INFO 200:

FOUNDATIONS OF
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Fall 2023
Chapter 12: Information Systems Development
Sirine Taleb
Slides: From Pearson Book
10/18/2023
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Q5: WHAT IS THE USERS’ ROLE IN THE
REQUIREMENTS PHASE?
Interviewing skills
crucial

Determining the system’s requirements is the most important phase in the SDLC.
If the requirements are wrong, the system will be wrong.
If the requirements are determined completely and correctly, then design and implementation will be
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easier and more likely to result in success.
Q5: WHAT IS THE USERS’ ROLE IN THE
REQUIREMENTS PHASE?
▪ DETERMINE REQUIREMENTS
▪ Determining the system’s requirements is the most important phase in the SDLC.

▪ Examples of requirements are the contents and the format of Web pages and the functions of buttons on those
pages, or the structure and content of a report, or the fields and menu choices in a data entry form.

▪ Typically, systems analysts interview users and record the results in some consistent manner. Good
interviewing skills are crucial; users are notorious for being unable to describe what they want and need.

INFO 200 – AUB – Fall 2023 – Dr. Sirine Taleb 10/18/2023 3

Q5: WHAT IS THE USERS’ ROLE IN THE
REQUIREMENTS PHASE?
▪ DETERMINE REQUIREMENTS
▪ As listed in the Figure, sources of requirements include existing systems as well as the Web pages, forms,
reports, queries, and application features and functions desired in the new system. Security is another
important category of requirements.
▪ If the new system involves a new database or substantial changes to an existing database, then the
development team will create a data model.

Experienced project managers

ensure consideration of
requirements for all five IS
components, not just for software
and data.

INFO 200 – AUB – Fall 2023 – Dr. Sirine Taleb 10/18/2023 4

Q5: WHAT IS THE USERS’ ROLE IN THE
REQUIREMENTS PHASE?
▪ APPROVE REQUIREMENTS
▪ Changing a requirement at this stage is simply a matter of changing a description. Changing a requirement in
the implementation phase may require weeks of reworking applications components and the database
structure.

INFO 200 – AUB – Fall 2023 – Dr. Sirine Taleb 10/18/2023 5

Q5: WHAT IS THE USERS’ ROLE IN THE
REQUIREMENTS PHASE?
▪ ROLE OF A PROTOTYPE
▪ Because requirements are difficult to specify, building a working prototype, as is being done for the ARES
HoloLens application prototype, can be quite beneficial.

▪ Working with a prototype provides direct experience. As they work with a prototype, users will assess
usability and remember features and functions they have forgotten to mention. Additionally, prototypes
provide evidence to assess the system’s technical and organizational feasibility.

▪ Prototypes can be expensive to create; however, this expense is often justified not only for the greater clarity
and completeness of requirements, but also because parts of the prototype can often be reused in the
operational system.

INFO 200 – AUB – Fall 2023 – Dr. Sirine Taleb 10/18/2023 6

ROLE OF A PROTOTYPE

INFO 200 – AUB – Fall 2023 – Sirine Taleb 10/18/2023 7

Q6: HOW ARE THE FIVE COMPONENTS
DESIGNED?
▪ Determine hardware specifications
▪ Determine software specifications
▪ Design database
▪ Design Procedures
▪ Normal, backup, and failure recovery procedures

▪ Design Job Descriptions

▪ Create and define new tasks and responsibilities

• Team designs each component by developing

alternatives, evaluating each alternative against
requirements, and selecting among those alternatives.
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SDLC: COMPONENT DESIGN PHASE

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HARDWARE, DATABASE, AND PROCEDURE
DESIGN
• Hardware design
▪ Determine specifications and source of hardware
▪ Purchase, lease, or lease time from a hosting service in the cloud
▪ (The team is not designing hardware in the sense of building a CPU or a disk drive.)

▪ For ARES, the data is stored in the cloud and perhaps some of the application processing will be done there as well. In this sense,
hardware design is a matter of what cloud resources are needed.
▪ However, ARES designers also need to decide which devices they intend to support. Which mixed-reality devices will they want
to support in addition to HoloLens?

