CHAPTER

1 Electric Charges and Fields

Coulomb’s Law Equilibrium of Three Point Charges

 1 q1q 2 
Force between two charges F = r, ∈r = dielectric x
constant 4π ∈0 ∈r r 2
Q1 q Q2
q1 q2 r
r
(i) Two charges must be of like nature.
Principle of Superposition (ii) Third charge should be of unlike nature.
Force on a point charge due to many charges is given by
    Q1 −Q1Q 2
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + ........ x= r and q =
( )
2
Q1 + Q 2 Q1 + Q 2
Notes: The force due to one charge is not affected by the presence
of other charges.

Electric Field or Electric Field Intensity Equilibrium of Suspended Point Charge System
(Vector Quantity) For equilibrium position

 F
E = , unit is N/C or V/m.
q
 
 
Electric Field Due to Charge Q Tcos T

 F 1 Q 
=E Lim
= r
q0 → 0 q
0 4 π ∈0 r 2 Fe Q Q
Tsin
Null Point for Two Charges x
r
If |Q1| > |Q2| mg
Q1 Q2
T cosq = mg & T sinq = Fe
⇒ Null point near Q2 Fe kQ 2
⇒ tan=
θ = 2
Q1 r mg x mg
x= ; x → distance of null point from Q1 charge
Q1 ± Q 2 =T (Fe ) 2 + (mg) 2

(+) for like charges If whole set up is taken into an artificial satellite (geff  0)
(–) for unlike charges 2
q 180º q

kq 2
⇒ T = Fe =
4 2
Electric Dipole E
™ Electric dipole moment p = qd
  
™ Torque on dipole placed in uniform electric field τ = p × E
™ At a point which is at a distance r from dipole midpoint and
r
making angle q with dipole axis. R
y E For a Non-conducting Sphere
+ q
 Er
E R
P + + +

r
+

–q +q x 1 q
For r ≥ R : E =
4π ∈0 r 2
1 p 1 + 3cos 2 θ E
Electric field E =
4π ∈0 r3

Eθ 1
Direction tan =
α = tan θ
Er 2

 1 2p r
™ Electric field at axial point (or End-on) E = of R
4π ∈0 r 3
dipole 1 qr
For r < R : E =
™ Electric field at equatorial position (Broad-on) of dipole 4π ∈0 R 3

 1 (−p)
E= For a Conducting/Non-conducting Spherical Shell
4π ∈0 r 3
1 q
  For r ≥ R : E =
Electric flux: φ = ∫ E.ds 4π ∈0 r 2
+
q
 
Gauss’s Law: ∫ E.ds = ∑ (Applicable only on closed R
∈ + +
surface)
+
q en
Net flux emerging out of a closed surface is For r < R : E = 0
ε0
  q en
=φ ∫=
E.dA
ε0
where qen = net charge enclosed by the For a Charged Circular Ring

closed surface. E V
φ does not depend on the

(i) Shape and size of the closed surface

x x
(ii) The charges located outside the closed surface.
+
q
For a Conducting Sphere
+ + x
q + C P
R
R
+ +
+
+

1 q
For r ≥ R : E = and For r < R : E = 0
4π ∈0 r 2

2 NEET (XII) Moduel-1 PW

 1 qx Mechanical Pressure on a Charged Conductor
EP =
4π ∈0 (x + R 2 )3/ 2
2
σ2
P=
2 ∈0
R
Electric field will be maximum at x = ±
2 Electric Field for Non-conducting Infinite Sheet of
Surface
For a Charged Long Conducting Cylinder
Charged Density s
q
™ For r ≥ R : E = σ
2π ∈0 r E=
2 ∈0
™ For r < R : E = 0
Electric Field for Conducting Infinite Sheet of Surface
Electric Field Intensity at a Point near a Charged Charge Density s
Conductor σ
E=
σ ∈0
E=
∈0

P Electric Charges and Fields 3

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 CHAPTER

Electrostatic Potential and

2 Capacitance

Electric Potential Energy (d) Relation between electric field and potential

(a) The electric potential energy for a point charge q0 in the  E
∂V
E = −

electric field of a stationary point charge q, with a distance ∂
P
r separating the charges is
∂V
1 q0q = +
∂l
U=
∂ A
4πε0 r
If electric potential energy at infinity is considered to be Electric Dipole Potential
zero. 1  p cos θ  p
(a) V =  
(b) Work done by electric force on a charge when it is moved 4πε 0  r 2  r
from A to B
(b) Potential energy of a dipole in q
WA→B = UA – UB an external electric field –q +q
  l
Electric Potential U ( θ ) =−p ⋅ E

(a) Potential is equal to potential energy per unit charge
Capacitors
U

V= Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
q0
A
The potential for a point charge q at any point at a distance C = ε0
d
r is
Q
1 q Also, C =
V=
V
4πε0 r
Electric Field Energy
If potential at infinity is considered to be zero.
1 Q2 1
(b) Potential due to a collection of charges is the sum of the U
(a) = QV
= = CV 2
2 2C 2
potentials due to each charge. 1
(b) Energy density of energy stored in electric field U= ε0 E 2
1 n
q 2
Vn =
4πε0
∑i ri
Combination of Capacitor
(c) Potential due to a conducting sphere of radius r with charge (a) When capacitors are combined in series,
q (solid or hollow) at a distance r from the centre 1 1 1 1
= + + + .........
 1 q Ceq C1 C2 C3
V=
 if (r > R)
 4πε0 r (b) When capacitors are connected in parallel,
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ........
 1 q

V=  if (r = R)
(c) Spherical capacitor,
 4πε0  R
ab
1 q C= 4πε 0
, (When outer shell is earthed)
V=
if (r < R) b−a
4πε0 R b 2
C= 4πε 0
, (When inner shell is earthed)
b−a
 C = 4πε0R (For a sphere of radius R) Dipole moment
(b) Polarisation P =
2πε0 l Volume
(d) Cylindrical capacitor, C =  
b P = χ0 E

