Chapter Three

3. Introduction
Dynamic Analysis of Measurement System
• The behavior of measurement systems to a few special inputs
will define the input-output signal relationships necessary to
enable the correct interpretation of the measured signal.
• Only a few measurement system characteristics are needed to
define the system response, so that dynamic calibrations can be
restricted to a few specific tests.
• Most measurement system dynamic behavior can be
characterized by a linear ordinary differential equation of order n:
• Dynamic characteristics tell us about how well a sensor responds
to changes in its input. For dynamic signals, the sensor or the
measurement system must be able to respond fast enough to keep
up with the input signals.
Cont…

• In many situations, we must use y(t) to infer x(t), therefore a

qualitative understanding of the operation that the sensor
or measurement system performs is imperative to
understanding the input signal correctly.
• In many situations, we must use y(t) to infer x(t), therefore a
qualitative understanding of the operation that the sensor
or measurement system performs is imperative to
understanding the input signal correctly.
 General Model for a Measurement System
• A general measurement system can be represented by a
block diagram with the following components:
– Sensing element: Converts the physical quantity to be
measured into an electrical signal.
– Signal conditioning: Amplifies, filters, or processes the
sensor output to prepare it for further processing.
– Analog-to-digital conversion: Converts the conditioned
analog signal into a digital format.
– Digital processing: Performs numerical calculations, data
analysis, or control algorithms on the digital signal.
– Display/Output: Presents the measured value or transmits it
to other systems.
• Each of these components can be characterized by its own
transfer function, which collectively describe the overall
system dynamics.
 General Model of Measurement system (MS):
• nth order linear differential equations with forcing function

Where: • Coefficients a , a ,…, an are unique to MS

0 1

• The forcing function can be generalized into the mth-order form:

• Coefficients b0, b1,…, bm represent physical system parameters

Cont…
• Most practical systems can be modeled by zero, first, or
second order linear differential equations.
• Modeling is used to help select the specific instrument and to
help design the calibration test.
• Exact I/O relationship is determined by calibration.
 Mathematical Models of System Response
Basic System Models
• Modelling is the process of representing the behavior of
a system by a collection of mathematical equations &
logics.
– Modelling is comprehensively utilized to study the response of
any system.
– Response of a system is a measure of its fidelity to its purpose.
• Simulation is the process of solving the model and it
performed on a computer.
• Equations are used to describe the relationship between
the input and output of a system.
 Mechanical System Elements
A. Spring

F = kx
• F = Force (tension or compression),
• x = Displacement (extension or compression),
• k = Spring constant. The bigger the value of k the
greater the forces required to stretch or compress the
spring & so the greater the stiffness.
Cont…
B. Dashpot

• F = Force opposing the motion at velocity v,

• c = Damping coefficient. Larger the value of c the
greater the damping force at a particular velocity.
Cont…
C. Mass

• F = Force required to cause acceleration, a,

• m = Mass of the element that is distributed throughout
some volume. However, in many cases, it is assumed
to be concentrated at a point.
Cont…
• In general, the response of measurement
instruments under dynamic conditions can be
complex.
• The fundamental concepts of dynamic response,
however, can be understood by studying relatively
simple mathematical models.
• We will consider three mathematical models for
dynamic system response: zeroth, first and second
order systems.
 System model
• Systems can be modeled using differential
equations.
• The behavior of systems can described as
✓Zero-order model
✓First-order model
✓Second-order model
• Higher order systems are usually approximated
by one of the models shown above.
 Zero-order systems
• Imagine a thermometer that measures the temperature
in a room of an office building.
• For practical purposes, the thermometer will indicate
the current temperature at the location where it has
been installed.
• The fact that the output of the instrument follows the
input “exactly” is the defining characteristic of zeroth
order systems.
• Mathematically, if we let f(t) be the input to the system
as a function of time and y(t) be the output, then the
relationship between them is
Cont…
• In the example above f(t) would be the actual
temperature of the room and y(t) would be the
indicated temperature.
• K is a constant that multiplies the input to
generate the output.
• If y(t) is the temperature as displayed in a
readout device and the thermometer is
calibrated correctly, then K would ideally be
equal to one.
 First Order Systems
• Let’s consider the example of an oral
thermometer used at a clinic to measure body
temperature in patients. Prior to use, the
thermometer is at room temperature.
• When the thermometer is put in the patient’s
mouth it experiences a sudden increase in
temperature.
• Generally, we have to wait for a while before
reading the temperature. Unlike the case of a
thermometer monitoring the examination room’s
temperature, the situation at hand cannot be
represented by a zeroth order model. Why?
 Cont…
• Let’s consider a common glass bulb thermometer to
explain. The thermometer in originally at room
temperature, which will be denoted by To.

