There are four basic theories of biology

theory is a scientific explanation of a phenomenon. By scientific, it means it is an explanation or

expectation based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through methodical
observations and experiments.

1.Gene theory:The idea that characteristics of living organisms are controlled by genes

2.Cell Theory: The base that everything living is made of cells

3.Homeostasis: The maintaining of a stable internal environment

4.Evolution: The change in the characteristics of living things over time

The cell theory holds some very basic and important claims that are essential to our concept of life on
Earth. According to this theory, the cell serves as the structural, physiological, systemic, and
organizational unit of life.

Zacharias Janssen and Hans were a contributor on the discovery of the cell. The two are known for their
invention the compound optical microscope. They invented the microscope in 1590’s. Their invention
played a great role in the discovery of the cell theory, by making it easier and more practical when
observing cells. The microscope invented by Janssen and Hans was used by Robert Hooke, the earliest
scientist to study living things under a microscope.

Robert Hooke was a British scientist. In 1665 Hooke made an important discovery under a compound
optical microscope. When he looked at a thin slice of cork under his microscope, he saw that the cork
was made-up of many tiny units’ room like structure, he saw tiny little shapes that looked like little
rooms with walls around each of them. He named them “cellulae” or simply “Cell”. This Latin word
means "little rooms”. That was the first discovery of the cell.

In 1674, Anton van Leeuwenhoek became the first to observe live cells. It became possible for
Leeuwenhoek to observe the cells -living cells- clearly because of his invention, the microscope with
improved lenses that could magnify objects from 270 to 300-fold.

In 1838, a German botanist, Matthias Jakob Schleiden was the first to state that cells are the building
blocks of all plants and that an embryonic plant arose from one single cell.

In 1839, another German botanist, Theodor Schwann stated that cells are the fundamental units of
animals too. These statements ended the notion that animals are also made up of cells.
Their discoveries led to the formulation of the ‘Cell Theory’ which states that cells are the basic units of
all living organisms (plants and animals). But the cell theory failed to explain how new cells arise.

In 1855, Rudolf Virchow, a German What is It 7 physiologist stated in German ‘Omnis cellula e cellula’
which means that new cells come from already existing cells (Wakim et.al., Discovery of Cells and Cell
Theory 2020, Butte College).

Therefore, the three important points of the modified cell theory are as follows:

The three postulates of the cell theory are

• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms.

• All living organisms (plants and animals) are made up of cells.

• All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

MODERN CELL THEORY

4. Cells carry genetic materials which is passed from cell to cell during cell division.

5. All cells are basically the same in structure and chemical composition.

6. Energy flow ( biochemical processes) occur within cells

Processes:

a.metabolism

b. photosynthesis

c. respiration

B. Gene theory
- Gene theory is the idea that genes are the basic units in which characteristics are passed from one
generation to the next. Genes themselves are the basic units

- The Gene Theory is a theory that states that characteristics of living organisms are controlled by genes
which are passed from parents to their offspring.

A gene is a segment of DNA that has the instructions to encode a protein. Genes are located on larger
structures, called chromosomes, that are found inside every cell. Chromosomes are found inside every
cell Chromosomes contain DNA Molecules

Molecules of DNA are encoded with instructions that tell cells what to do

C. Homeostasis.

Homeostasis - refers to the ability of the body or a cell to seek and maintain a condition of equilibrium
or stability within its internal environment when dealing with external changes.

Example - Human Internal Body Temperature, blood sugar ,blood pressure

D. Theory of Evolution

Evolution - the change in the characteristics of living things over certain periods of time.

-means gradual development.

Charles Darwin states that Evolution occurs by a process called Natural Selection

This theory states that organisms adapt to their environment to survive and produce more offspring in
the future.

Levels of Organization of Living Things

Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that can be examined on
a scale from small to large.
 1. The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a
nucleus surrounded by electrons. Atoms form molecules.

2. A molecule is a chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held

together by one or more chemical bonds.
macromolecules, large molecules that are typically formed by polymerization (a
polymer is a large molecule that is made by combining smaller units called
monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules).

An example of a macromolecule is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Figure 6), which

contains the instructions for the structure and functioning of all living organisms.

Figure 6. All molecules, including this DNA molecule, are composed of atoms. (credit: “brian0918″/Wikimedia
Commons)
Some cells contain aggregates of macromolecules surrounded by membranes; these
are called organelles.

Organelles are small structures that exist within cells.