ln  
a
Dielectrics χ0
= K −1
ε0
 1
q ' q 1 − 
(a) Induced charge, =
 K

P Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance 5

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 CHAPTER

3 Current Electricity

Electric current Dependence of Resistance on Temperature

The resistance of most conductors and all pure metals increases
Q coulomb
I= = ampere with temperature. If R0 & R be the resistance of a conductor at 0°C
t second
and q°C, then it is found that R = R0(1 + aq).
dq
Ampere is the unit of current. If i is not constant then i = ,
Resistivity also depends on temperature as, r = r0 (1 + aq).
dt
where dq is net charge transported at a section in time dt. Where a is called the temperature co-efficient of resistance.
The unit of a is K–1 or °C–1. Reciprocal of resistivity is called
Electric Current in A Conductor conductivity and reciprocal of resistance is called conductance
i = nvdeA, where vd = drift velocity. (G). S.I. unit of G is mho.
The materials for which resistance decreases with temperature,
Current Density the temperature coefficient of resistance is negative.
 i  
J=  n or i = J . S where n̂ is the unit vector in the direction OHM’S Law
S
It says that the current through the cross section of the conductor
of the flow of current.
is proportional to the applied potential difference under the given
Relation between J, E and Vd physical condition. V = RI. Ohm’s law is applicable to only
In conductors drift velocity of electrons is proportional to the metallic conductors.
electric field inside the conductor as; vd = mE
Krichhoff’s Law’s
where m is the mobility of electrons
I - Law (Junction law or Nodal Analysis): This law is based on
law of conservation of charge.
I
Current density is given as J = =ne ν d =ne ( µE ) =σE ∑ Iin =
∑ Iout
A
where s = nem is called conductivity of material and we can It Is also known as KCL (Kirchhoff’s current law).
1 II - Law (Loop analysis): The algebraic sum of all the voltages
also write ρ= → resistivity of material. in closed circuit is zero. ∑ IR + ∑ EMF = 0 in a closed loop. The
σ
  closed loop can be traversed in any direction. While traversing
Thus E = ρ J . It is called as differential form of Ohm’s Law. a loop if higher potential point is entered, put a positive
sign in expression or if lower potential point is entered put a
Electrical Resistance negative sign.
Law of Resistance + V2 –
The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the
following factors: + +
1 V3
R ∝ l (length of the conductor); R ∝ (cross section area – –
of the conductor). A + V4 –
At a given temperature, R = ρ 
A –V1 +V2 +V3 –V4 = 0. Boxes may contain resistor or battery
where r is the resistivity of the material of the conductor at the or any other element (linear or non-linear).
given temperature. It is also known as specific resistance of It is also known as KVL (Kirchhoff’s voltage law).
the material & it depends upon nature of conductor.
 Combination of Resistances E 
r = R  − 1
(i) Resistance in Series V 
When the resistances are connected end to end then they Grouping of Cells
are said to be in series. The current through each resistor is (i) Cells In Series: Let there be n cells each of
same. The effective resistance appearing across the battery; emf E, arranged in series. Let r be the internal
R1 R2 R3 Rn resistance of each cell. The total emf = nE.
+ – + – + – + – nE nE
V1 V2 V3 Vn Current in the circuit I = . If nr << R then I .
R + nr R
E, r E, r E, r E, r
I + – I upto n
R = R1 + R2 + R3 +..................+ Rn and I
V = V1 + V2 + V3 ................... + Vn.
The voltage across a resistor is proportional to the resistance
R1 R2 R
=
V1 = V; V2 V; etc. E
R1 + R 2 + ......... + R n R1 + R 2 + ......... + R n If nr >> R then I = .
r
(ii) Resistance in Parallel
(ii) Cells In Parallel: If m cells each of emf E & internal
A parallel circuit of resistors is the one in which the same
resistance r be connected in parallel and if this combination
voltage is applied across all the components.
be connected to an external resistance (R) then the
R1
net emf of the circuit = E.
I1 R 2
r
I I2 B Net internal resistance of the circuit = .
I3 R3 m
upto
In r
E
Rn E r
V E r
Conclusions E mE
I =I =
(a) Potential difference across each resistor is same. r mR +r
R+
(b) I = I1 + I2 + I3 + ........... In. R m
(c) Effective resistance (R) then
1 1 1 1 1 mE
= + + + ............ + . If mR << r then I = .
R R1 R 2 R 3 Rn r
(d) Current in different resistors is inversely proportional to the If mR >> r then = .
resistances.
1 1 1 1 (iii) Cells in Matrix Array:
I1 : I2 : .........In = : : : ............ :
R1 R 2 R 3 Rn n = number of rows
m = number of cells in each row
Emf of a Cell & its internal Resistance
mn = total number of identical cells.
If a cell of emf E and internal resistance r be connected with a
The combination of cells is equivalent to single cell of:
resistance R the total resistance of the circuit is (R + r).
(a) emf = mE &
A E r B mr
(b) internal resistance =
I n
1 2 3 m
R
1
A 2 B
E ER
I
= ; VAB= V= 3
R+r R+r
n
I
where VAB = Terminal voltage of the battery.
R
If r → 0, cell is ideal & V → E
P Current Electricity 7
W
 mE Circuits of potentiometer
Current I = . E r Rh
mr
R+
n primary circuit
For maximum power
L
mr
nR = mr or R = A B
n secondary circuit Potentiometer wire
E' < E
nE mE
so I m=
ax = E',r' G
2r 2R
For a cell to deliver maximum power across the load
Potential Gradient
net internal resistance = load resistance
current at nullpoint ×
Wheat-stone Network VAB resistance of potentiometer wire R
=
λ = = I 
C L length of potentiometer wire L

P Q Here the internal resistance of the cell E' is given by

A B E r Rh
G
primary circuit
R S
D L
A
E R B
secondary circuit

When current through the galvanometer is zero (null point or E', r' G E' < E
P R
balance point) = .
Q S
K
When,
PS > QR ⇒ VC < VD PS < QR ⇒ VC > VD R
PS = QR ⇒ VC = VD  − 
=r'  1 2 ⋅R
Metre Bridge  2 

At balance condition : Where 1 and 2 are balancing lengths without shunt and with
the shunt respectively. R is the shunt resistance in parallel with
P R  R (100 −  ) the given cell.
= ⇒ = ⇒S= R
Q S (100 −  ) S 
Ammeter
It is used to measure current. A shunt (small resistance) is
D S connected in parallel with galvanometer to convert into ammeter.

G I Ig
Rg
P J Q
A  (100–) C
B Is S

Ig R g
Potentiometer S=
I − Ig
A potentiometer is a linear conductor of uniform cross-section
with a steady current set up in it. It maintains a uniform potential where
gradient along the length of the wire. Any potential difference Rg = galvanometer resistance
which is less than the potential difference maintained across the Ig = Maximum current that can flow through the galvanometer.
potentiometer wire can be measured using this. The potentiometer I = Maximum current that can be measured using the given
E  ammeter.
equation is 1 = 1 .
E2  2 An Ideal ammeter has zero resistance.

8 NEET (XII) Moduel-1 PW

Voltmeter Joule’s Law of Electrical Heating
A high resistance is put in series with galvanometer. It is used to The heat generated (in joules) when a current of I ampere flows
measure potential difference. through a resistance of R ohm for T second is given by:
I 2 RT
Ig H = I2 RT joule = calories
Rg
R 4.2
If variable current passes through the resistance, then for heat
T
+ V0 – produced in resistance from time 0 to T is; H = ∫ I 2 Rdt .
0
Vo
=
Ig ; R → ∞ , Ideal voltmeter
Rg + R Unit of Electrical Energy Consumption
1 unit of electrical energy = kilowatt hour = 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106
R = (Vo/Ig) – Rg joules.
Heating Effect of Electric Current ™ Series combination of Bulbs
When a current is passed through a resistor, energy is wasted in 1 1 1 1
= + + + ....
over coming the resistance of the wire. This energy is converted Ptotal P1 P2 P3
into heat
™ Parallel combination of Bulbs
V2 2
W VIt
= = I=Rt t Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 +...
R

P Current Electricity 9
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 CHAPTER

4 Magnetic Effects of Current

A static charge produces only electric field. A moving charge a1 = 90º; a2 = 90º
produces both electric field and magnetic field. A current carrying
conductor produces only magnetic field.

MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED BY A

I
CURRENT WIRE (BIOT-SAVART'S LAW) o
R
The magnetic induction dB produced by an element dl carrying a
current I at a distance r is given by:
 
µ 0 µ r I dl sin θ → µ o µ r I ( d × r )
dB = ⇒ dB =
4π r2 4π r3 Magnetic induction due to semi infinite straight conductor
here the quantity Idl is called as current element. µ0 I
B= ⊗
4πR
I P
q a1 = 0º; a2 = 90º
dl r

I
m = permeability of the medium = m0mr
o
m0 = permeability of free space R
mr = relative permeability of the medium (Dimensionless quantity) ™ Magnetic field due to a flat circular coil carrying a current:
Unit of m0 & m is NA–2 or Hm–1; µ 0 NI
(i) At its centre B =
m0 = 4p × 10–7 Hm–1 2R
where
O
Magnetic Induction Due To a Straight Current N = total number of turns in the coil
Conductor I = current in the coil
Magnetic induction due to a current carrying straight wire R = Radius of the coil
µ 0 NIR 2 N
q2 (ii) On the axis B = I
2 ( x2 + R2 )
3/ 2
I
a2 ⊗ x P
P Where x = distance of the point from
a1 R
the centre.
q1 µ 0 NI
R It is maximum at the centre BC =
2R
µ0 I µ0 I I
B= (cosq1 + cosq2) = (sin a1 + sin a2) (iii) Magnetic field due to flat circular ARC :
4πR 4πR
µ0 I µ 0 Iθ
Magnetic induction due to a infinitely long wire B = ⊗
2πR B= q
4πR ⊗
c
 ™ Magnetic field due to infinite long solid cylindrical conductor → → →

of radius R given by F = q v × B . Therefore, if the charge moves in a space

where both electric and magnetic fields are superposed.
µ0 I
™ For r ≥ R : B = → → → →
2πr F = net electromagnetic force on the charge = q E + q v× B
µ 0 Ir This force is called the Lorentz Force.
™ For r < R : B =
2πR 2
Motion of Charge In Combined Electric Field &
Magnetic Induction Due to Solenoid Magnetic Field
B = m0nI, direction along axis. → → → →

where n → number of turns per meter; ™ When v B & v E , Motion will be uniformly accelerated in
I → current a straight line as Fmagnetic = 0 and Felectrostatic = qE
So the particle will be either speeding up or speeding down
Magnetic Induction Due To Toroid → → → →
B = m0nI ™ When v B & v ⊥ E , motion will be uniformly accelerated
N in a parabolic path
where n = (no. of turns per m) → → → →
2πR ™ When v ⊥ B & v ⊥ E , the particle will move undeflected &
N = total turns and R ≈ r E
undeivated with same uniform speed if v = (This is called
B
r as velocity selector condition)

I Magnetic Force On A straight Current Carrying

I → → →
R Wire : F = I (L × B)
I = current in the straight conductor
→
L = displacement between the ends of the conductor in the
direction of the current in it
Magnetic Induction Due To Current Carrying →
Sheet B = magnetic induction. (Uniform throughout the length of
1 conductor)
B= m l, where l = Linear current density (A/m)
2 0 Note : In general, force is F =
→
( →

∫I d l×B
→
)
Magnetic Interaction Force Between Two Parallel
Long Straight Currents
The interactive force between two parallel long straight wires is:
Ampere's Circuital Law
 
(i) Repulsive if the currents are anti-parallel.
 B . d l = mSI where S I = algebraic sum of all the current. (ii) Attractive if the currents are parallel.
Motion of A Charge In Uniform Magnetic Field This force per unit length on either conductor is given by
→ → → µ 0 I1I 2
(a) When V | | B; Motion will be in a straight line and F = 0 F= .
→ →
2π r
(b) When V ⊥ B : Motion will be in circular path with radius Where r = perpendicular distance between the parallel
mv qB conductors
R= and angular velocity w = and F = qvB.
qB m
→ → Magnetic Torque On a current loop
(c) When V is at ∠ q to B : Motion will be helical with radius When a plane current loop of ‘N’ turns and of area ‘A’ per
mv sin θ 2πmv cos θ turn carrying a current I is placed in uniform magnetic field, it
Rk = and pitch PH = and F = qvBsinq.
qB qB experiences zero net force, but experiences a torque given by
→
LORENTZ FORCE → → → → →
τ NI A × B = M × B = BINAsinq where A = area vector outward
=
→ →
An electric charge ‘q’ moving with a velocity V through a from the face of the circuit where the current is anticlockwise, B
→ →
magnetic field of magnetic induction B experiences a force F , = magnetic induction of the uniform magnetic field.
→ →
M = magnetic moment of the current circuit = NIA
P Moving Charges and Magnetism 11
W
Force on A Random Shaped Conductor in A  Magnetic field at axial point (or End-on) of dipole B
→

Uniform Magnetic Field →

µ0 2 M
=
A
4π r 3
B
→  Magnetic field at equatorial position (Broad-on) of dipole
Magnetic force on a closed loop in a uniform B is zero.
™
Force experienced by a wire of any shape is equivalent to force µ0 − M
→ ( →
)
™ = B =
on a wire joining points A & B in a uniform magnetic field. 4π r 3
 At a point which is at a distance r from midpoint of dipole
Magnetic Moment of A Rotating Charge and making angle q with dipole axis.
If a charge q is rotating at an angular velocity w, its equivalent
qω µ 0 M 1 + 3cos 2 θ
current is given as I = & its magnetic moment is M = IpR2 Magnetic field B =
2π 4π r3
1 2
= qωR . → → →
2 ™ Torque on dipole placed in uniform magnetic field τ= M × B

q ™ Potential energy of dipole placed in an uniform field
 
U = −M ⋅ B
R ™ Intensity of magnetisation I = M/V
™ Magnetic induction B = mH = m0(H + I)
B
™ Magnetic permeability m =
H
Key Note 1
™ Magnetic susceptibility cm = =m–1
H
The ratio of magnetic moment to angular momentum of a
uniform rotating object which is charged uniformly is always 1
™ Curies Law for paramagnetic cm ∝
a constant, irrespective of the shape of conductor M/L = q/2m. materials T
1
™ Curie-Wiess law for cm ∝
™ Magnetic dipole Ferromagnetic materials T − TC
 Magnetic moment M = m × 2l where m = pole strength
Where TC = Curie temperature
of the magnet

