Selecting a Research Approach - focuses on inequities based on diverse groups of d.

Ethnography: (anthropology,sociology) studies the

Research Approaches: plans and the procedures for populations that result in asymmetric power relationships shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of an
research that span the steps from broad assumptions to - research links political and social action to inequities intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged
detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and 4. Pragmatic Worldview: philosophical underpinning of period of time
interpretation mixed method e. Case study: develops an in-depth analysis of a case,
1. Qualitative research: for exploring and understanding - Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of often a program, event, activity, process, or individuals
the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or philosophy and reality. 3. Mixed Method Design
human problem; uses open-ended questions & responses - Individual researchers have a freedom of choice. a. Convergent mixed methods: researcher converges or
2. Quantitative research: for testing objective theories by - opens the door to multiple methods, different worldviews, merges quantitative and qualitative data; typically collects
examining the relationship among variables which can be and different assumptions, as well as different forms of data both forms of data at roughly the same time then integrates
measured and analyzed using statistical procedures; uses collection and analysis the information in the interpretation of the overall results
closed-ended questions & responses b. Explanatory sequential mixed methods: researcher
Research Designs: types of inquiry within qualitative,
3. Mixed methods research: involving collecting both first conducts quantitative research, analyzes the results
quantitative, and mixed methods approaches that provide
quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two forms and then builds on the results to explain them in more detail
specific direction for procedures in a research study; also
of data, and using distinct designs that may involve with qualitative research
called them strategies of inquiry
philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks c. Exploratory sequential mixed methods: researcher
1. Quantitative Design
first begins with a qualitative research phase and explores
Worldview/Paradigm: basic set of beliefs that guide action; a. Experimental Design: seeks to determine if a specific
the views of participants, the data are then analyzed, and
also called epistemologies and ontologies or broadly treatment influences an outcome by providing a specific
the information used to build into the quantitative phase
conceived research methodologies treatment to one group and withholding it from another;
1. Postpositivism: approach in quantitative research; include true experiments: with the random assignment of Research methods: involve the forms of data collection,
called the scientific method, or doing science research or subjects to treatment conditions, and quasi-experiments: analysis, and interpretation that researchers propose for
empirical science; objective that use nonrandomized assignments their studies; consider the full range of possibilities of data
- Knowledge is conjectural (and antifoundational) - b. Non-experimental Design collection and to organize these methods like their degree
absolute truth can never be found. - Causal-comparative research: compares two or more of predetermined nature, their use of closed-ended versus
- deterministic (in which causes (probably) determine the groups in terms of a cause (or independent variable) that open-ended questioning, and their focus on numeric versus
effects or outcomes); reductionistic (reduce/deduce the has already happened non numeric data analysis
ideas into a small, discrete set to test); and theory - Correlational research: use correlational statistic to ------------------------------------------
verification (theory → collects data (support or refute the describe and measure the degree or association (or Quantitative Research Design
theory) → make necessary revisions and conduct additional relationship) between two/more variables or sets of scores Research Process:
tests - Survey research: provides a quantitative or numeric 1. Identifying a research problem
2. Constructivism: used in qualitative research; inductive description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population 2. Reviewing the literature
in nature; called social constructivism; inductive by studying a sample of that population 3. Specifying a purpose for research
- believes that we seek understanding of the world in which 2. Qualitative Design 4. Collecting data
we live and work; subjective meanings of experiences a. Narrative Research: (humanities) studies the lives of 5. Analyzing and interpreting the data
- Goal of research is to rely as much as possible on the individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide 6. Reporting and evaluating research
participant's view of the situation being studied stories about their lives Development of a Research Idea:
- Focus on the specific contexts in which people live and b. Phenomenological Research: (philosophy/psychology) 1. Research Topic: broad subject matter to be investigated
work in order to understand the historical and cultural researcher describes the lived experiences of individuals 2. Research Problem: educational issue or problem within
settings of the participants about a phenomenon as described by participants a broad topic area
3. Transformative: study the lives and experiences of c. Grounded Theory: (sociology) derives a general, 3. Research Purpose: statement of the intent or objective