Figure: Thermometer measuring body temperatures

 Cont…
• It is then put in the mouth of a patient represented by the
area inside the dashed line which is at temperature T1. In
order for the thermometer to work, the mercury in the bulb
must be heated to T1.
• The thermal expansion of the mercury will cause the
column of mercury in the stem of the thermometer to
increase in length.
• Measuring this length with the scale marked in the glass
gives a temperature reading T(t).
• It takes a while, however, for the temperature of the
mercury to reach the value T1, so we must wait that long
before the thermometer indicates the correct temperature.
• In order to write an equation to model the response of the
thermometer we need a little background in
thermodynamics and heat transfer.
 Cont…
• Heat is a form of energy. We will represent it by Q. It flows from a
hot place to a cold one.
• The energy in the mercury in the bulb of the thermometer, which
we will call E, increases as heat travels from the mouth of the
patient to the bulb.
• Due to conservation of energy, the rate of change of energy in the
bulb with respect to time is equal to how fast heat is flowing in. In
mathematical terms:

• As E increases, the temperature of the mercury, T, rises in

proportion. How fast the temperature increases depends on how
much mercury the bulb holds (the mass, m, of the mercury) and a
property of mercury called the ‘specific heat,’ cv.
 Cont…
• The increase in energy is related to the increase in temperature by

• Heat must travel through the glass walls of the bulb on its way
from the patient’s mouth to the mercury.
• How fast heat can flow through the walls of the bulb depends on
a property of glass called the convection heat transfer coefficient,
h, the surface area of the bulb, A, and the current temperature
difference between the mercury and the mouth of the patient.
• In equation form,
 Cont…
• Rearranging the above two equation

• This is a differential equation that governs what the temperature

of the mercury is at any time.
• Since the length of the column of mercury is proportional the
temperature, the equation also governs what the indicated
temperature is.
 Cont…
• In general, the equation of a first order system is given

For the example above, we have

• As you can see, the equation governing the behavior of a first

order system is a first order differential equation, so called
because the highest derivative of the output variable in the
equation is the first with respect to time.
 Second Order Systems
• When you go to the grocery store, note that weight scales are
available at the produce department so you can get an idea how
many pounds of potatoes you will have to pay for. The scales
generally have a pointer, which indicates weight on a big dial.

Figure: Spring Balance

 Cont…
• If you drop a bag with potatoes on the scale, chances are that the pointer
will oscillate a bit before settling and indicating the correct weight. The
reason for the oscillation of the pointer is that the scale has mass, hence
inertia, and its behavior is dictated by Newton’s laws of motion.
• You may now see where the second order label comes from if you recall
that acceleration is the second derivative of displacement ... Let’s analyze
the balance and see what we get.
• The balance can be represented by the mass-spring-dashpot system
shown in Figure

Figure: Free body

diagram of spring
balance
 Cont…
• The balance can be represented by the mass-spring-dashpot
system shown in Figure.
• To simplify things a bit, the dial has been replaced by the straight
scale at the left.
• We can write the equation of motion for the balance using basic
dynamics as follows:
• The mass m represents the object weighted so that the weight W is
equal to mg where g is the acceleration of gravity.
• The spring, attached near the left edge of the mass, is a
mechanical element which develops force in proportion to how
much it has been stretched. Since the top of the spring is fixed to
the ceiling, the force is proportional to the displacement y of the
mass.
• If the zero value of y corresponds to the position of the spring
when it is unloaded, then the force Fs required to stretch the
spring a distance y is given by
 Cont…
• where k is called the spring
constant.

