By the law of flotation; ‘Weight of fresh water displaced = weight ofthe boat 0.000 10.000 10 000 ke 1.000 000 =Im Mass of fresh water displaced Volume of fresh water displaced =“ ‘suconnany Puvsics Volume of sea water displaced on addition of load = 1 m? Mass of sea water displaced = 1 x 1030 030 ke Weight of sea water displaced = (1 030 x 10) 10300N Extra load required = weight of sea water displaced — weight of fresh water displaced = 10300-10000 300 Example 6 ‘A balloon of volume 6.0 mis filled with hydrogen of density 0.09 kgnr? and floats in air of density 1.3 kgm, Calculate the weight ofthe fabric of the balloon. Solution “Mast af hydrogen inthe balloon = 6.00.09 054 kg Weight of hydrogen = 0.54 10 54N Let W be the weight ofthe fabric of the balloon Total weight of the inflated balloon = (5.4 + W)N Volume of air displaced by the balloon = 60 m* ‘Mass of si displaced = 60x13 78 ky Weight ofthe airdisplaced = 7.8 x10 7BN By the law of flotation, 5.4.4 W = 78 W = 78-54 TEN Example 7 ‘Acube of side 4 em weighs 1.12.N in air. Calculate: (@) its apparent weight when immersed in liquid of density 0.79 gem” (©) the density ofthe material of the cube Solution (@) Volume of the cube = 4x4x4x 10% = 64x 109m Volume ofa liquid displaced by the cube= 64x 10% ma? Mass of liquid displaced = (64x 10#x790 x 10°) 5.06 x 107 kg Weight of aliquid displaced = 5.06 x 10x 10 = 5.06 x 10° ‘But weight of liquid displaced = upthrust on cube . Apparent weight = 120.506 = 6.14 10'N FLOATING AND SINKING fa {by Weight of the cube =1.12.N Lv Mass ofthe cube = 4? L12x 10g ‘olume of the cube = 6:4 x 10m Density of the cube = L12x 10% ° 64x10 175% 108 kg Example 8 ‘Amodel ferry boat $0 em long and 20 em wide floats in fresh water. If th ferry sinks 6 cm as ‘result of loading, calculate the load onthe block Solution Volume of water displaced asa result of loading = 6 x 50x 20x 10+ 6x 109m Mass of water displaced = 6x 1097x1000 6ke . Weight of water displaced = 6x10 ON ira load on the model: = weight of extra water displaced son Example 9 {A alloon has a volume 100m. Ifthe weight ofthe balloon fabric is negligible, determine the ‘maximum Ioad it can lift when filled ith hydrogen. Take density of air = 1.2 kgnr’, density of hydrogen = 0.09 kgm) Solution Volume of hydrogen i the balloon = 100 m? Mass of hydrogen = 100 x 0.09 9.0ks Weight of hydrogen = (9.0 x 10") N Volume of sir displaced by the balloon = 100 m? Mass of si displaced = (100% 1.2) kg ‘Weight of air displaced = 1.2x 10° 10 12x10N But upthrust = weight of sir displaced Upthrust onthe balloon = 1.2.x 10°N ‘Maximum Joad possible = upthrust— weight of hydrogen in the balloon 12x 10°90 x10) LIL x108No SECONDARY PHYSICS Example 10 The wooden block in figure 3.6 floats in two liquids X and Y. Given thatthe densities of X and Y are 1 gom? and 0.8 gem” respectively, determine: (@) the mass ofthe block. () the density of the block, Fig 36 Solution (@) Volume V of liquid ¥ displaced = $x 4x3 x 10%m* = 6x 105m Upthrust = pVe 00x 6x 10x 10 0.48.N Volume V of liquid X displaced = 5x 4x 6x 10*m* = 12x 104m Upthrust = pVe 00x 12x 104% 10 12N ‘Total upthrast on block = 0.48 + 1.2 1.68 N The block is floating, hence weight of block equals total upthrus. ‘Weight of block = 1.68 N Mass of block = 1:68 = 0.168 kg, () Volume of block — 5 x-4x 12 x 10° m* = 24x 104m Density Volume FLOATING AND SINKING Ey Upthrust and Relative Density Iprohimedes’ principle can be used to determine relative densities of both solids and liquids. ‘Relative Density ofa Solid By definition; mass ofthe solid relative density of a slid = esolid geretee density ‘nas of equal volume of water ‘Since mass is directly proportional to weight, the relative density can also be expressed as weight of solid relative density of «solid = eighr of equal volume of walet . weight of solid ‘Welght of water displaced by solid But, weight of water displaced by solid = upthrust ‘weight of solid ‘thrust in water ‘Tedeterminc the relative density ofa ali, the solid is weighed in ar and then totally mers in wate. The upthrust is calculated and relative density determined from the formula above. «Relative density ofa solid Relative Density ofa Liquid ‘Todetermine relative density of aliquid using the Archimedes’ principle, three me are take: @ Weight W, of a solid in aie (i) Weight W, of the sold when totally immersed in water Gis) Weight W, ofthe solid when totally immersed ina liquid whose relative density isto be determined. By definition; mass of liquid relative density of the liquid ~ ass of guid _—_ density ofthe guid ~ Sees oF equal volume of water = weight of equal volume of water Since the same solid is used in both the liquid and the water, the volume of water displaced ‘equals volume of liquid displaced. Thus; ‘weight of liquid displaced by solid = upthrust in liquid, an; ‘weight of water displaced by solid = upthrust in water ‘upthrust inthe liquid ~ upthrust in water Relative density of the liquid0 seconARY PHYSICS FLOATING AND SINKING a Upthrust inthe liquid Wy 6 Upthrust in water = W, -W, ~ 05=0 = 1 Relative density of the liquid = “i= Ws. ponte W-W, = 0667 Example 11 A solid mass 0.8 kg suspended by string is 4.8, calculate: (2) the Volume ofthe solid, (0) the relative density of the sli, | 2 is totally immersed in water. Ifthe tension in the Solution (@) Weight of the solid = (0.8 x 10)N =80N Apparent