diverse groups that have traditionally been marginalized abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded 4. Research Question: interrogative sentence that asks a
in the views of participants question about
If I don’t have a research question, where do I start? Characteristics of Quantitative Research Disadvantages of Quantitative Research:
1. Narrow down an area of interest. Variables (constructs): attributes of an individual or a. Superficiality: using precise and restrictive operational
2. Within that area of interest, try to answer a research organization that can be measured or observed and that definitions may inadequately represent complex concepts
question that: varies among people or organization being studied ex. the concept of mood may be represented with just a number in
quantitative research, but explained with elaboration in qualitative research
a. has either not been addressed before; a. Temporal order
b. Narrow focus: predetermined variables and
b. or has been addressed but that you could extend in a b. Variable measurement
measurement procedures can mean that you ignore other
significant way (ex. new data-set, new theoretical approach) 1. Independent variables: cause, influence, or affect
relevant observations
3. Literature review: read as much as you can on the topic outcomes
c. Structural bias: despite standardized procedures,
- Remember recent publications/studies will contain a more 2. Dependent variables: outcomes or results of the
structural biases can still affect quantitative research;
updated literature so try to collect these first. Then read influence of the independent variables
missing data, imprecise measurements or inappropriate
backwards to the most dated studies. Make sure you read 3. Mediating variables: stands between independent and
sampling methods are biases that can lead to the wrong
all relevant papers (or at least the most influential ones). dependent variable, and they mediate the effects of
conclusions
independent and dependent variable
Common mistakes when identifying research questions d. Lack of context: often uses unnatural settings like
4. Moderating variables: independent variables that affect
1. Non originality laboratories or fails to consider historical and cultural
the direction and/or the strength of the relationship between
2. Non feasibility contexts that may affect data collection and results
independent and dependent variables
- (a) time constraint; (b) resources; and (c) knowledge ------------------------------------------
3. Too broadly defined research question Survey Research Design
4. Not well justified Survey Design
- the collection of information from a sample of individuals
Quantitative research: process of collecting and analyzing
through their responses to questions (Check & Schutt,
numerical data; can be used to find patterns and averages,
2012)
make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize
- the survey method gathers data from relatively large
results to wider populations
number of cases at a particular time (Boudah, 2011)
- Quantitative research question examples:
a. What is the demographic makeup of the Philippines in 2020? Advantages of quantitative research: - provides a quantitative description of trends, attitudes and
b. Does environmental pollution affect the prevalence of honey bees? Advantages of Quantitative Research: opinions of a population, or tests for associations among
c. Does working from home increase productivity with long commutes? variables of a population, by studying a sample of that
a. Replication: repeating the study is possible because of
- Quantitative research methods: population
a. Descriptive research: you simply seek an overall summary of your
standardized data collection protocols and tangible
study variables definitions of abstract concepts
b. Correlational research: you investigate relationships between your b. Direct comparisons of results: the study can be Survey design helps researchers answer three types of
study variables reproduced in other cultural settings, times or with different questions:
c. Experimental research: you systematically examine whether there is a > descriptive questions
cause-and-effect relationship between variables
groups of participants; results can be compared statistically
ex. What percentage of practicing nurses support the provision of
- To collect quantitative data, you will often need to use c. Large samples: data from large samples can be
hospital abortion services?
operational definitions that translate abstract concepts processed and analyzed using reliable and consistent
> questions about the relationships between
(e.g., mood) into observable and quantifiable measures procedures through quantitative data analysis
variables/survey design is repeated over time in a
(e.g., self-ratings of feelings and energy levels). d. Hypothesis testing: using formalized and established
longitudinal study
hypothesis testing procedures means that you have to
ex. Is there a positive association between endorsement of
(Systematic) observation: identify a behavior or carefully consider and report your research variables, hospital abortion services and support for implementing hospice
occurrence of interest and monitor it in its natural setting predictions, data collection and testing methods before care among nurses?
Secondary research: collect data that has been gathered coming to a conclusion > questions about predictive relationships between
for other purposes (ex. national surveys, historical records)
variables over time
ex. Does Time 1 endorsement of support for hospital abortion
services predict greater Time 2 burnout in nurses?