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SOFTWARE DESIGN
▪ Software design depends on source of programs
▪ Off-the-shelf software: the team must determine candidate products and evaluate them against the requirements.
▪ Off-the-shelf-with-alteration software: the team identifies products to be acquired off-the-shelf and then determines the
alterations required.
▪ Custom-developed programs: the team produces design documentation for writing program code.

▪ Decide where application processing will occur

▪ Mobile devices
▪ Processing can occur on cloud-servers, or a mixture

▪ Furthermore, for mobile systems projects, like ARES, at this stage the team will decide whether it is building
a Web-based or native application.

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DATABASE DESIGN
▪ Convert data model to database design
▪ If using off-the-shelf programs, then little database design needed; the programs will handle their own
database processing

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PROCEDURE DESIGN
• Usually, teams of systems analysts and key users design procedures.
• Procedures for both users and operations personnel.

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DESIGN OF JOB DESCRIPTIONS
▪ With regard to people, design involves developing job descriptions for both users and operations personnel.
▪ New information systems may require creating new jobs
▪ Duties and responsibilities need to be defined in accordance with human resources policies
▪ Usually, new duties and responsibilities added to existing jobs
▪ Teams of systems analysts and users determine job descriptions and functions.

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INFO 200 – AUB – Fall 2023 – Sirine Taleb 10/18/2023 16
 Q7: HOW IS AN INFORMATION SYSTEM
IMPLEMENTED?

Once the design is complete, the next phase in the SDLC is

implementation. Tasks in this phase are to build, test, and
convert the users to the new system.
Developers construct each of the components independently.
They obtain, install, and test hardware.
They license and install off-the-shelf programs; they write
adaptations and custom programs as necessary.
They construct a database and fill it with data.
They document, review, and test procedures, and they create
training programs.
Finally, the organization hires and trains needed personnel.
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 Q7: HOW IS AN INFORMATION SYSTEM
IMPLEMENTED?

• Implementation has two meanings. It could mean to

implement the information systems components only, or
it could mean to implement the information system and
the business processes that use the system.
• A test plan, which is a formal description of the system’s
response to use and misuse scenarios, is written.
Professional test engineers, called product quality
assurance (PQA) test engineers, are hired for this task.
Teams of these engineers are augmented by users as
well.

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SYSTEM TESTING
▪ Test plan
▪ Software and system testing are difficult, time-consuming, and
complex tasks.
▪ Product Quality Assurance (PQA)
▪ A test plan consists of sequences of actions that users will take
when using the new system.
▪ Test plans include not only the normal actions that users will take,
but also incorrect actions. A comprehensive test plan should
cause every line of program code to be executed. The test plan
should cause every error message to be displayed. Testing,
retesting, and re-retesting consume huge amounts of labor.
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SYSTEM TESTING
▪ In addition to IT professionals (PQA), users should be involved in
system testing.
▪ User testing
▪ Develop test plans and test cases.
▪ Beta testing
▪ is the process of allowing future system users to try out the
new system on their own.
▪ Users final say on whether system “production ready”
▪ Software vendors, such as Microsoft, often release beta
versions of their products for users to try and to test.

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SYSTEM TESTING

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SYSTEM CONVERSION APPROACHES
Once the system has passed integrated testing, the organization installs the new system. The term
system conversion is often used for this activity because it implies the process of converting business
activity from the old system to the new. Organizations can implement a system conversion in one of four ways:

• Implement entire system in limited portion of business.

Pilot • Limits exposure to business if system fails.

• System installed in phases or modules.

Phased • Each piece installed and tested.
• Complete new and old systems run simultaneously.
Parallel • Very safe, but expensive COZ incurs the costs of running both
systems..
• Shuts off the old system and starts the new system.
Plunge • High risk if new system fails.
• Only if new system not vital to company operations.
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DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION FOR THE
FIVE COMPONENTS

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INFO 200 – AUB – Fall 2023 – Sirine Taleb 10/18/2023 24
Q8: WHAT ARE THE TASKS FOR SYSTEM
MAINTENANCE?