weight of the soli Uptrust = (.0-4.8) N =32N But upthrust = weight of water displace Weight ofthe water displaced = 3.2N 48N Mass of water displaced = 32 032g 033 Potts = 328104 Volume of water displaced — volume ofthe slid Volume ofthe solid. = 32x 10m swght ofthe solid paris water 80 3 ‘Volume of water displaced = () Relative density ofthe solid Example 12 In an experiment with a metal cube, the following results were obtained: Weight of the cube in air = 0.5 Weight of the cube when completely immersed in wat Weight of the cube when completely immersed in oil Calculate the relative density of he oi. 044 46N Solution upthrus in ol Relative density ofthe oil = density ofthe oll = rust in water Archimedes Principle and Moments Relative densities of solids and liquids can also be determined by use of a balanced lever Solids EXPERIME. V3.3: To determine the relative density of a sold using upthrust and momenis Apparatus ‘Metre rule suspended from a clamp, solid S, metal block W, water in a beaker. j] Fig. 3:7 Relative deny using moments Procedure ‘Suspend the metre rule so that it balances at its centre of gravity. Suspend the solid S at a distance d = 30 em, then suspend and adjust the position of W such that the rule is balanced, see figure 3.7 (a). Record distance d, of W from point of suspension in table 3.2 ‘While maintaining the distance d immerse solid S completely in wate, then adjust the position of W to balance the mere rule again, see figure 3.7 (b). Record the new distance di forthe metal block W in the ble. Remove the beaker of water so that the solid S hangs feely in air, Increase the distance din figure 3.7 (a) to new value, say 35cm, and repeat the procedure above. Repeat for four other values of d and complete table 3.22 SECONDARY PHYSICS Table Distance ofSin air, | Distance of Sin | Distance of W. | d,~d,(em) fom) water, d, (em) 4, (em) 30 T — 45 + Plota graph of d, against ( ,—d,) and determine its slope Observation Each time the solid $ is immersed in water, the distance d, must be adjusted to a smaller distance d, forthe metre rule to balance again The graph of d, against (2, - d) isa straight line through the origin, see figure 3.8. (em) eae Caen From the pinpe of momen Wa, = Wid where Wis the weight of sl in ir. sent Wa, = Wd, where W,, isthe weight ofthe solid in water @ From (1) and wa, wy FL, and: a wa, oc FLOATING AND SINKING B Now, relative density of solid = y—Ay— a=a Thus te slope ofthe graph of, versus (,~<) represents he eave density of the slid Liquids ‘Todetermine the relative density of qui, similar approach to that used inthe determination of relative density ofa solid is followed. In addition to measurements made in the set-up in figure 3.7, the distance dy at which the lever balances when the soli is immersed in the iguid, is noted, se figure 3.9. From the figures ‘Wa, = Wd, where W, isthe apparent weight ofthe solid inthe liquid. wy senses 3) Upshust in water = W.-W wa, _ Wa, ad = Waa Upthrust in quid = W,-W,4 SECONDARY PHYSICS upthrust in iquid Relative density of the liquid = POSER Haid Note ‘When this method is used to determine relative density ofa solid or liquid, measurements of masses or weights are not required, Applications of Archimedes’ Principle and Relative Density The Hydrometer ‘The densities or relative densities of liquids canbe determined directly by use ofan instrument called hydrometes, which ses the law of flotation i its operation. To determine density of Tiquids, a hydrometer tube designed for that parpose is required. Figure 3.10 shows ane form ‘of a modem hydrometer. The main features ofthis instrument ae: Wide bulb containing air ‘The bulb is made wide so that it can displace a large volume of liquid that provides a sufficient upthrust to keep the hydrometer floating. The volume of the bulb determines the density ange ‘to be measured by the hydrometer. Lead shot is waxed or glued to the bottom of the bulb to make the hydrometer float upright. A narrow graduated he ‘The narrower the st low stem the more sensitive itis, ub Fig 10: Practical vdrometer FLOATING AND SINKING 15 Some hydrometers are made for special purposes. One such hydrometer, ‘witharange of 1.015 ~ 1,045 gem, is used to measure density of milk. A brewer's hydrometer js used to measure relative density of bees, from which sugar and alcohol content can be inferred. Figure 3.11 shows a hydrometer wed for measuring the density battery acid. ab (nbs Ifthe bulb is squeezed and released the batery acid is drawn into the glass tube, The density othe acid is read from the floating hydrometer Example 12 A hydrometer of mass 20g floats in oil of censity 0.8 germ, with 5 cm of ts stem above the cil: If the eross sectional area of the stem is 0.4 em, caleulate (@)_ the tol volume ofthe hydrometer. (b) length ofits stem out of water, if it Nats in water (density of water = 1 gem) Solution 20 (@) Volume of oil displaced = 23 25cm This i the volume of hydrometer immersed in ol ‘Volume of part of hyrometer above cil = S.cm x 0.4 em? 2.0m" ‘Total volume of hydrometer = 25+2.0 (©) Mass ofhydrometer = 2x 107 kg Weight of hydrometer = 20% 10°N ‘Weight of water displaced = 2.0% 10° N 20%19-4 Mass of water displaced a 20x 10kg, 2816, SECONDARY PHYSICS 208 Tpom 20cm? But, this is volume of part of hydrometer immersed in water, Volume of part of hydrometer above water. = 27-20 Volume of