12 NEET (XII) Module-2 PW

 CHAPTER

5 Magnetism and Matter

™ A natural magnet is an ore of iron (Fe3O4) which attracts ™ The horizontal component of earth's magnetic field BH acts
small pieces of iron, cobalt and nickel towards it. from south to north direction.
™ Lodestone is a natural magnet. ™ A line drawn through points of equal declination is called
™ Unit pole is defined as that pole which when placed in vacuum isogonal line.
(or in air) at a distance of one meter from an equal and similar
pole, repels it with a force equal to 10–7 newton. ™ A line drawn through points of zero declination is called
™ A current carrying loop behaves as a magnet i.e. magnetic agonal line.
dipole. Thus magnetic dipole moment of a current loop is. ™ A line passing through places of same value of dip is called
M = IA isoclinic line.
where, A= area of the loop. ™ Isoclinic line corresponding to zero dip is called aclinic line,
™ A current carrying straight solenoid behaves like a bar magnet. or magnetic equator.
™ Angle of dip (δ): The angle formed by the total field vector
™ A line passing through places having equal values of BH is
with respect to horizontal plane is the angle of dip.
called isodynamic line.
BV
= tan δ ™ Vibration magnetometer is used for comparing magnetic
BH
moments of two magnets and also for comparing the
BH = horizontal component.
horizontal component of earth's field at two places.
BV = vertical component of earth's field B.
™ In a vibration magnetometer, the period of oscillation T is
δ = Angle of dip.
given by T = 2π I / MBH , where I is the moment of inertia
™ Angle of dip δ is zero at magnetic equator. Hence on magnetic
equator, BH = B, BV = 0. of the magnet about the suspension.
™ Angle of dip δ is 90° at the poles. Hence at poles, BV = B, ™ Frequency of oscillation in a vibration magnetometer is given
BH = 0. 1
by, n = MBH / I .
™ When the magnetic needle oscillates in the vertical east-west 2π
plane, at right angles to magnetic meridian, then only BV acts ™ If two magnets are placed one above the other symmetrically
on it.
and allowed to oscillate with a period, T1 in a horizontal plane
™ When the dip needle oscillates at right angles to the magnetic with a uniform field and with a period T2 when one of the
meridian in a horizontal plane, then only BH acts on it.
M1 T22 + T12
™ When the dip needle oscillates in the vertical plane in magnets is reversed, then = , M1 and M2 being
magnetic meridian, then both the components BV and BH of M 2 T22 − T12
earth's magnetic field act upon it. the moments of the magnets.

Magnetic quantities-Units and dimensions

S.No. Quantity S.I. Unit Dimensions
1.     Am2 L2A1
Magnetic moment (vector quantity), M= I A, M= m × 
2. Pole strength (scalar), m = M/l Am LA
3.   Am–1 L–1A
Intensity of magnetisation (vector) I = M / V
 
4. Magnetic flux (Scalar) φ= B ⋅ A weber ML2T–2A–1
 
5. Magnetic induction (vector) B Wb m–2 or tesla Am–1 MT–2A–1
6. Intensity of magnetic field (vector) Am–1 L–1A
7. Magnetic permeability (scalar), m = B/H H/m MLT–2A–2
8. Relative permeability (scalar), mr = m/m0 unitless zero dimension
9. Magnetic susceptibility (scalar) χm = I/H, χm = (mr – 1) unitless zero dimension

10. I sec T
Periodic time of a magnet (scalar) T = 2π (I = moment of inertia)
MBH

™ Electromagnets: The material for cores of electromagnets ™ The magnetic moment associated with the electron revolving
should have maximum flux density with comparatively small in the first Bohr orbit is known as Bohr magneton (μB).
magnetising field and low hysteresis loss. Soft iron is best eh
suited for electromagnet. The hysteresis loop is thin and long. µ B= = 0.93 × 10−23 JT −1
4πm
Due to the small area of hysteresis loop, energy loss is small.
™ All substances exhibit diamagnetism. In paramagnetic and
™ For soft iron retentivity/remanant magnetism is high,
ferromagnetic substances, the diamagnetism is neutralised by
coercivity is low, magnetic permeability m is high and
the large intrinsic dipole moment of spinning electrons.
magnetic susceptibility (χm) is high.
™ For steel, remanant magnetism is low, coercivity is high, m is ™ The apparent dip δ', the real dip δ and the angle with magnetic
low and χm is low. meridian θ are related as
™ About 90% of magnetic moment is due to spin motion of tan δ cos θ = tan δ'
electrons while remaining 10% is due to their orbital motion. 5
Magnetic moment associated with an electron (or charge) ™ Magnetic length = × geometric length of magnet.
™ 6
having charge e when it revolves in a circular orbit of radius
r with angular speed ω is
eωr 2 er 2 2π er 2 π
M= = × =
2 2 T T

14 NEET (XII) Module-2 PW

 CHAPTER

6 Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Experiments 2. Mathematically the emf induced is given by

™ First experiment: Relative motion between a bar magnet d φB
and wire loop produces a small amount of current. ε=−
dt
™ Negative sign indicates the direction of e and hence the
N S direction of current in the closed loop.
G
™ If loop contains N turns, change of flux is associated with
™ Second experiment: If one coil is connected to a battery
each turn.
and another coil is moved towards or away from it, electric
current is produced in neighbouring coil.  dφ 
ε = −N  B 
C1  dt 
C2
™ The induced emf can be increased by increasing the number
of turns of closed coil.

Lenz’s Law
I ™ Lenz’s law: This law gives the polarity of induced emf.
G
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce
a current which opposes the change in magnetic flux that
Fig.: Current is induced in coil C1 due to motion of produced it.
the current carrying coil C2.
™ The law is in accordance with the law of conservation of
™ Third experiment: Galvanometer shows a momentary energy.
deflection when tapping key K is closed or opened.
C1
C2

N N
S (a) S (b)
G K Fig.: Illustration of Lenz’s law

Magnetic Flux Motional EMF

 ™ Straight conductor in motion: In uniform and time
Magnetic flux through a surface of area A placed in uniform
   independent magnetic field.
magnetic field B is written as φθ = B ⋅ A = BA cos θ
Slider e = Blv (emf across rod)
For non-uniform magnetic field
 
φ ∫ B ⋅ dA
=
l B V
ε Blv ∆φ B 2l 2 v 2
Faraday’s Laws of Induction i
= = ∆Q = B P=
R R R R
Conclusion of experiments was formulation of following laws: x
1. The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to Mechanical energy which is needed to move the rod is
the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit. converted into electric energy and then to thermal energy.
 ™ Rod rotated about one end: ™ SI unit of self inductance is henry (H).
™ Self inductance of the coil depends on its geometry and on the
permeability of the medium.
w R Mutual Inductance
™ Varying current in one coil can induce emf in neighbouring
coil.
di
B ωR 2 ε1 =M 2
ε= dt
2 The magnitude of induced emf depends on rate of change of
current and mutual inductance of two coils:
Fleming’s right hand rule: This gives the direction of
™ SI unit of mutual inductance is henry and is denoted by H. Its
induced emf or current in a conductor moving in a magnetic dimensional formula is ML2T2A–2.
field. If we stretch forefinger, central finger and thumb of For two long co-axial solenoids each of length l
our right hand in mutually perpendicular directions such that
M 12 = µ 0 n1n2 Al
forefinger is along magnetic field, thumb along direction
where, M12 is coefficient of mutual induction
of motion of the conductor then central finger will give the
direction of induced current. N2

Eddy Currents
Electric currents are induced in well defined paths in a conductor N1
like circular loops, when bulk piece of conductor is subjected to
changing magnetic flux. This circular induced current is knwon
as eddy current.
M 12 = M 21
The eddy currents are also called Foucault currents after its
discoverer. ™ Mutual inductance of a pair of coils, depends on their
separation as well as their relative orientations.
™ These currents are used in many applications.
™ For two concentric circular coils with radius r and R(R >> r)
1. Magnetic braking of trains
coils which are concentric as well as coplanar.
2. Electromagnetic damping
µ0 π ( r )
2

3. Induction furnace M
= 12 M
= 21
2R
™ Eddy currents dissipate energy in the form of heat energy.
™ Eddy currents are minimized using laminations of metal to Magnetic Potential Energy
make a metal core. ™ Energy required to build any current I in a system of self
inductance L
Self Inductance 1
W = × L ×l2
Phenomenon of induced EMF in a single isolated coil due to 2
changing magnetic flux through the coil by means of varying the ™ This work done gets stored as magnetic potential energy.
current through same coil is self induction. 1 2 B 2 Al
UB
= = U
Total flux linkage = Li [L is the self inductance.] 2 2µ 0
Emf induced in the coil is ™ Magnetic energy per unit volume.
di B2
ε = −L uB = → Energy is proportional to square of field strength
dt 2µ 0

™ Self induced emf always opposes any change of current in AC Generator

the coil. ™ AC generator is based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic
Self inductance of a solenoid is L = m0n2Al induction.
n is number of turns per unit length of the solenoid.  Modern A.C. generator has output capacity upto 100 MW.