Failure is a difference between

what system does and what it
is supposed to do.

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Q8: WHAT ARE THE TASKS FOR SYSTEM
MAINTENANCE?

• Maintenance a misnomer; work done during this phase is either to fix system so that it works correctly or
to adapt it to changes in requirements.
• Need to have a means for tracking both failures and requests for enhancements to meet new
requirements.
• Software developers group fixes for high-priority failures into patches and service packs.
• Patches that can be applied to all copies of a given product.
• They usually bundle fixes of low-priority problems into larger groups called service packs.
• There needs to be a means for tracking both failures and requests for enhancements to meet new
requirements. Many organizations find it necessary to develop a tracking database. This database
contains a descriptions of failures and enhancements, who reported them, who made the fix or
enhancement, status of that work, and whether the fix or enhancement was tested and verified by the
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• IS personnel prioritize system problems according to their severity.
Q8: WHAT ARE THE TASKS FOR SYSTEM
MAINTENANCE?

As stated earlier, note that the maintenance phase starts another cycle of the SDLC process.
The decision to enhance a system is a decision to restart the systems development process. Even
a simple failure fix goes through all of the phases of the SDLC; if it is a small fix, a single person
may work through those phases in an abbreviated form. But each of those phases is repeated,
nonetheless.

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Q9: WHAT ARE SOME OF THE PROBLEMS
WITH THE SDLC?
➢SDLC Waterfall Method
▪ Unfortunately, systems development seldom works so smoothly. Often, there is a need to
crawl back up the waterfall, if you will, and repeat work in a prior phase.
▪ Waterfall rarely works smoothly, causing development team to go back and forth, raising costs
and delaying project.
➢Requirements documentation difficult
▪ Business requirements change
▪ “Analysis paralysis” – Spend so much time on documentation, it hampers
progress
➢Scheduling and budgeting difficulties
▪ Time and cost estimates for large project way off
▪ People who make initial estimates know little about how much time it will take
or cost
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HOW DOES THE KNOWLEDGE IN THIS
CHAPTER HELP YOU?
▪ You will be involved in development projects as a business professional
▪ Given robots, drones, driverless cars, and 3D printing, how will anyone in
manufacturing, operations, marketing, accounting, finance not be involved in
systems development?
▪ All business grads will play strong roles in developing new systems strategies and
priorities as well as managing projects
▪ Expect IS to help you do your job
▪ Knowledge in this chapter will get you started on right path

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SO WHAT? USING THIS KNOWLEDGE FOR
YOUR NUMBER-ONE PRIORITY
▪ Between now and graduation, finding and getting “that” job should be your number-one priority
▪ You will spend at least a third of your life at work; work will be one of the biggest sources of personal
satisfaction; and your job will determine the quality of your life in money, in friends and associates, and in
interesting experiences.
▪ Can you find a way to apply what you’ve learned in this chapter to finding that job?
▪ How will you do that?
▪ Interpret each activity in SDLC as they pertain to finding your job
▪ Sketch the job-acquisition process you are currently using (BPMN symbols)

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SO WHAT? USING THIS KNOWLEDGE FOR
YOUR NUMBER-ONE PRIORITY (CONT’D)
• Explain two ways you could improve your job-acquisition process

▪ Write the requirements for the job-acquisition process using scrum-like requirements statements
▪ How do those answers inform you about how to obtain that perfect job

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ETHICS GUIDE: ESTIMATION ETHICS
▪ A buy-in occurs when a company agrees to produce a system or product for less money than it knows the project will
require. For example, when a vendor of development services agrees to build a system for, say, $50,000, when good
estimating techniques indicate it would take $75,000.

▪ Estimating just a “theory”

▪ Average of many people’s guesses

▪ Buy-in game
▪ Projects start with overly optimistic schedules and cost estimates
▪ When is a buy-in within accepted boundaries of conduct?