water displaced ; Length of stem out of water = Yolume aa 175m Example 13 Als tbe of uniform diameter 2.4 cm is weighted to float vericallyin liquid The length coftbe immersed in the liquid is 14cm. I the density ofthe liquid is 1. gem find the mone ofthe tube and its contents Solution ‘Area of cross section ofthe tube = ma? 3.42 (1.2) 432em ‘Volume of liquid displaced by the tube = 4.52 x 14 63.3 em? ‘Mass of liquid displaced by the tube = 63.3 x 2 = 75968 Mass of tbe and contents = 0.076 ke Balloons Balloons used for meteorological investigations re filled with a gas of low density, such ao haydrogen or helium, Due to the low density ofthe gas, the weight of si displaced by the balloons is sreater than weight of the gas inthe balloon plus the balloon febric. When released, the belloon therefore rises upwards. It gains altitude and at some height where the donsity of ar is lees than that atthe ground, the uptheust on the balloon i equal to its weight. Resultant force on the balloon is zero andthe balloon stops rising, but may dift sideways in the dection of wind, Ships Since ste] is denser than water, solid stel will s.nk in water. Howeves, a ship which is made of stel is hollow and the volume of water displaced is large. The upthrast exerted by the water on the ship is thus large. Like other floating bodies, the ship sinks to some level vo the ihe weight of water displaced (uphrst) sequal tos weight. When the ship loaded it sinks ‘more into the water. Submarines ‘Asubmarine is designed so that it can float or sink below the surface of water Iis fitted with large flotation tanks which can be filled with water or air, hence varying its weight. I the FLOATING AND SINKING n submarine is required to sink, the tanks are filled with water. The weight of the submatine thus becomes greater than the upthrust due to the water on it ‘When te submarine is required wo float, compressed aris forced ino the flotation tanks, driving the water out. Is weight becomes less than upthrust om it. making itrise to the surface Revision Exercise 3 1, _ State Archimedes’ principle and describe an experiment to verify it 2. Explain why the narrow stem of ahydrometer provides greater sensitivity than a wide one. 3. Aglass block of weight 0.75 Nis suspended by a string in water, Ifthe block is completely immersed and the tension in the string is 0.45 N, finds (a) the upthrust onthe block (©) its density 4. A solid of density 2.5 gem is weighed in air and then when completely itamersed in jinder. The level of wafer in the cylinder rises from 40 em?to ‘water in a measuring ¢) 80 cm. Determine: (@) the volume ofthe solid ()_its apparent weight. $. A balloon of volume 10 m filled with hydrogen floats in the atmosphere. Ifthe mass of balloon fabric is 10.3 kg, calculate the density ofthe surrounding ar. (Take density of hydrogen 0.09 kgm?) 6. A glass tube has @ uniform crose-sectional area of 4.52 em. Iie weighted and floated in ‘a Tiquid. The length of the tube immersed inthe liquid is 16 em. Ifthe mass ofthe tube and its contents i 80.0 g, determine the density ofthe liquid, 7. The figure shows a sphere of radius 3 cm floating between two liquids A and B, so that halfofitisinA. Ifthe densities of liquids A and B are 0.8 gem and 1.0 gem” respectively, determine the mass ofthe sphere Y/ Z 8. State the law of flotation and describe an experiment to verify it 9. Atblock of length 15 em and uniform cross-sectional area 9 emis suspended from a spring balance and completely immersed inl o density 0.8 gem. Given thatthe density ‘of material of the block is 1.25 gemr®, determine @) the mass ofthe block Gi) the reading of the spring balance. (Gi) the reading of the spring balance ifthe Block was half immersed in the cilAcube of volun (@) Determine: (the fraction ofthe volume of the cube immersed in the liquid (i) the weight that must be placed onthe cube so that its top surface ison the same level asthe liquid surface. (©) Explain what will happen ifthe cube is placed in oil of density 800 kgm: [Explain how a submarine can be made to (@) float in water () sink in water. [A spherical buoy of diameter 0.4 mand mass 20 kg is conhected to a rope tied t0 ssa bed oth 3 os vluneielow te mac, shown nthe Figure blow. ‘Assuming as the weight of the rope is ngligible, calculate of sea water 1.030 kenr") ensionin it (Take density 0.15 m? and density 800 kgm is placed i aliquid of density 1200 kgm 13, Determine the minimum volume of eopper that must be attached toa cork of mass 25 g so tha the two will jut submerge in water. (Take relative density of copper as 9.0 and - tha af cork 0.25) 14, A test tube containing some water and air s made to float inside a glas jar full of water Fwy!) land a tight digphragm fixed a its mouth as shown in the figure below. cs act Chapter Four B 2CTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM Flectromagnetic waves are transverse waves which result from oscillating electric and magnetic Fields at sight angles to each other, as shown in figure 4.1 Nengna magrte ted x me Pi A: Eectromagntic wave Ligh, radio, X-rays, ultraviolet, infrared und gamma rays are electromagnetic waves. When these waves ae arranged inorder of wavelengths or frequencies, they form the electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelengths range from about | x 10*m to 1x 10" m, as shown in figure 4.2 Diaphragm Ifthe diaphragm is pressed downwards, the test tube moves tothe bottom of the jar. Explain this observation, wh ig. 42: Blecromagnei petaProperties of Electromagnetic Waves iectromagnetic waves differ greatly in thei wavelengths and effects, they all 2. 