When solenoid is filled with some material.  This machine converts mechanical energy into electric

L =µ 0 µ r n 2 Al energy.
 The emf induced is sinusoidal.
™ Self inductance plays the role of inertia. It is electromagnetic
analogue of mass in mechanics. ε NBAω sin ωt
=

16 NEET (XII) Module-2 PW

 Coil NBA w is the maximum value of emf when sinwt = ±1.
Axle Let ε= NBAω
0

⇒ ε = ε0 sin ωl
w is angular speed of rotor of ac generator.
The direction of current and emf changes periodically with
time.
N S
\ ε = ε0 sin(2πvt )
Slip
rings Alternating emf ™ v in India is 50 Hz
™ v in USA is 60 Hz

Carbon brushes

Stage-1: Stage-2: Stage-3: Stage-4: Stage-5:

The plane of When the Armature after Armature after Armature
the armature is armature a rotation of a rotation of after a rotation
perpendicular rotates through 180° 270° through 360°
to the magnetic 90° the plane
field. of the armature
is parallel to
magnetic field.

R Q R

Q R P R Q S Direction of
N S Q S R S N R S N S N Q S
A
magnetic field
A P A
BP S BS S P
A P
B A B
Induced
emf
0° 90° 270° 360°
180° Time

0 T/4 T/2 3T/4

P
W Electromagnetic Induction 17
 CHAPTER

7 Alternating Current

™ The constant value of dc which produces same heat through a Vo

 π
resistive element, as due to the alternating current, is known 90º. V = Vo sinwt, I = Io sin  ωt +  , Io = = 2pfCV0. The
 2 X c
as root mean square value of ac.
average power loss per cycle is zero.
™ 240 V ac is the rms value of ac voltage. The amplitude of this
voltage is VM = 240 × 2 ≈ 340 volt. ™ In AC C-R circuit, total voltage V = VR2 + VC2 .

™ The power rating in ac circuit is the average power rating. ™ A circuit containing an inductor L and a capacitor C (initially
charged) with no ac source and no resistors, exhibits free
™ Power consumed in a circuit is non negative.
oscillations. The charge of the capacitor is given by the
™ Phase relationships in a.c. circuits is best represented by d2q 1
differential equation + q= 0. The sum of energy of
phasor diagram. A phasor is a vector which rotates with the dt 2 LC
angular velocity w. The magnitude of phasor is the peak value capacitor and inductor is constant.
of voltage or current (Vo or Io).
™ For a given RLC circuit driven by voltage V = Vo sinwt,
™ In purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current are in the the current is given by, I = Io sin(wt + f) where Io =
Vo
same phase V = Vo sinwt and I = Io sinwt, where Io = . Vm
R and f = tan–1 X C − X L , impedance z =
R + ( XC − XL )
2 2
R
™ In purely resistive circuit, average power loss = I2rms × R, Irms
Io R 2 + ( XC − XL ) .
2
Vo
= , similarly Vrms =
2 2
™ The phase difference between voltage across L and voltage
™ The only element which dissipates energy in ac circuit is across capacitor C, is 180º. Thus VLC = VL – VC.
resistor (R).
™ In purely inductive circuit, inductive reactance XL = 2pfL = ™ The voltage in series LCR AC circuit is given by V =
π VR2 + ( VL − VC ) .
2
wL. Voltage is ahead of current by , V = Vo sinwt, I = Io
2
 π Vo
sin  ωt −  , Io = . In this circuit, average power loss = ™ The average power consumed = Vrms × Irms × cosf, where
 2 XL
cosf is the power factor.
0.
π ™ In series LCR circuit, at resonance, XL = XC, the impedance Z
™ In purely inductive or capacitive circuit, cosf = 0 ⇒ f = .
2 is minimum and equal to R. In this case, the source frequency
Average power loss is zero. Although current is flowing in 1
w= which equals resonant frequency.
the circuit. Such a current is known as wattless current. LC

VR2 + VL2 .
L 1 1 L
™ In AC L-R circuit, total voltage V = ™ The quality factor Q = w0 = = is an
R ω0 CR R C
™ In purely capacitive AC circuit, capacitive reactance XC = indicator or “sharpness of resonance.”
1 1 π
= . The current leads the applied voltage by or
The power factor in a RLC circuit is a measure of how close
2πfC C 2 ™
the circuit is to consuming maximum power.
™ A step up transformer converts low ac voltage to high ac In step up transformer, NS > NP and step down transformer
voltage but reduces the current. NS < NP.

™ A step down transformer converts high ac voltage to a low ac ™ A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical
voltage but increases the current accordingly. energy, whereas an electric motor converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy.
™ In transformer, the primary and secondary voltage are given
N   NP  ™ A transformer does not violate the law of conservation of
by VS =  S  VP and the current are given by IS =   IP . energy. A step up transformer changes low voltage to a high
 NP   NS 
voltage but reduces the current in the same proportion.

P Alternating Current 19
W
 CHAPTER

8 Electromagnetic Waves

™ Four Maxwell’s Equations power ( P )

™ Intensity, I =
 
 q Area ( A )
1.  E.ds 
0 ™ Average intensity of wave Iav = (average energy density) ×
 

2.  B.ds  0 E 0 B0 E 02 cB02
Iav U=
(speed of light),= av c = =
2µ 0 2cµ 0 2µ 0
  d d   
3.  E.dl   dt  B 
dt  B.ds ™ Instantaneous energy density, u = uE + uB

   d E  1 B2 B2
4.  B.dl   0 (IC  I D )   0  IC  0 u =ε0 E 2 + ε0 E 2 =
=
 dt  2 2µ 0 µ0
 
 1 B2 ε E2 B2
d d  E.ds dV ™ Average energy density u av = ε0 E 02 + 0 = 0 0 = 0
™ Displacement current I D  0 E  0 C 4 4µ 0 2 2µ 0
dt dt dt
™ Energy = (momentum). c or U = Pc
™ The electric and magnetic fields wave equations for an EM
Intensity
wave. ™ Radiation pressure =
c
∂2 E ∂2 E ∂2 B ∂2 B (when the wave is completely absorbed)
2
=µ0 ε0 2
; 2 =µ0 ε0 2
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂t
2 ( Intensity )
= (when the wave is completely reflected)
 E = E0sin(wt – kx) and B = B0sin(wt – kx) c
1 1 ™ Intensity of wave from a source at a distance r from it is
 c vacuum
= = ; Vmedium
µ0 ε0 µ r µ0 ε r ε0 1
proportional to (for a point source)
r2
 Refractive index of medium, n = µr εr 1
(for a line source)
E 0 E RMS E r
 = = = c
B0 BRMS B For a plane source intensity is constant & independent of r.
 CHAPTER