Examples of organelles include mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out

indispensable functions: mitochondria produce energy to power the cell, while
chloroplasts enable green plants to utilize the energy in sunlight to make sugars. All
living things are made of cells;

3. cell
- is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms.
-It is the basic unit of LIFE.
-Smallest unit that can perform all activities associated with life like GROWTH,
REPRODUCTION, EXCRETION and NUTRITION.

4.Tissues, which are groups of similar cells carrying out similar or related
functions. TISSUE–is a group of cells having a common structure and functions.
 ANIMAL TISSUE

PLANT TISSUES

5.Organs are collections of tissues grouped together performing a common function.

Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants.
6 .An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally
related organs. Mammals have many organ systems. For instance, the
circulatory system transports blood through the body and to and from the lungs; it
includes organs such as the heart and blood vessels.
7.Organisms are individual living entities.
ORGANISM–is an individual form of life
Organisms are made up of different organ systems that enable them to perform
different functions necessary for living and survival.

8. POPULATION–a group consisting of members of the same species that live

together in a given area at the same time.
9.COMMUNITY–is an association of different populations of species living together
at the same time and place.

A community is the sum of populations inhabiting a particular area.

10.ECOSYSTEM–is a community of living organisms and the non-living components

Components of an Ecosystem:

Biotic–living things (plants and animals)

Abiotic–non-living things

.such as nitrogen in the soil or rain water. At the highest level of organization
 BIOMES–a group of similar ecosystems with the same type of physical environment

11. BIOSPHERE –the part of the planet where life exists

- biosphere is the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on
earth. It includes land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent.

.
 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
All living organisms can be grouped into two types based on their fundamental cell
structure. They are prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and the cells they possess are called
prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
-

Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes are primitive organisms lacking a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles. The term ‘prokaryote’ is derived from the Greek words ‘pro’, meaning
‘before’ and ‘karyon’, meaning ‘kernel’. Together it means ‘before nuclei’.
In contrast, eukaryotes are advanced organisms with a well-defined nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles. The term ‘eukaryotes’ is derived from the Greek
words ‘eu’, meaning ‘good’ and ‘karyon’, meaning ‘kernel’, meaning ‘true nuclei’.
The eukaryotes are thought to have originated from the prokaryotes about 2.7
billion years ago.

Compare and Contrast Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Although they share some common characteristics, prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells differ in most aspects, such as cell size, shape, organization, and life cycle,
including reproduction. The main differences are given below.
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are alike in some ways and share some
common features that are given below:

Plasma Membrane, an outer covering that allows selective entry and exit of
substances in and out of the cell, is found in both cell types. Their fundamental
composition in forming a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins is also the same.
Both contain cytoplasm, a jelly-like fluid that fills the cell’s entire interior where
all other cellular components are found.
DNA is the genetic material in both cell types.
In both, ribosomes help in protein synthesis.
PARTS OF CELL

Animal cells are made up of several parts, called organelles, that work together and enable the cell to
function.

Cell Membrane

The cell membrane acts as a fence around a cell.

The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a selectively permeable membrane that
controls the entry and exit of materials. These materials may include nutrients that need to be brought
into the cell and toxic elements that need to be released from the cell. The cell membrane also helps to
protect the cell and separates the cytoplasm from the surrounding environment.

All the parts that make up the cell are enclosed within the cell’s plasma membrane.
Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm contains the parts, otherwise known as organelles, within a cell.

The function of the cytoplasm is to maintain the cell’s shape with the help of the cytoskeleton (a
network of actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules) and cytosol (the gel-like fluid
within the cell)

Mitochondria

The mitochondria act as the energy supplier for the cell. Powerhouse of the cell

The mitochondria are structures within the cytoplasm that control aerobic respiration.

The function of mitochondria is to take nutrients and produce the energy needed to power the
biochemical reactions of the cell. This energy takes the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is a
molecule used for storing and transferring energy within a cell.

The ATP functions similarly to a rechargeable battery, which is then used to power several processes
within the cell.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes could be called the “manufacturing department” of the cell.

Ribosomes take and translate information from the rRNA that is needed to create the proteins for the
cell. Proteins are very important in cells because they provide the structure and support to help cells
function.

Ribosomes are found floating around in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Free ribosomes -
Attached ribosomes -

Lysosome

The lysosome is the “waste disposal and recycling center” for the cell because they destroy old proteins
to reuse them.

A lysosome is a membrane-bound organelle that contains enzymes required for digesting and recycling
cell by-products. Lysosomes are also responsible for getting rid of waste through a process known as
autophagocytosis, where old and no longer working cell parts are removed from the cell.