• The balance needs a way to dampen the oscillations of the

pointer after a weight is dropped.
• The damping is provided by the dashpot, which is attached to
the mass near the right. Dashpots are like shock absorbers in
cars.

• You can imagine one as a piston inside a closed cylinder. The

cylinder is filled with a viscous fluid. As the piston moves, a
small gap between the piston and the cylinder allows the fluid to
flow from one side of the piston to the other.
 Cont…
• A force is needed to move the piston due to the viscosity of the
fluid. The net result is that dashpots produce a force, Fd which
is proportional to the speed of the piston relative to the
cylinder.
• This force-speed relation can be written as

• where c is called the damping coefficient.

• The free body diagram of the mass is shown in Figure.
Applying Newton’s second law we obtain the equation
 Cont…

which can be re-written as

• This is the differential equation that governs the motion of the
scale. Since the weight is indicated by the displacement of the
scale, the equation also governs the indicated weight.

• In general, the equation for a second order system is given by

Cont…
 Transfer Functions:
• The transfer function describes the relationship
between the input and output of a
measurement system
• It represents the system's frequency domain
behavior, relating the input and output spectra
• Transfer functions are crucial for
understanding system dynamics, stability, and
frequency response
• Common forms include gain/attenuation,
phase shift, and time delays
Cont…
• The transfer function H(s) represents the ratio of the
Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace
transform of the input
• It describes how the system responds to different
frequency components of the input signal
• Key properties of the transfer function include:
– Poles - Determine system stability and dynamic response
– Zeros - Introduce frequency-dependent attenuation or
amplification
– Gain/Attenuation - How the system scales the magnitude of
different frequencies
– Time Delay - Introduces a phase shift that is proportional to
frequency
• Transfer functions are critical for feedback control,
system modeling, and frequency analysis
 Phase Linearity:
• Phase linearity refers to the system exhibiting
a linear relationship between frequency and
phase shift
• In a phase linear system, the phase shift
increases proportionally with frequency
• This is important for preserving the temporal
characteristics of waveforms and signals
• Non-linear phase can cause distortion and
waveform/pulse shape changes
 Multiple Function Inputs:
• Many measurement systems have multiple inputs
that affect the overall output
• These could be different physical quantities (e.g.
pressure and temperature) or control inputs
• The system's response depends on the combined
influence of these multiple inputs
• Handling multiple inputs requires understanding
how they interact and superimpose
• Techniques like multi-dimensional transfer
functions or sensor fusion may be used
Cont…
• Measurement systems often have multiple input
variables that influence the output
• The system's response depends on the combined effect
of these inputs
• This can be modeled using multi-dimensional transfer
functions:
• H(s1, s2, ..., sn) relates the Laplace transforms of the
inputs and output
• Captures interactions and cross-coupling between the
input variables
• Techniques like sensor fusion can be used to optimally
combine multiple sensor inputs
• This allows measuring more complex physical
quantities and improving measurement accuracy
 Coupled Systems:
• In some cases, measurement systems may be
part of a larger, coupled system, where the
measurement system's behavior is influenced
by other interconnected subsystems.
• The transfer function representation can be
extended to model the interactions and
dynamic coupling between these subsystems.
• Understanding the behavior of the coupled
system as a whole is essential for accurate
system analysis, control, and optimization.
 Cont…
• For instance, a temperature measurement
system in a chemical reactor may be affected by
the reactor's pressure, flow, and other process
variables.
• The transfer function representation can be
extended to model the dynamic coupling
between these subsystems, allowing for a more
comprehensive understanding of the overall
system behavior.
End of chapter three