7" ee ee vac vacum) withthe ped of ight (8x 10m 13) They pene cntgy erent amounts, scoring tothe relation F =f, where his and f the frequency of the wave. rnck’s constant (6.63 x 10>" ted by electric or magnetic fields hence they are not aff ) They carry no) Example 1 en light has & wavelength of Sx 107m. Calculate the energy it emits 3x 5x10 = 6x 10" Hz = hf 6.63 x 10™x6x 10 3978 x 10" A radio sia nis transmitting ata requeney of 15.42 MHz. Calculate the wavelength ofthe c [S42 10° Example 3 An X-ray machine produces radiation of wavelength of 1.0 10m, Caleul 2) the frequency ofthe radiation, a) Givenc=0 f= 30x10" Toxo = 30x 10" He en by xy content is gi = 6.63% 10x 1.989 10" Production and Detection of Electroma Gamma Rays (rays Gamma rays are emited by in the nuclei ofthe radioactive ‘Gamma radiation is detected by photographie plate G-M tube (discussed elsewhere in this book), tle Waves 1d radiation detectors, e.g, the Xrays X-rays are produced in X-ray tubes, Ths occurs duet levels of heavy ‘X-rays originate from the ation ofa beam of fast-moving electrons hitting a metal tar X-rays are detected by using a fluorescent scree ‘on transition between the energy ments, usually excited by eleetron bombardment. Itcan als ted tha Ultraviolet Radiation Ultraviolet radiation is produced by th energy changes in th electrons of an atom. It is detected by photographie films, photoc sulphate) and paper lightly smeared wit sparks and mercury vapour lamps, due to larg Visible Light ‘The sun isthe major source of visible light. Other source beams. Common detectors ae the include hot objects, lamps and laser hic film and the photoe Infrared Raia Infrared radiation is produced as a result of small energy changes of an electron in an atom or molecular vibrations. It is produced by the sun, fies or any hot body Infrared radiation is detected by the heating effect produced on the skin, a thermopile bolometer and thermometer wit blackened bulb Microwaves Microwaves are produced by special vacuum tubes cal witha Microwaves ae detected by crystal detectors solid state diodes. Radio Waves Radio waves have the longest wavelength within the electromagnetic spectrum, They are Produced by oscillatin Radio wav lectrical circuits and transmitted through antennae (aerials). detected by resonant circuits radio receivers with diodes and earphones2 SECONDARY PHYSICS Applications of Electromagnetic Waves ‘The applications ofa given electromagnetic radiation depends om its special properties. Gamma Radiation ‘Gamma ays have ver high energy content, hence have high penetrating power. When supplied in correct quantities, the radiation can be used in (@) medicine, for steriising medical equipment, illing cancerous and other malignant growths in the body. (ii) industies, to detect laws in metals. X:Rays ‘X-rays have high penetrating power. The radiation i fortis reason applied in medicine for photography (radiography) to identify the nature of such internal body structures a the bone, See figure 43. X-rays are therefore used to loca bone fracture or foreign objects such as an accidentally swallowed pin ora bullet lodged in the body. Fig 4.3: Xray photograph of haan bone Other uses of X-rays include: (Cancer therapy, since the radiation is capable of killing malignant tissue (ii) Consolling pests and germs by iaiation. (ii) Ceystallogrephy, to study crystal lattice. They are also used to detect flaws in metals and ‘forgeries inant ltraviolet Radiation LUltaviclet radiation is easily stopped by glast. The radiation is used in spectroscopy and mineral analysis. It is also used to detect fogeres. ‘When ultraviolet radiation i absorbed by fluorescent materials, he materials fluoresce Therefore, the materials are mixed with washing powders soas to make clean clothes brighter dus to fluorescence when they are exposed to ultraviolet radiation in sunlight. In medicine, ultraviolet radiation i used'0 kill bacteria, ix skin treatment and also as @ source of vitamin D. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM, a In food ecology the ratiaton suse dest he tesines fan gg In indy iti ‘vith photocell. ee Indus, isused Veil Light Wiles is est reacted by clear media such as glassed he eye fens kenales they 0 sb, tis used in ornry photography, opi ies an laser ight amplification bythe stimulted emission of radiaion) beams" wen Irreé Raton Infaed ration aus esting effet, Therefore itis sed n cooking, heating and drying. fgrcltar, ii ose to warm greeahooses. Infaredraation i aso sed in eed phoogripy and hew-ssking misses Radio Waves Rao waves have varying ranges of wavelengths, which make thir applications wide, especially in communication ° Medium and shor wavelength radio waves are used in radio transmission signals Amplitude modsaton (AND ado ransmisson havea longer ange be ve longerrange Boat ofthe election bythe ionosphere se, gwe4 ,Telvson and equa) modlton (ND ra anscons srerectved ats shore wavelength han normal ado bonds. Vey hgh eqseney (V7 notions (ed in TV and FM rai) ar tnslted over tot Unances and xed Get fom the transasion, shown in he igure Fig 44: Tranonisson of ralionoves