Vacuole

Vacuoles act like lockers because they store things for the cell.

They are membrane-bound sacs that store food, water, and waste, pigments in plant. Its function is very
similar to the lysosome.

Centrosome

The centrosome acts like an event planner.

The centrosome is found only in animal cells and is responsible for organizing cell division. It is made up
of two microtubule rings that are called centrioles. The centrosome organizes the microtubules into
position before duplicating or dividing the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is the “bakery” of the cell because it makes proteins.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranes within the cytoplasm.

1. rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) - The rough ER is made up of tubules, cisternae, and
vesicles, and plays an important role in producing and processing proteins for the cell.

2. smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER).- - The smooth ER is in charge of several processes
including the synthesis of lipids, the production of steroid hormones, and getting rid of toxic by-products
which could negatively impact the cell.
Golgi Apparatus

You can think of the Golgi apparatus as being the “delivery service” or “mailroom” for the cell.

The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi body, takes the proteins and lipid molecules that are
processed by the endoplasmic reticulum and places them into vesicles to be distributed either within or
outside the cell.

Nucleus

The nucleus is the “brain” of the cell because it directs what happens within the cell.

It contains the cell's genetic information called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The DNA provides the
information required for making the proteins that control the activities of the cell. The DNA and histone
proteins are then put together to form chromosomes.

The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane, which separates the nucleus from the rest of the
cell.

Inside the nucleus (in addition to the cell’s DNA) is the nucleolus. This is where ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
works with proteins to form ribosomes, which are then transported to the cytoplasm.

Along with storing the cell’s genetic information, the nucleus oversees the cell’s activities. This includes
regulating growth and cell division, or mitosis.

Cell Division
Cell division happens when a parent cell divides into two or more cells called daughter cells. Cell division
usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle. All cells reproduce by splitting into two, where each parental
cell gives rise to two daughter cells.

These newly formed daughter cells could themselves divide and grow, giving rise to a new cell
population that is formed by the division and growth of a single parental cell and its descendant.

In other words, such cycles of growth and division allow a single cell to form a structure consisting of
millions of cells.

Why Do Cells Divide?

Cells divide for many reasons. For example, when you skin your knee, cells divide to replace old, dead, or
damaged cells. Cells also divide so living things can grow. When organisms grow, it isn't because cells are
getting larger. Organisms grow because cells are dividing to produce more and more cells. In human
bodies, nearly two trillion cells divide every day.

Types of Cell Division

There are two distinct types of cell division out of which the first one is vegetative division, wherein each
daughter cell duplicates the parent cell called mitosis. The second one is meiosis, which divides into four
haploid daughter cell

Mitosis: The process cells use to make exact replicas of themselves. Mitosis is observed in almost all the
body’s cells, including eyes, skin, hair, and muscle cells.

Meiosis: In this type of cell division, sperm or egg cells are produced instead of identical daughter cells
as in mitosis.

Binary Fission: Single-celled organisms like bacteria replicate themselves for reproduction.

Phases of the Cell Cycle

There are two primary phases in the cell cycle:

1. Interphase: This phase was thought to represent the resting stage between subsequent cell
divisions, but new research has shown that it is a very active phase.

2. M Phase (Mitosis phase): This is where the actual cell division occurs.

There are two key steps in this phase, namely cytokinesis and karyokinesis.

The interphase further comprises three phases:

1. G0 Phase (Resting Phase): The cell neither divides nor prepares itself for the division.

2. G1 Phase (Gap 1): The cell is metabolically active and grows continuously during this phase.

3. S phase (Synthesis): The DNA replication or synthesis occurs during this stage.

4. G2 phase (Gap 2): Protein synthesis happens in this phase.

5. Quiescent Stage (G0): The cells that do not undergo further division exits the G1 phase and
enters an inactive stage. This stage is known as the quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle.

There are four stages in the M (MITOSIS) Phase, namely:

1. Prophase

2. Metaphase

3. Anaphase

4. Telophase

I. Prophase - the first stage of mitosis.

 The chromosomes condense and become visible

  The centrioles form and move toward opposite ends of the cell ("the poles")

 The nuclear membrane dissolves

 The mitotic spindle forms (from the centrioles in animal cells)

 Spindle fibers from each centriole attach to each sister chromatid at the kinetochore

II. Metaphase

 The Centrioles complete their migration to the poles

 The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell ("the equator")

III.Anaphase

 Spindles attached to kinetochores begin to shorten.