Ray Optics and

9 Optical Instruments

REFLECTION SPHERICAL MIRRORS

Laws of Reflection M′
™ The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal to the surface of
reflection at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane. principal axis
C θ
™ ∠i = ∠r
normal M spherical mirror
spherical surface
r
in
cid e n
y
ra

en
d
cte

tr i r M′ 
a
fle

y
re

S
M
P P
C F C F
In vector form r= e − 2(e.n)n
 
M M
Object
Real: Point from which rays actually diverge. concave mirror convex mirror

Virtual: Point towards which rays appear to converge 1 1 1

Mirror Formula: = + .
f v u
Image: Image is decided by reflected or refracted rays only. The
f = Focal length of mirror
point of image for a mirror is that point at which the rays reflected
from the mirror, actually converge (real image) or from which the u = distance of object
reflected rays appear to diverge (virtual image). v = distance of image

Characteristics of Reflection By a Plane mirror Note: Valid only for paraxial rays.
™ The size of the image is the same as that of the object. h2 v
Transverse Magnification: m t = = −
™ For a real object the image is virtual and for a virtual object h1 u
the image is real. h2 = height of image
™ For a fixed incident light ray, if the mirror be rotated through
h1 = height of the object
an angle q the reflected ray turns through an angle 2q in the
same sense. (both perpendicular to the principal axis of mirror)
Length of image
360 Longitudinal magnification (ml): m  =
Number of images (n) in inclined mirror Find =m Length of object
θ
for small object ml = –m2t, mt = transverse magnification.
™ If m is even, then n = m – 1, for all positions of object.
™ If m is odd, then n = m, If object is not on bisector Velocity of image of Moving Object
and n = m – 1, If object at bisector (Spherical Mirror)
™ If m is fraction then n = nearest even number Velocity component along axis (Longitudinal velocity)
 M Deviation of a Ray due to refraction

O
i


When an object is coming from infinite towards the focus of
concave mirror
1 1 1
 + = angle of deviation, δ = i − r (clockwise)
v u f
1 dv 1 du
∴− 2 − =0 Refraction Through a Parallel Slab
v dt u 2 dt
 Emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray, if medium is same on
v2  
⇒ v IM = − 2 v OM =−m 2 v OM both sides.
u
dv A
™ VIM = = velocity of image with respect to mirror N
dt
i
du B AIR
™ = = velocity of object with respect to mirror.
VOM
dt GLASS
r
Newton’s Formula t N′
Applicable to a pair of real object and real image position only.
X1, X2 are the distance along the principal axis of the real object
and real image respectively from the principal focus 90º
c x
X1X2 = f 2 i
1 D
Optical Power : Optical power of a mirror (in Diopters) = −
f
where f = focal length (in meters) with sign.
t sin(i − r)
™ Lateral shift x = ; t = thickness of slab
cos r
REFRACTION
™ Emergent ray will not be parallel to the incident ray if the
Laws of Refraction (At any Refracting Surface)
1. Incident ray, refracted ray and normal always lie in the medium on both the sides are different.
same plane. Apparent Depth of Submerged Object : (h’ < h)
e n
i 
 2
r
r 1
× 
In vector form (e n).r =
0
1 > 2 h′
h
2. The product of refractive index and sine of angle of
incidence at a point in a medium is constant. m1 sin i = m2 O′
sin r (Snell’s law)
Snell’s Law O

Sin i µ v λ
=µ2 = 2 = 1 = 1 In vector form µ1 | 
e×
n |=µ 2 | r × 
n| µ2
Sin r µ1 v 2 λ 2 For near normal incidence h′ = h
µ1
™ Frequency of light does not change during refraction. h and h’ are always measured from surface.

22 NEET (XII) Module-3 PW

  1 ™ There is one and only one angle of incidence for which the
∆x = Apparent shift
= t 1 −  always in direction of incident ray. angle of deviation is minimum. When δ = δmin then i = i′ and
 µ r = r′, the ray passes symetrically about the prism, and then
 A + δm 
sin 
2 
µ=  , where m = absolute R.I. of glass.
A
=1 sin  
2
=1
™ When the prism is dipped in a medium then m = R.I. of glass
O O' w.r.t. medium.
x  ™ For a thin prism (A ≤ 10º) ; δ = (m–1)A
t ™ Dispersion of Light : The angular splitting of a ray of white
light into a number of components when it is refracted in a
Critical Angle & Total Internal Reflection (TIR) medium other than air is called Dispersion of Light.
N N N
™ Angle of Dispersion : Angle between the rays of the extreme
colours in the refracted (dispersed) light is called Angle of
r Dispersion. θ = δv – δr
RARER Dispersive power (w) of the medium of the material of prism.
l l′ ™

i C i>C angular dispersion

DENSER ω=
devitation of mean ray (yellow)
N′ N′ N′

 
Conditions of TIR   r

™ Ray is going from denser to rarer medium
mean ray
™ Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle v
(i > C).
−1 µ R −1 v D λ
Critical angle
= C sin
= sin
= sin −1 D
µD vR λR
For small angled prism (A ≤ 10º);
Refraction Through Prism =ω
δv − δR µ v − µ R
= = ;n
µv + µR
P δy µy −1 2

A my, mR and my are R.I. of material for violet, red and yellow colours
 respectively.
i i′
r r′
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACE
µ 2 µ1 µ 2 − µ1
1. − =
v u R
Q R
v, u and R are to be kept with sign.
™ δ = (i + i′) – (r + r′) v = PI
™ r + r′ = A u = –PO
™ δ = i + i′ – A R = PC
µ1 v
2. m =
µ2 u

Lens Formula
1  1

1 1 1
1. − =
+ve v u f

™ Variation of δ versus i
P
W Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 23
 1  1 1  OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
2. = (µ − 1)  − 
f  R1 R 2 
For Simple microscope
v
3. m = ™ Magnifying power when image is formed at D : M = 1 + D/f
u
Power of Lenses ™ When image is formed at infinity M = D/f
Reciprocal of focal length in meter is known as power of lens.
For Compound microscope
SI unit : dioptre (D)
1 100 v0 D
Power of lens=
: P = dioptre ™ M= −  
f (m) f (cm) u0  ue 

Combination of Lenses f1 f2 ™ Magnifying power when final image is formed at D, M

Two thin lenses are placed in contact to each other
v  D
1 1 1 − 0 1 + 
=
Power of combination. P = P1 + P2 ⇒ = + u 0  fe 
F f1 f 2
Use sign convention while solving numericals. ™ Tube length L = v0 + | ue |
Silvering of one surface of lens (use Peq = 2Pl + Pm) v D
™ When final images is formed at infinity M =
− 0× and
™ When plane surface is silvered u 0 fe
L = v0 + fe

R Astronomical Telescope
f=
O 2(µ − 1) f0
M= −
ue

™ Magnifying power when final image is formed at D:

™ When convex surface is slivered f0  fe 
M
= 1+
f e  D 
R
f=
2µ ™ Tube length : L = f0 + | ue |
O
f0
™ When final image is formed at infinity: M = and
fe
L = f0 + fe