Mina a mst ae ao aa at etn nd ranging commnicao, se igure 45, This communication weal acag te posters of aeroplanes and ships. enerowo SECONDARY PHYSICS ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM as Hazards of some Electromagnetic Waves ‘The penetrating power of electromagnetic waves can cause damage when not controlled. Ultraviolet rays, X-rays and y-ray carry high energy and when absorbed into the body in targe doses, may cause damage tothe body cll, skin bur or affect the eyes. This widespread damage of cells may be fatal, There are aio delayed effects of radiation such as cancer, teukzemia and hereditary defects in children. The Chernobyl disasor inthe Ukraine (1986) is cone ofthe examples in recent times. Many lives have been lost due tothe radiations resulting from the nuclear reactor explosion. The dangers posed by the above radiations can be minimised by reducing the dosage by shielding, Keeping safe distance from sources and minimising exposure time Revision Bxercise 4 Where necessary, take ¢ = 3.0 10" ms", b = 6.63% 10 Is) 1. (a) Distinguish between # bolometer and a thermopile. (©) Explain why a blackened bulb can be used to detect infrared radiation. 2. (@)_ State four properties of electromagnetic waves. {b) Describe how ultraviolet light car be detected ‘Arrange the following radiations in order of their wavelengths: infrared, blue light, ultraviolet, radio waves, X-rays 4. Arado transmiter produces waves of feguency 1.0 x 10* Hz, Calculate the wavelength Fig 45: Radio detection ond onging (raion) ofthe signal '5. Calculate the wavelength of green igh, of frequency 5.0 > 10! He in ait Microwaves are also used for cooking, se figure 46 eG) Santee Microwaves are also used for evoking, ses Teen Meta gue () Distinguish between X-rays and y-ray. (©)__ Why are gamma rays more dangerous than X-rays? j= | 17. Differentiate between infrared and ullrviolet radiation, Magreven y= 3 8, Why is sound not an electromagnetic wave’ (orcas 9, Name one radiation of the electromagnetic spectrum which has a higher frequency than moowaves) | O the visible light. Describe: (@) how itis produced. | window win (©) how itis detected. ce mah ©) its unique properties {© its aplication. + (e) the dangers of the radiation. 10. (@) When par ofthe eleeromegnte spectrin plays «major ole inthe greenhouse rend ting phenomenon? ee 'b) Describe the changes the radiationabove undergoes when incident on a greenhouse. pdb Monsoon 11, Stateaproperty of electromagnetic wave on which the operation of radar system is based, 12) Your radio is tuned into a radio station 144 km away. ‘The magnetron produces microwaves ata frequency of about 2 500 MHz. These waves are (@) How long does it take the signal to reach your receiver? directed to & rotating metal stirrer, which reflects them to different parts of the oven (©) Ifthe signal has frequency of 980 KH, how m ‘In the oven, food is placed on a turntable, where it absorbs the waves evenly. The waves away fom your receiver? heat up the water and fat molecules in the food, hence cooking it. The wire mesh on the door reflecs the microwaves back inside. The device is switched off before opening the door. wavelengths isthe stationChapter Five PCTROMAGNETIC INDUCI ON In Book Two, it was observed that an electric current flowing through a conductor has an associated magnetic field. The converse is ruc changing magnetic field can, under suitable conditions, induce current in an electric conductor. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction and was discovered by Michael Faraday. Ithas Jed to cheap large scale production of electrical energy in power sitions Induced Electromotive Force (EMF) XPERIMENT 5.1: To investigate the conditions necessary for electromagnetic induction Using a Straight Conductor Apparatus Thick electric conductor, U-shaped magnet, gulvanometer, connecting wires Magnote teks SSS Sv etaped magna Senstive A) gavaoretr “/ Fig 31 Inducing emt argh contactor Procedure + Setup the apparatus as shown in figure 5. *+ Observe the effect on the galvanometer when the conductor AB is moved vertically downwards between the poles of the magnet. moved vertically upwards between the poles of the magnet. held stationary between the poles ofthe magnet. ‘moved parallel to the direction ofthe magnetic f ‘moved to cut the field at angles of, say, 30" and 60° held staionary and the magnet moved upwards, then downwards, n ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION ‘fe gavanometr deflects when the conductor AB cuts the magnetic Held lnes. Ther is no Towof arent wien here sno eave mio between the conductor andthe magne Fit {he agua of the induced current inceases with he angle @ at which the conductor cus thet being maximum when 8is 90 and aro when sO toving parallel the maghetic fal, Ths drection of detection reverses wen the dieton of motion ereversed Wheo the magnetic fl is moved while the conductor remains stationary the same bservations are made Using a Coit Apparatus Coil, galvanometer, magnet, N 3s notion Fig 5.2: acing mf col Procedure + Set the apparatus as shown in figure $.2 + Observe the effect onthe galvanometer when: the magnot is moved into the coll a a steady speed. G8) the magnot is moved out ofthe col at a steady speed. (Gi) the magne is held stationary in the col (iv) the coll is moved tothe stationary magnet (9) the