Chapter Two

Characteristics of
measurement systems
• To choose the one most suited to a
particular measurement application, we
have to know the system characteristics.

• The performance characteristics may be

broadly divided into two groups, namely
‘static’ and ‘dynamic’ characteristics
 Static Characteristics
• The static characteristics pertain to a
system where quantities to be measured
are constant or vary slowly with time.

E.g. the temperature of furnace

 Dynamic characteristics
• The relationship between the system input and
output when the measured quantity
(measurand) is varying rapidly.

• In practice, the characteristics of the one group may

well influence the characteristics of the other. In order
to access overall instrument performance, however,
the two groups of characteristics are normally studied
separately and then a semi-quantitative superposition
is carried out.
 Static Characteristics
• Accuracy and Precision
• Repeatability & Reproducibility
• Tolerance
• Range & span
• Linearity
• Sensitivity
• Sensitivity
• Threshold
• Resolution
• Drift
• Hysteresis
 Accuracy and Precision
• The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how
close the output reading of the instrument is to the
correct value.

• Measurements that are close to each other are precise

Measurements can be:

• Precise but inaccurate

• Neither precise nor accurate

• Precise and accurate

Cont…
• This is the closeness with which the measuring
instrument can measure the ‘true value’ of the
measurand under stated conditions of use, i.e. its
ability to ‘tell the truth’.
• The accuracy of an instrument is quantified by the
difference of its readings and the one given by the
ultimate or primary standard.
• Accuracy depends on inherent limitations of
instrument and shortcomings in measurement
process.
 Cont…
The accuracy of the system is classified into three types as follows:
• Point Accuracy
– The accuracy of the instrument only at a particular point on its scale
is known as point accuracy. It is important to note that this accuracy
does not give any information about the general accuracy of the
instrument.
• Accuracy as Percentage of Scale Range
– The uniform scale range determines the accuracy of a measurement.
This can be better understood with the help of the following
example.

Consider a thermometer having the scale range up to 500ºC. The

thermometer has an accuracy of ± 0.5 percent of scale range i.e. 0.005 x
500 = ± 2.5ºC. Therefore, the reading will have a maximum error of ±
2.5ºC.
 Cont…
• Accuracy as Percentage of True Value
– Such type of accuracy of the instruments is
determined by identifying the measured value
regarding their true value.
– The accuracy of the instruments is neglected up to
±0.5 percent from the true value.
Cont…
2. Precision
• Precision is the degree to which repeated measurements under
the same conditions show the same results
• Precision depends upon repeatability.
For instance
• If you weight a given substance five times and get 3.2 kg each time, then
your measurement is very precise but not necessarily accurate. Precision is
independent of accuracy.

Repeatability
• Repeatability is defined as ability of instrument to reproduce a
group of measurements of same measured quantity, made by
same observer, using same instrument, under same conditions.
 Cont…
• Precision is often confused with accuracy.
• High precision does not imply anything about
measurement accuracy.

Accuracy Precision

• Accuracy represents • Precision represents degree of

degree of correctness of repeatability of several
the measured value w.r.t. independent measurements of
true value. desired input at the same
• Accuracy of instrument reference conditions.
depends on systematic • Precision of instruments depends
errors. on factors that cause random or
accidental errors.
 Examples
• If the weather temperature reads 28 °C outside and it is 28 °C
outside, then the measurement is said to be accurate. If the
thermometer continuously registers the same temperature for
several days, the measurement is also precise.

• If you take the measurement of the mass of a body of 20 kg and

you get 17.4,17,17.3 and 17.1, your weighing scale is precise but
not very accurate. If your scale gives you values of 19.8, 20.5,
21.0, and 19.6, it is more accurate than the first balance but not
very precise.
Practice Questions
Q1) The volume of a liquid is 26 mL. A student measures the volume
and finds it to be 26.2 mL, 26.1 mL, 25.9 mL, and 26.3 mL in the
first, second, third, and fourth trial, respectively. Which of the
following statements is true for his measurements?
a) They are neither precise nor accurate.
b) They have poor accuracy.
c) They have good precision.
d) They have poor precision.
Q2) The volume of a liquid is 20.5 mL. Which of the following sets of
measurement represents the value with good accuracy?
a) 18.6 mL, 17.8 mL, 19.6 mL, 17.2 mL
b) 19.2 mL, 19.3 mL, 18.8 mL, 18.6 mL
c) 18.9 mL, 19.0 mL, 19.2 mL, 18.8 mL
d) 20.2 mL, 20.5 mL, 20.3 mL, 20.1 mL
3. Resolution (Discrimination)
▪ It is the minimum change or smallest increment in the
measured value that can be detected with certainty by the
instrument.
▪ It can be least count of instrument.
Example:
A 20-centimeter-long measuring stick has 50 evenly spaced lines
marked along its length. What is the resolution of the measuring
stick in millimeters?
20𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = 0.4𝑐𝑚 = 4𝑚𝑚
50
4. Dead Space: Threshold
Dead space/ Threshold is defined as the range of different input
values over which there is no change in output value.
For example
• As an illustration, a car speedometer typically has a
threshold of about 15 km/h. This means that, if the
vehicle starts from rest and accelerates, no output
reading is observed on the speedometer until the
speed reaches 5 km/h.
• In a digital thermometer, the threshold might be the
minimum temperature that can be accurately
measured. Below this threshold, the thermometer may
not provide accurate readings or may not register any
reading at all.
5. Tolerance