Characteristics of Survey Design: must meet whatever categorical criteria fulfill the f. Response options: options are appropriate and
a. Description: used to describe phenomena and researcher's primary interest; used to examine the exhaustive
summarize them; the usual goal is to get a precise effectiveness and outcome of a intervention program g. Avoid jargons: avoid technical terms
measurement of such phenomena h. Neutral: neutral, free from emotional/opinionated words
b. Evaluation: useful for determining the degree to which a Advantages of Survey Design: i. Sensitive topics: wording sensitive
desired objective is attained as a result of a planned - opportunity to see the reality more closely, helps to know j. Consistency: consistent in its format
program, hence surveys after interventions social situation
c. Causal Explanation: measures associations between - facilitates to draw generalizations about population on the Steps in Survey Research Design:
variables like school grades and self-esteem basis of data from representative sample 1. Defining the purpose and objective of the study.
d. Prediction: survey data can be used to forecast future - ensures greater objectivity, versatile, flexible and allows 2. Selecting and defining the target population.
events various methods of collection of data 3. Choosing and selecting techniques for data gathering.
4. A major and good representative (sample) of the
Types of Survey Designs: Disadvantages of Survey Design: population is to be taken.
1. Cross-sectional Design - requires training for those who collect information, mostly 5. The process of data gathering, where the interviews,
- also known as one-shot or status studies; commonly used based on samples so sampling error is possible questionnaires or any other instrument is used for which the
in social sciences - time consuming process, reliability and validity is based on questions are pre designed.
- best suited to studies aimed at finding out the prevalence honesty and efficiency of researchers, feasibility depends 6. The questionnaire is followed-up (answered, evaluated
of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or issue, by upon respondent's willingness and cooperation and processed).
taking a cross-section of the population 7. The data gathered is processed, analyzed and
2. Longitudinal Study Design In Writing Quantitative Survey Questions: interpreted, from which the results are concluded and the
- determine the pattern of change in relation to time; useful - Questions are based on operational definition. findings are then generalized.
when to collect factual information on a continuing basis - Filter question: designed to identify some subset of 8. The whole study is then presented in the form of a
- study population is visited a number of times at regular survey respondents who are asked additional questions research report (called survey report) for the purpose of
intervals, usually over a long period, to collect the required that are not relevant to the entire sample transmission and further study.
information Avoid: ------------------------------------------
- intervals are not fixed so their length may vary from study - mutually exclusive and exhaustive response options Qualitative Research and Methods
to study; can be seen as a series of repetitive - double negatives, double-barreled questions (asking Characteristics of Qualitative Research:
cross-sectional studies multiple questions as though they are a single question can a. Natural Setting
a. Trend Studies: focus on the same population but not confuse respondents) and answers, jargon, slang - collect data in the field at the site where the participants
necessarily the same people; interested in how people's Beware of: experience the issue or problem; researchers have
inclinations change over time; use opinion poll surveys to - Fence-sitters: respondents who choose neutral response face-to-face interaction, often extending over a prolonged
look at their attitudes over time; analyze trend of a options, even if they have an opinion period of time
phenomenon - Floaters: choose a substantive answer to a question b. Researchers as Key Instrument
ex. Survey of graduates preferring mobile learning when really, they don't understand the question or don't - researchers are the ones who actually gather and interpret
b. Panel Studies: utilized the same sample (same have an opinion the data; they do not tend to use or rely on questionnaires
participants) from the same population over time; more or instruments
complicated and difficult to carry out; use to truly find out Survey Question Evaluation Criteria: c. Multiple Sources of Data
changes over time; aim to track opinions of the exact same a. Clarity: clear and easy to understand - gather multiple forms of data such as interviews,
respondents repeatedly, more focused and specific b. Relevance: relevant to research objectives observations, documents and audiovisual information
c. Cohort Studies: researchers identifies some category of c. Unbiased: free from bias or leading language d. Inductive and Deductive Analysis
people that are of interest and then regularly surveys d. Non-double-barreled: ask only one thing at a time - from the bottom up by organizing the data into
people who fall into that category; the same people do not e. Specific: not vague increasingly more abstract units of information
necessarily participate from year to year, but all participants
e. Participants' Meaning b. Subjectivity: it cannot be replicated, researchers > Inquiry Audit: having an outsider to examine the
- learning the meaning that the participants hold about the decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data processes of the data collection, data analysis and results
problem or issue analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary of the research study