coil is moved away from the stationary magnet, (i) the magnet is held stationary inthe stationary col. Observation “The pointer ofthe galvanometerdeflets in one dtection when the magnet is moved into the coil and in the opposite direction when the magnet is moved out of the coil. The same ‘observations are made when the col is moved while the magnet is stationary. "No deflection s observed wien there is no relative motion between the coil and magnetic field88 SECONDARY PHYSICS Explanation Figure 5.3 shows how electrons entering a magnetic field are deviated as a result of force whose direction is given by Fleming's left-hand rule ee Se ath of electron Fig 52: Porc on clecrns ia mage fd ‘Consider conductor AB cutting a magnetic field as shown a figure $4, Applying Fleming's leftchand rule, the electrons in the conductor experience a force that compels them to move fom point Ato B. This constitutes @ conventional cureat in the opposite direction. Woton oF conductor ‘Fig. 54 Induced caren ina conducor Conclusion From the above experiment, itis clear that whenever there is relative motion between amagnetic fleld and conductor, an induced current resulting from an induced e.m.f. flows in the conductor. Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Induced E.anf EXPERIMENT 5.2: To investigate relationship between the rate of change of magnetic flux and induced ems. Apparatus ‘Acoil of atleast 50 turns, sensitive jvanometer, magnet ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 89 Magnet iaién ig 55: Rae of change of Procedure + Insert the magnet into the col. {Note the maximum deflection ofthe gvanometer when the magnet is withdrawn from the coil Gil) very fast. (iv) with moderate speed. (9) very slowly. Observation "The faster the magnet is withdrawn from the coil, the greater the induced e.m. Explanation Magnetic flux @ (the strength of magnetic field threading a given area) changes when the ‘magnet is withdrawn from the col, A faster withdrawal gives rise to a higher rate of change in ‘magnetic flux linking the coil, which in tum gives an increased induced en. EXPERIMENT 5.3: To investigate the relationship berween the strength ofthe magnetic field Band induced emg. Apparatus ‘U-shaped electromagnet, variable resistor, wire PQ, galvanometer, ammeter. Fig, 56 Sinngth of magnetic eldx SECONDARY PHYSICS Procedure + Set the apparatus as shown in figure 5.6 + Adjust the variable resistor so that minimum current flows. + Move wire PQ in a diection perpendicular to the magnetic field ofthe electromagnet. [Note the maximum deflection on the galvasometer. + Repeat the experiment for higher values of current (stronger field). Observation ‘Whenever current through the ammeter is incressed, a greater deflection is obtained on the galvanometer when the wire PQ cuts the field. Since & higher current in the coil leads to a stronger electromagnet hence a stronger magnetic fed, it follows thatthe stronger the magnetic field, the higher the induced em. EXPERIMENT 5.4: To investigate the relationship between the number of turns in acoil and the induced emf Apparatus Insulated copper wire, sensitive galvanometer, magnet, connecting wires. Fig. 57: Naber of mn of he colt Procedure + Make a solenoid of, say, 60 turns. + Connect the solenoid tothe galvanometer. ‘+ Insert a magnet into the coil as shown in figure 5.7 + Withdraw the magnet from the coil ata stesdy speed and note the maximum reading of the galvanometer + Repeat the experiment with the same steady speed as before, but this time with the coil hhaving 50, 40,30 and 20 tums, Observation and Explanation Each time the number of turns ofthe col is decreased, a lower deflection of the maximum reading of the galvanometer is noted, This indicates a reduction in the induced current and therefore the magnitude of the em. induced inthe col ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION. o ‘There is an induced e-m.f, in each tur of the coil. The overall emf. is proportional to umber of turns, From experiments $.2, 5.3 and 54, it follows that: () amemf. is induced in a citcuit whenever the magnetic flux linking it changes. {ithe magnitude of the induced exms. increases with: + cherate of change of the flux linkage + the number of tins ofthe coil, “These observations can be summed up in Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which states that the magnitude ofthe induced e.m.is directly proportional tothe rate of change of magnetic Nux linkage. Lenz's Law Induced current produces # magnetic field whose effect can be used to predict the direction of the current. EXPERIMENT 5.5: To determine the direction of hei ed current in a coil Apparatus Variable resistor, sensitive centre-zer0 galvanometer, connecting Wi @) Toestablish the direction of the galvanometer deflection with respect tothe direction of flow of current Fi. $8: Dieton of exe Procedure + Setthe cieuit as shown in figure $8. + Adjust the variable resistor toa high value in order o limit the curent through the sensitive agalvanometer, + Close te switch and note the deflection of the galvanometer when curren flows from A wB.2 SECONDARY PHYSICS Observation If the deflection is to the right when the current is switched on, then the current enters the galvanometer through terminal A, which may be marked pesitive and leaves trough terminal B, which is negative, () Toinvestigate