24 NEET (XII) Module-3 PW

 CHAPTER

10 Wave Optics

Huygen’s Wave Theory ™ Resultant intensity for incoherent sources I = I1 + I2

™ Each point source of light is a center of disturbance from ™ Intensity ∝ width of slit ∝ (amplitude)2
which waves are emitted in all directions. The locus of all
( )
2 2
I1 W1 A12 I I1 + I 2  A1 + A 2 
the particles of the medium oscillating in the same phase at a ⇒= = ⇒ max = =  
( )  A1 − A 2 
2
I 2 W2 A 22 I min I1 − I 2
given instant is called a wavefront.
™ Each point on a wave front is a source of new disturbance, nλD
called secondary wavelets. These wavelets are spherical and ™ Distance of nth bright fringe yn =
d
travel with speed of light in that medium. Path difference= nl
™ The forward envelope of the secondary wavelets at any where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .....
instant gives the position of the new wavefront.
™ In homogeneous medium, the wave front is always
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. S1
Plane wavefront Spherical wavefront

A B d

S2 d sin

Primary
source

Secondary
source ™ Distance of mth dark fringe
( 2m − 1) λD
ym =
2d
Secondary
' wavelets λ
A' B'
Path difference = (2m – 1) where m = 1, 2, 3,.....
2
Coherent Sources D
™ Fringe width b =
Two sources are coherent if and only if they produce waves of d
β λ
same frequency (and hence wavelength) and have a constant ™ Angular fringe width = =
D d
initial phase difference.
™ If a transparent sheet of refractive index m and thickness t is
Incoherent sources introduced in one of the paths of interfering waves, optical
Two sources are said to be incoherent if they have different path will become ‘mt’ instead of ‘t’. Entire fringe pattern shifts
frequency or initial phase difference varies with time. D ( µ − 1) t 
β
by
d
( µ − 1) t towards the side in which the
=
λ
Interference: YDSE thin sheet is introduced without any change in fringe width.
™ Resultant intensity for coherent sources φ
I = 4I0 cos 2  
I = I1 + I2 + I1I 2 cos φ0 2
Diffraction Polarization
Brewster’s law
™ In Fraunhofer diffraction
m = tanqp ⇒ qp = tan–1m
 For minima a sinqn = nl
qp → polarization or Brewster’s angle
λ
 For maxima a sinqn = (2n + 1) Here reflecting and refracting rays are perpendicular to each other.
2
2λ D Malus law
 Linear width of central maxima W=
a I = I0cos2q
2λ I0 → intensity of incident polarized light.
 Angular width of central maxima Wq =
a

26 NEET (XII) Module-3 PW

 CHAPTER

Dual Nature of Radiation

11 and Matter

Planck’s Quantum Theory becomes zero is known as stopping potential or cut-off

™ According to Planck’s quantum theory, light is considered to potential. Here KEmax = eVs , Vs = stopping potential
be made up of small packets (or particles) of energy known Stopping potential is independent of intensity of light used.
as quanta of energy or radiation. ™ The number of photoelectrons emitted per second is directly
hc 12400 proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation.
Energy, E = hν = = eV
λ λ (Å) ™ The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is
independent of the intensity of incident radiation but depends
Photons upon the frequency of the incident radiation.
h
™ Momentum of one photon is .
λ Radiation Pressure
™ When radiation interacts with matter, the radiation behaves as I
if it is made of particles like photons. Radiation pressure, =
P (1 + r ) . Here I is the intensity of
c
™ Einstein proposed that electromagnetic radiation (or simply incident radiation, c is the speed of light and r is the reflectivity
light) is quantized and exists in elementary amounts (quanta) of the surface.
that we now call photons. For 100% reflection, r = 1 and for 100% absorption r = 0.
™ Photons are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields
which shows that they are neutral and do not carry any charge. De-Broglie Hypothesis
™ The energy of photon depends upon the frequency of radiation ™ It says that a wave is associated with a moving material
but is independent of the intensity of radiation. particle. The wavelength associated with a moving particle is
h
Photoelectric Effect given by λ = , where m is the mass of the particle moving
mv
™ When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal with v velocity and h is Planck’s constant. This wave is called
surface, electrons are emitted. This process of ejection of de-Broglie wave.
electrons using light is known as photoelectric emission.
™ Matter waves cannot be electromagnetic in nature because
Photoelectrons ejected from metal have kinetic energies
electromagnetic waves are produced by motion of charged
ranging from 0 to Kmax.
particles.
™ A certain minimum amount of energy is required for an
electron to be pulled out from the surface of a metal. This Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
minimum energy is called the work function (φ) of that metal. According to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, it is not
Work function is minimum for cesium (1.9 eV). possible to measure exactly both the position and momentum of a
™ Einstein equation for photoelectric effect is, microscopic particle (say electron) at the same time. That is,
hc hc 
hv = φ + KEmax ⇒ = + eVs ∆x∆p ≥ h
λ λ0 2 , where  = ,
2π
™ The minimum frequency of the incident light below which
Key Tips
photoelectrons are not ejected from the metal surface is
known as threshold frequency (ν0). 1 2
™ Einstein’s photoelectric equation,mvmax = hν − hν 0
hc 2
Work function, =φ hv= 0 Work function and threshold frequency or threshold
λ0 ™

λ0 = threshold wavelength hc
wavelength related as, φ0= hv0=
™ The minimum negative potential given to the metal plate with λ0
respect to the collector at which the photoelectric current hc
™ Energy of photon, E = hν =
λ
 E h ™ de-Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated through a
™ Momentum of photon, =
p = 150 12.27
c λ potential V volt,
= λ = Å Å
h V
™ de-Broglie wavelength of a material particle, λ = V
mv ™ de-Broglie wavelength of a particle in terms of temperature
™ de-Broglie wavelength in terms of energy of a particle (E), h
h (T), λ =
λ= 3mkT
2mE