f. Emergent design c. Limited generalizability: small samples; data may be > Code-recode Procedure: after coding a section of data,
- initial plan for research cannot be tightly prescribed, and biased and unrepresentative of the wider population the investigator needs to wait at least two weeks and then
some or all phases of the process may change or shift after d. Labor-intensive: although software can be used to return and recode the same data and evaluate the results
the researcher enters the field and begins to collect data manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis
g. Reflexivity often has to be checked or performed manually Qualitative Research Approaches / Qualitative Designs
- inquirers reflect about how their role in the study and their 1. Grounded theory
personal background, culture, and experiences hold Criteria for Assessing Qualitative Research - collect from rich data on a topic of interest and develop
potential for shaping their interpretations a. Credibility: believable; strategies to enhance credibility: theories inductively
> Past experiences: these experiences may involve > Triangulation: using multiple sources to collect and 2. Ethnography
participation in the setting, past educational or work analyze data like FDG, RLs - researchers immerse themselves in groups or
experiences, or culture, ethnicity, race, SES, or other > Member checking: validates the data accuracy and organizations to understand their cultures
demographics that tie the researchers directly to the study promotes a collaborative relationship between the 3. Action research
> How past experiences shape experiences: researchers and participants - researchers and participants collaboratively link theory to
experiences may cause researchers to lean toward certain > Peer debriefing: enlisting the help of other researchers practice to drive social change
themes, to actively look for evidence to support their who are experts in the field 4. Phenomenological research
positions, and to create favorable or unfavorable > Thick descriptions: provides a comprehensive and - investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and
conclusions about the sites or participants detailed descriptions of the research setting and interpreting participants' lived experiences
h. Holistic account participants 5. Narrative research
- researchers try to develop a complex picture of the > Reflexivity: aims to address researcher's biases by - examine how stories are told to understand how
problem or issue under study, involves reporting multiple encouraging you to reflect on your own biases and account participants perceive and make sense of their experiences
perspectives, identifying the many factors involved in a for them in the research process
situation, and generally sketching the larger picture that > Saturation: continue to collect data until you reach a Data Collection Procedures
emerges point where no new information/insights are being revealed - purposefully select participants or sites (setting,
b. Transferability (Generalizability): measures whether or participants, events, process)
Advantages of Qualitative Research to what extent the study's results are applicable within other - ways to recruit (ways of informing participants, ways to
a. Flexibility: data collection and analysis process can be contexts and settings incentivize)
adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge; they are not c. Confirmability: proves that the study is neutral and not - how many participants (narrative: 1-2; phenomenology:
rigidly decided beforehand influenced by the assumptions or biases of the researchers; 3-10; grounded theory: 20-30; ethnography: group of
b. Natural settings: occurs in real-world contexts or strategies to enhance confirmability: people; observations & case studies: 4-5 cases)
naturalistic ways > Triangulation
c. Meaningful insights: detailed descriptions of people's > Member checking Qualitative Research Methods:
experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in > Audit Trail: enhance the transparency by providing a a. Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or
designing, testing or improving systems or products detailed account of the decisions made, steps taken and encountered in detailed field notes
d. Generation of new ideas: open-ended responses mean data collected during the study b. Interviews: personally asking people questions in
the researchers can uncover novel problems or d. Dependability: measures the extent of finding's one-one-one conversations
opportunities that they wouldn't have thought of otherwise consistency or the stability of data over time and over c. Focus groups: asking questions and generating
conditions; strategies to enhance dependability: discussion among a group of people
Disadvantages of Qualitative Research > Stepwise Replication: two research teams deal d. Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended
a. Unreliability: uncontrolled factors can affect the data individuals with data which been split, results are contrasted questions
e. Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form
of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.

Qualitative Data Analysis

- Prepare and organize your data (transcribing interviews or
typing up fieldnotes).
- Review and explore your data.
- Develop a data coding system.
- Assign codes to the data.
- Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into
cohesive, overarching themes.

a. Content analysis
- describe and categorize common words, phrases and
ideas
b. Thematic analysis
- identify and interpret patterns and themes
c. Textual analysis
- examine the content, structure, and design of texts
d. Discourse analysis
- study communication and how language is used to
achieve effects in specific contexts