▪ Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy

and defines the maximum error that is to be expected
in some value.
▪ Tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a
manufactured component from some specified value.

For instance,
• Crankshafts are machined with a diameter tolerance quoted as
so many microns, and electric circuit components such as
resistors have tolerances of perhaps 5%.
• One resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal
value 1000W and tolerance 5% might have an actual value
anywhere between 950W and 1050 W.
Cont…
6. Range or span
– The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum
and maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is
designed to measure.
Cont…
7. Linearity

This is the closeness to a straight line of the relationship between

the true process variable and the measurement.

Linearity is usually reported as non-linearity, which is the

maximum of the deviation between the calibration curve and a
straight line positioned so that the maximum deviation is
minimized.
 Cont…
• For instance:
– The Xs marked on Fig. below show a
plot of the typical output readings of
an instrument when a sequence of
input quantities are applied to it.
– Normal procedure is to draw a good
fit straight line through the Xs, as
shown in Fig. below

– The non-linearity is then defined as the maximum deviation

of any of the output readings marked X from this straight
line. Non-linearity is usually expressed as a percentage of
full-scale reading.
8. Sensitivity of measurement
• The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in
instrument output that occurs when the quantity being measured
changes by a given amount. Thus, sensitivity is the ratio:

Change of Output Signal ∆𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡

Static Sensitivity K = =
Change in Input Signal ∆𝑞𝑖𝑛
Example: The following resistance values of a platinum
resistance thermometer were measured at a range of
temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of
the instrument in ohms/ᴏC.
Cont…
Reliability
• Reliability is the probability that a device will
adequately perform (as specified) for a period
of time under specified operating conditions.
Some sensors are required for safety or
product quality, and therefore, they should be
very reliable.
8. Instrument Drift
• It is defined as the variation of output for a given
input caused due to change in sensitivity of the
instrument due to certain interfering inputs like
temperature changes, component instabilities, etc.
• Prime sources occur as chemical structural changes
and changing mechanical stresses.
• Drift is a complex phenomenon for which the
observed effects are that the sensitivity and offset
values vary.
• It also can alter the accuracy of the instrument
differently at the various amplitudes of the signal
present.
Effects of disturbance: (a) zero drift; (b) sensitivity
drift; (c) zero drift plus sensitivity drift.
9. Hysteresis
• Careful observation of the output/input relationship of a block will
sometimes reveal different results as the signals vary in direction of
the movement.
• Mechanical systems will often show a small difference in length as
the direction of the applied force is reversed.
• The same effect arises as a magnetic field is reversed in a magnetic
material.
• This characteristic is called hysteresis.
• Hysteresis is defined as the magnitude of error caused in the output
for a given value of input, when this value is approached from
• opposite directions ; i.e. from ascending order & then descending
order.
• Causes are backlash, elastic deformations, magnetic characteristics,
frictional effects (mainly).
• Hysteresis can be eliminated by taking readings in both direction
and then taking its arithmetic mean.
Instrument characteristic with hysteresis.
13. Backlash
• It is defined as the maximum distance or angle
through which any part of mechanical system
may be moved in one direction without
causing motion of next part.
• Can be minimized if components are made to
very close tolerances.
 Dynamic Characteristics
The Following are the dynamic characteristics
• Dynamic Error
• Speed of Response.
• Fidelity
• Lag.
Cont…
• Dynamic Error: The difference between the true
value of the measured quantity to the value shown
by the measuring instrument under varying
conditions.
• Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity of
the measurement system that responds to the
changes in the measuring variable.
It indicates how active and fast the system is.
• Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a
measuring instrument is capable of faithfully
reproducing the changes in input, without any
dynamic error.
Cont…
• Lag: Every system takes at least some time to
respond, whatever time it may be to the changes
in the measured variable.
✓For Example Lag occurs in temperature measurement
by temperature sensors such as Thermocouple or RTD
or dial thermometer due to scale formation on
thermowell due to process liquid.
• Retardation lag: the response of the
measurement begins immediately after the change
in measured quantity has occurred.
• Time delay lag: in this case after the application
of input, the response of the measurement system
begins with some dead times.
 End of chapter 2

Next: Measurement System Behavior