28 NEET (XII) Module-4 PW

 CHAPTER

13 Nuclei

Nucleus Y

PE (MeV)
The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons 100
and neutrons at the center of an atom.
0.8 fm 10 fm
Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in a nucleus. 0 X
Mass Number (A): Number of protons + neutrons. r (fm)
–100
Propteries of Nucleus:
Y′
™ Radius of nucleus, R = R0A1/3 (Where R0 = 1.2 × 10–15m)
4πR 03 A Radioactivity
™ Volume of Nucleus, V =
3
™ Radioactive Decays : Generally, there are three types of
m 3m radioactive decays
™ Density of Nucleus, d = = = 2.3 × 107 Kg/m3
v 4πR 03
(i) a decay
Mass Energy Equivalence Relation (ii) b– and b+ decay
According to Einstein; [E = mc2] (iii) g decay
–27
1 amu = 1.66 × 10 kg = 931.5 MeV ™ a decay : By emitting a particle, the nucleus decreases it’s
(where E is total energy of mass m, c is speed of light) mass number and move towards stability. Nucleus having A
Mass Defect: It is difference between total mass of nucleons and > 210 shows a decay.
nucleus. ™ b decay : In beta decay, either a proton is converted into
Dm = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn] – Mnucleus neutron and position (b+) or neutron is converted into proton
Binding Energy: The Energy required to bring the nucleons from and electron (b–).
infinity to form the nucleus. ™ g decay : When an a or b decay takes place, the daughter
™ Binding Energy = (Dm) × 931.5 MeV nucleus is usually in higher energy state, such a nucleus
Mass excess comes to ground state by emitting a photon or photons called
™ Packing fraction =
Mass number as g-rays.
Nuclear Force ™ Order of energy of g photon is 100 keV.
™ Strongest force in nature.
Laws of Radioactive Decay
™ Short range force.
™ The rate of disintegration is directly proportional to the
™ Charge independent.
number of radioactive atoms present at that time i.e., rate of
™ Depends on spin or angular moment of nuclei.
decay ∝ number of nuclei.
™ Non-central force.
dN
Plot of Potential Energy Vs Distance Rate of decay = l (number of active nuclei) i.e., = –lN.
dt
Important Features: where l is called the decay constant.
™ Attraction is maximum at r0 = 0.8 fm. N = N0e–lt where l = decay constant
™ For r < r0, Force is repulsive. ln2
 Half life t1/2 =
™ For r > r0, Force is attractive. λ
 1 Nuclear Fission
 Average life tav = By bombarding a particle on a heavy nucleus (A > 230), it splits into
λ
two or more light nuclei. In this process certain mass disappears
 Activity R = lN = R0e–lt which is obtained in the form of energy (enormous amount)
 Units of activity 1Bq = 1 decay/s,
A+p→B+C+Q
1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 Bq,
1 rutherford = 106Bq Nuclear Fusion
N0 It is the phenomenon of fusing two or more light nuclei to form a
 After n half lives Number of nuclei left = single heavy nucleus.
2n A + B → C + Energy
N
 Probability of a nucleus for survival of time t = = The product (C) is more stable then reactants (A and B) and
N0
N 0 e −λt mc < (ma + mb) and mass defect Dm = [(ma + mb)– mc] amu
= e–lt
N0 Energy released is E = (Dm) 931 MeV

P
W Nuclei 31
 CHAPTER

12 Atoms

Some Important Points hc

(c) E i − E f = hv =
Impact parameter: Perpendicular distance of initial velocity λ
vector of a-particles from the centre of the nucleus.
ε0 h 2 n 2 n2
2
1 Ze cot θ 2 Radius of nth orbit,
= rn 2
⇒ rn α
b= πme Z Z
4πεo  1 2
 mu  nh Ze 2 Z
 2  vn
Orbital speed, = = ⇒ vn α
2πmrn 2εo hn n
Distance of closest approach: Distance of a point from nucleus
at which a-particle is nearest to the centre of nucleus. me 4 Z2 Z2
Energy of nth orbit, E n =− 2 2 2
⇒ En α 2
8ε 0 h n n
1 2Ze 2
ro = Note: Total energy of the e– in an atom is negative, that implies
4πεo  1 2
 mu  it is bound.
2 
Total Energy = –Kinetic Energy
Bohr radius: First orbit of hydrogen atom, called Bohr radius (a0).
Potential Energy = 2 × Total Energy
Ground state: Lowest state of atom, called the ground state, is
the state in which electron revolves in the orbit of smallest radius, Spectral Series
the Bohr radius, a0.
1 1 1
Ionization energy: Minimum energy required to free an electron = RZ2  2 − 2 
λ  n1 n 2 
from the ground state of hydrogen atom is called the ionization energy.
me 4
where, R = Rydberg’s constant, R = = 1.09 × 107 m–1
BOHR’S MODEL 8ε02 h 3 c
Postulates (i) n1 = 1, n2 = 2, 3, ... for Lyman series (UV region)
q 2
mv 2 (ii) n1 = 2, n2 = 3, 4, ... for Balmer series (visible region)
(a) 2
=
4πε 0 r r (iii) n1 = 3, n2 = 4, 5, ... for Paschen series (Infra-red region)
nh (iv) n1 = 4, n2 = 5, 6, ... for Brackett series (Infra-red region)
(b) mvr =
2π (v) n1 = 5, n2 = 6, 7, ... for Pfund series (Infra-red region)
 CHAPTER

14 Semiconductor

Semiconductors Zener Diode

(i) Semiconductors behave both like conductors and insulators (i) A properly and highly doped p-n junction diode which
they behave like conductors when temperature is increased. operates in reverse bias condition is called ‘Zener diode’.
They behave like insulators at low temperature i.e. 0 Kelvin (ii) Silicon is preferred for making Zener diodes.
(0 K) Ex. silicon and Germanium. (iii) Zener diode is operated in reverse bias, which operates at a
(ii) In all solids, different energy levels combine to form two voltage called ‘Zener voltage’.
bands. (iv) Zener diode is used as a ‘Voltage regulator’.
(iii) Valence band (VB) contains valence electrons which may
be partially or fully filled. Transistors
(iv) Conduction band (CB) contains free electrons which may (i) Transistor means transfer resistor
be empty or partially filled. (ii) There are two types of transistors called
(v) The energy difference between valence band and conduction (a) npn transistor
band is called forbidden energy gap. (b) pnp transistor.
(vi) The forbidden energy gap is less for conductors and large (iii) In transistor there are three terminal called emitter, base
for insulators and in between for semiconductors. and collector.
(iv) Transistor works as an amplifier and switch
(vii) Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi conductor
Ex. Silicon and Germanium (Si and Ge). (v) Current gain of common emitter configuration is the ratio
of small change in collector current to a small change in
P-N Junctions Diode base current when collector emitter voltage is constant.
(i) A p-n junction is a single piece of semiconductor one half (vi) Amplifier is a device which converts weak signals to
of which is p-type and the other half is n-type. strongs, and this process of converting weak signals to
strong signals is called amplification.
(ii) The region near the junction is called depletion layer.
(vii) Amplifiers are of two types
(iii) There are two types of connection of diode
(a) Power amplifier
(a) Forward bias
(b) Voltage amplifier
(b) Reverse bias
(viii) The amplifier which is used to raise the power level is
(iv) When p-type is connected to positive and n-type connected known as ‘Power amplifier’.
to negative terminal then it is forward biased. (ix) The amplifier which is used to raise voltage level is known
(v) In forward bias it offers minimum resistance, depletion as ‘Voltage amplifier’.
region is narrowed. It is similar to ‘on’ in an electrical
switch. Important Formula
(vi) In reverse bias p-type is connected to negative terminal and dc output power
(i) Rectifier efficiency (η) =
n-type is connected to positive terminal ac input power

(vii) In reverse bias it offers maximum resistance, does not 0.406 × RL

(ii) Half wave rectifier efficiency (η) =
conduct and depletion region is widened. It is similar to rf + RL
‘off’ in an electrical switch. rf = diode forward resistance, RL = load resistance

 0.812 × RL V0
(iii) Full wave rectifier efficiency η = (v) Amplification factor A =
rf + RL Vi
V0 = Output voltage; Vi = Input voltage

 ∆I C   ∆I 
(iv) Current
= gain β  =  ,α  C ∆VCE R
 ∆I B VCC  ∆I E  (vi) Voltage gain = = β× L
∆VBE Rin
α
Relation between a and b, β = ∆VCE = Change in output voltage,
1− α
∆VBE = Change in input voltage
∆IC = Change in collector current, ∆IB = Change in base
2 RL
current (vii) Power gain, Ap = Current gain × voltage gain = β ×
Rin

P
W Semiconductor Electronics 33