the direction of induced current 4 @ ©) Toren Procedure + Connect the marked galvanometer used in Experiment 5.5 (a) to the col, as shown in figure 5.9). + Move the north pole of the maignt into the col as shown in figure 59 (a) and note the direction of the deflection, + Move the north pole sway from the col and again note the direction of deflection, Observation It's observed that when the north pole of the magnet is moved towards the coil, the pointer deflects tothe lef, showing thatthe induced current flows in the direction DCBA. When the north pole ofthe magnet is moved avvay from the coil, the pointer deflects tothe right, showing that the current flows in the direction DABC Explanation [As the north pole of the magnet is moved towards the coil, the induced current flows in the ‘oil forming an electromagnet with a north pole at the end nearest te in-coming magnet. Tis ‘opposes the movement of the magnet ‘When the magnet is moved away, the induced current in the coll flows in such a way tht south poles formed atthe end of the coll nearest tothe receding magnet. This again opposes the movement of the magnet, see figure 5.9(a) und (6). ELBCTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION, 3 Conclusion ‘The direction of the induced e.mZ. is such that the induced current which it causes to flow produces a magnetic effect that opposes the change producing it, Ths is Lenz's lw. Lenz's law is an example of the principle of conservation of energy. The mechanical energy of a moving magnet inside the coll is converted tothe electrical energy as the induced ‘current. The person pushing the magnet towards the col must exert force to do work against repulsion ofthe induced pole ofthe coil magnet in order for induced current to flow. EXPERIMENT 5.6: To determine the direction of induced current ina straight conductor Apparatus U-shaped magnet, thick wire AB, marked cente-zero galvanometer Gourg tomate @ © © Procedure ‘+ Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 5.10 (a. + Move the wire AB up, perpendicular to the magnetic field and note the di induced current, + Move the wire downward perpendicular to the magnetic field and again note the direction of current jon of the Observation When the wire is moved upwards, the induced current flows from B to A, see figure 5.10 (b). When the wire is moved downvvards, the current flows from A to B, se figure 5.10 (c). Fleming's Right-hand Rule The direction of induced current ina wire can be determined using Fleming's right-hand ral. states that ifthe thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand are held mutually atoa SECONDARY PHYSICS right angles with the fiest finger pointing inthe direction field, the thumb pointing in the direction of motion, then the second finger points inthe di see figure 5.1 (a. mof the induced current, Fest nga eccece Fig. Se Fleming's righthand ale Fleming's right-hand rule, also known asthe dynamo rules in agreement with Lenz's lw. In figure 5.11 (b), Fleming's right-hand rue predicts thatthe induced current flows from X to ¥. Flemings left-hand rule confirms current to be consistent with Lenz's law; the curtent must flow from X to Y to produce a force to the lft opposing the motion tothe right Example 1 ‘A square loop of a conductor is pulled ata steady speed across a uniform magnetic feld, as shown i figure 5.12. oy (@) Determine inthe figure the diction of induced curentin the sides AB, AD, CD and BC any. (©) Explain what happens when: ()__allthesides are moving in the uniform field and state the potential difference across points AB. (ii) the side CD teav Ue field, ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 9 (© Suggest why inthe absence of friction, more force is requced to keep the coil moving at a steady speed when side CD leaves the field Solution Fe 519 (@) Sides AD and BC have no induced em. and hence no induced current, since they are not cutting the magnetic field. Sides AB and CD cut the magnetic field, causing current to flow from B to Ain AB and Co D in CD. © @ Thecurrents in AB and CD are equal in magnitude and oppose each othe. The resultant potential difference across the points Aand B is zero. 3) Induced e:m in AB which sets up a current that takes the path ADCD. There is no induced current side CD. (©) The flow of curret in AB creates a force that tends to oppose the motion. Example 2 In figure 5.14, the current in conductor AB is increased with time, Explain the direction of current inthe loop placed near the wire96 SECONDARY PHYSICS ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 97 Solurion Solution ; a 8 ———s x xX x x x x x x x] {x x}[x x x] |x xX x xX Xx x Fig 517 7 The current inthe loop creates the magnetic field shown in figure 5.17. Side X is the north “The flow of current in the loop is anticlockwise, see figure 5.15. The wire AB has concentic ‘magnetic field set up due to the current flowing trough it. Applying the right hand grip rule, this field is dzected into the paper. Since the field is changing it induces an em. inthe loop “This in tam sets up a current flow in the anticlockwise direction, in order to setup a field that tends to oppose the changing magnetic field duc to the eurent flowing in AB. Example 3 ABC in figure 5.16 is 2 section ofa single coll ofa wire, Movement of the magnet causes the current to flow as shown. In what direction