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ETHICS GUIDE: ESTIMATION ETHICS
(CONT'D)
▪ Contractor agrees to produce system for less than what really costs
▪ Time and materials contract: the project’s sponsors will ultimately pay
the $75,000 for the finished system.
▪ Fixed-cost contract: the developer will absorb the extra costs
▪ In-house projects often start with buy-ins
▪ Start with hopes of more money later
▪ Team members disagree about costs. Do you report it?
▪ Not all costs included in initial estimates. Report it?
▪ Do you buy-in on project schedule if you know you can’t make that
schedule?
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ETHICS GUIDE: ESTIMATION ETHICS
(CONT'D)
▪ Suppose you are a project manager of an exciting new project that is
possibly a career-maker for you. You are incredibly busy, working 6 days a
week and long hours each day. Your team has developed an estimate for
$50,000 for the project.
▪ A little voice in the back of your mind says that maybe not all costs for every
aspect of the project are included in that estimate. You mean to follow up on
that thought, but more pressing matters in your schedule take precedence.
▪ Soon you find yourself in front of management, presenting the $50,000
estimate. You probably should have found the time to investigate the
estimate, but you didn’t.
▪ Is there an ethical issue here?
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ETHICS GUIDE: ESTIMATION ETHICS
(CONT'D)
▪ Or suppose you approach a more senior manager with your dilemma. “I
think there may be other costs, but I know that $50,000 is all we’ve got.
What should I do?”
▪ Suppose the senior manager says something like, “Well, let’s go forward.
You don’t know of anything else, and we can always find more budget
elsewhere if we have to.”
▪ How do you respond?

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ETHICS GUIDE: ESTIMATION ETHICS
(CONT'D)
▪ Be aware of buy-ins occur, some vendors make a practice of bidding projects with them
▪ Carefully scrutinize unbelievably low bids

▪ No substitute for experience

▪ Hire expertise to evaluate bids

▪ Consider your own position on buy-ins

▪ Can you ever justify one? If so, when?

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GUIDE: FINAL, FINAL WORD
• Learn to find, create, and manage innovative applications of IS technology
▪ Two important takeaways:
▪ Software developers are optimists
▪ Be aware of consequences of negotiating a schedule
▪ Large projects much harder to schedule than small ones.
▪ If project lasts longer than a year, watch out! Longer projects mean more
chance for technology change, requirements change, and employee turnover

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GUIDE: THE FINAL, FINAL WORD (CONT'D )
▪ Use what you’ve learned in this class to obtain the job you really want!
▪ Do the exercises at the end of this guide, and use the answers in your job interviews!

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ACTIVE REVIEW
Q1: What is systems development?
Q2: Why is systems development difficult and risky?
Q3: What are the five phases of the SDLC?
Q4: How is system definition accomplished?
Q5: What is the users’ role in the requirements phase?
Q6: How are the five components designed?
Q7: How is an information system implemented?
Q8: What are the tasks for system maintenance?
Q9: What are some of the problems with the SDLC?
▪ How does the knowledge in this chapter help you?

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CASE STUDY 12: WHEN WILL WE LEARN?
• #1 reason for failure (1974) -- a lack of user involvement in creating and managing system requirements
• Access CT project (2013) successful
▪ Made trade-offs to reduce project difficulty and risk
▪ Requirements reduced to bare minimum to get system running. After success, add to it.

▪ If schedule is fixed and if funding is nearly fixed, what is the one factor that can be traded off to reduce project difficulty and
risk?
▪ The requirements.
▪ Reduce them to the bare minimum and get the system running. Then, after some success, add to the project.
▪ That seems to be the strategy that Access CT followed.

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CASE STUDY 12: WHEN WILL WE LEARN?
(CONT'D)
▪ Avoid “No Wrong Door” policy
▪ Everything for everyone
▪ a policy that would leave no person nor problem behind.
▪ Such statements make wonderful political messaging, but if the schedule is fixed and the funding is nearly so, how are those
goals to be accomplished?

▪ If schedule and funding are fixed, identify what factors can be traded off to reduce project difficulty and risk
▪ Software and systems pure thought-stuff: Easy to imagine glorious future of amazing capability, but
constrained by human reality
▪ Nine women can’t gestate a baby in 1 month

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