 This exerts a force on the sister chromatids that pulls them apart.

 Spindle fibers continue to shorten, pulling chromatids to opposite poles.

 This ensures that each daughter cell gets identical sets of chromosomes.

IV . Telophase

 The chromosomes decondense

 The nuclear envelope forms

V . Cytokinesis

 division of the cytoplasm.

 Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating two daughter cells

Meiosis

Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the original
amount of genetic information. These cells are our sex cells – sperm in males, eggs in females.
• During meiosis one cell? divides twice to form four daughter cells.

• These four daughter cells only have half the number of chromosomes? of the parent cell – they
are haploid.

• Meiosis produces our sex cells or gametes? (eggs in females and sperm in males).

Purpose of Meiosis

The process of meiosis is essential for all sexually reproducing organisms for the following reasons:

1. The meiosis maintains a constant number of chromosomes in sexually reproducing organisms

through the formation of gametes.

2. By crossing over, the meiosis results in the exchange of the genes and, thus, causes the genetic
variations among the species. These variations are the raw materials of the evolutionary process.

Stages/Phases of Meiosis

Meiosis is composed of two rounds of cell division, namely Meiosis I and Meiosis II.

Each round of division contains a period of karyokinesis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic
division).

Meiosis can be divided into nine stages. These are divided between the first time the cell divides
(meiosis I) and the second time it divides (meiosis II):

Meiosis I

1. Interphase:

• The DNA in the cell is copied resulting in two identical full sets of chromosomes.

• Outside of the nucleus? are two centrosomes, each containing a pair of centrioles, these
structures are critical for the process of cell division?.

• During interphase, microtubules extend from these centrosomes

2. Prophase I:
• The copied chromosomes condense into X-shaped structures that can be easily seen under a
microscope.

• Each chromosome is composed of two sister chromatids containing identical genetic

information.

• The chromosomes pair up so that both copies of chromosome 1 are together, both copies of
chromosome 2 are together, and so on.

• The pairs of chromosomes may then exchange bits of DNA in a process called recombination or
crossing over.

• At the end of Prophase I the membrane around the nucleus in the cell dissolves away, releasing
the chromosomes.

• The meiotic spindle, consisting of microtubules and other proteins, extends across the cell
between the centrioles.

Metaphase I:

• The chromosome pairs line up next to each other along the centre (equator) of the cell.

• The centrioles are now at opposites poles of the cell with the meiotic spindles extending from
them.

• The meiotic spindle fibres attach to one chromosome of each pair.

Anaphase I:

• The pair of chromosomes are then pulled apart by the meiotic spindle, which pulls one
chromosome to one pole of the cell and the other chromosome to the opposite pole.

• In meiosis I the sister chromatids stay together. This is different to what happens in mitosis and
meiosis II.

Telophase I and cytokinesis:

• The chromosomes complete their move to the opposite poles of the cell.

• At each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes gather together.

• A membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to create two new nuclei.

• The single cell then pinches in the middle to form two separate daughter cells each containing a
full set of chromosomes within a nucleus. This process is known as cytokinesis.

Meiosis II

6.Prophase II:
• Now there are two daughter cells, each with 23 chromosomes (23 pairs of chromatids).

• In each of the two daughter cells the chromosomes condense again into visible X-shaped
structures that can be easily seen under a microscope.

• The membrane around the nucleus in each daughter cell dissolves away releasing the
chromosomes.

• The centrioles duplicate.

• The meiotic spindle forms again.

7. Metaphase II:

• In each of the two daughter cells the chromosomes (pair of sister chromatids) line up end-to-
end along the equator of the cell.

• The centrioles are now at opposites poles in each of the daughter cells.

• Meiotic spindle fibres at each pole of the cell attach to each of the sister chromatids.

8.Anaphase II:

• The sister chromatids are then pulled to opposite poles due to the action of the meiotic spindle.

• The separated chromatids are now individual chromosomes.

9. Telophase II and cytokinesis:

• The chromosomes complete their move to the opposite poles of the cell.

• At each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes gather together.

• A membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to create two new cell nuclei.

• This is the last phase of meiosis, however cell division is not complete without another round of
cytokinesis.

• Once cytokinesis is complete there are four granddaughter cells, each with half a set of
chromosomes (haploid):

• in males, these four cells are all sperm cells

• in females, one of the cells is an egg cell while the other three are polar bodies (small cells that
do not develop into eggs)