isthe magnet moving? othat the pole while Ys south pole, By Lenz's law, the magnet must be moving away from Y, ‘motion is opposed by the magnetic effect ofthe current in the loop. ‘Mutual Induction ‘Mutual induction is sad to oceur when a changing current in one coil induces a current in another placed close to it. The changing magnetic flux in the frst col (primary coil) Links ‘with the second col (secondary coil) inducing an eum. in it. EXPERIMENT 5.7: To demonstrate mutual induction Apparatus ‘Twocoils PandS, galvanometer, battery, ac. power source, switch, rheostat, connecting wires. DUTT98. SECONDARY PHYSICS Frocedure + Setthe apparatus as shown inthe figute 5.18. + Note the deflection on the galvanometer: ‘on closing the switch ‘on opening the switch. ‘when, withthe switch closed, the eurent is increased. when, with the switch closed, the current is decreased, ‘The de, source is replaced by ana. one. Observation wi ‘opened, the pointer deflects to the oppesite direction and falls back to zero, Increasing the primary current causes a deflection while decreasing it causes a deflection in the opposite direction “When the dc. is replaced by an a. souree, the pointer vibrates shout point zero, en K is closed, the poimer deflects in one direction, then comes back to zero. When K is Explanation When K is closed, the current inthe primary increases from zero fo a maximum value within avery shor time ‘The magnet flux in the pinay col linking withthe secondary coil incresses from zero toa maximum value io the same interval of ime, inducing an ean‘. inthe secondary Current then lows, hence the deflection ofthe galvanometer. The induced en in the secondary coil is momentary because once the current in the primary builds up to its maximum valu, there is no further change in magnetic flux inthe primary When Kis opened, the current in the primary takes very short ime fo fall from maximum, ‘value to zero. The magnetic flux im the primary linking with secondary tums also falls from ‘maximum value to zero, inducing an e.m{., in the secondary coil ‘The induced em. inthe secondary is much higher winen current in primary is switebed off than when itis switebed on, because the current in the circuit takes a much shorter time to dic off than build up ‘When the curren is increased continuously, the magnetic fux in the primary which Kinks with the secondaty also increases, eausing an emf. 10 be induced in the secondary. When ‘current inthe primary is decreased continuously, an em. is induced inthe secondary due to the decreasing magnetic flux ofthe primary linking with the secondary Figure 5.19 (a) shows the direction of induced current when the primary current i increasing while 5.19 (b) shows the direction ofthe induced current when the current in the primary coil is decreasing. This can be verified by Lenz’s law ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 99 faaS ny) TTB Co YL» we > @ » The induced e.m. inthe secondary can be increased by winding the primary and secondary coils ona soft iron rod, as shown in figure 520. This is because the soft ion concentrates the magnetic flux in both coils. ‘The induced e.m. can be increased further by winding both primary and secondary coils ona soft iron ring, as shown in figure 5.21. The ring enables al the magnetic ux of the primary to form concentric loops within it, thus reaching the secondary col100. SECONDARY PHYSICS [ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 10, Twagnebe hcl pnary Fig 5.2; Increasing induced em. byasing onion rng “The induced e.m.f, can generally be increased by having more tums in the secondary coil, as shown in figure 5.22. Ecol power op) ‘tion coe Fig 528: Danformer EXPERIMENT 5.10: To determine the variation of secondary e.mf. withthe numberof turns Apparatus Long insulated copper wir, soft iron rod, low frequency ac. source, a, voltmeter, switch, bulls Fg, 522: Neer of wns The en. is induced in each tum ofthe secondary col since the magnetic flux ofthe primary coil inks with cach, The total induced e.mJ. isthe sum of the e.m-. induced inthe individual tums. Hence, the more the numberof tums in the secondary coil the higher the induced e.m.. APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Electromagnetic induction is arplied in many areas. Some of these are (cansformer. (4) moving-coil microphone (ii) indvetion col ‘Trensformers {A transformer transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by mutual induction. It consists of aprimary coil, where an alternating currents fed and a secondary oil forming the ‘tput, The eols are wound on a comman soft iron core, sr figure 5.23. iit PEPPEE Pp serene ib Jolt Fig 524 A sie ransformer Procedure ‘+ Using un insulated wire, wind a primary coil of 20 tums on a soft ron rod. + Using another insulated copper wire, wind a secondary col of 10 turns on the same soft icon rod. The coils should be wound closely together. + Connect the primary coil toa low alternating Voltage source and the secondary o a bulb and voltmeter, as shown in figure 5.24 + Close switeh K. + Take the reading of the voltmeter and note the brightness of the bulb + Repeat the experiment and observe what happens to secondary e.m.f, when the number ‘of tuns ofthe secondary coil is increased. Observation ‘The secondary voltage increases when the numberof tuas ix the secondary coil is increased.