Introduction to Quantum Computing

• Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on developing computing methods based on the principle of
quantum theory. Quantum computing is based on the principle of quantum superposition.

• In Quantum computing, the information is encoded in quantum system such as atoms, ions or quantum dots. One
quantum rule in particular creates an enormous incentives to apply quantum mechanics to computing.

• The algorithms are also written based on quantum principles in which, Shor’s algorithm for factorization and Grover’s
search algorithm are basic. (Grover is an Indian born Physicist working in Bell Labs).

• The process of computation is incredibly fast but it has to be done by the help of quantum computers which are yet to
be realized in practice.

• It is expected that 140 digit long number could be factored a billion (109 ) times faster that is possible with classical
computation. It is so powerful that a search engine can search every part of internet in half an hour
Disciplines contribute towards quantum computation
Moore’s Law and its end
• In the year 1965, Gardon Moore observed increasing performance in the first few
generations of the integrated- circuit (IC) technology. Moore predicted that it would continue
to improve at an exponential rate with the performance per unit cost increasing by a factor
or two every 18 months are so.

• Statement: “The number of transistors on a microchip doubles every year"

• Reduce in the size of the transistor results in causing problems for current microelectronics,
which results in electron tunnelling. ∴ Quantum Computation is the option for the further
computational studies.
Moore’s Law and its end
Moore’s Law and its end
 Comparison of classical and quantum information

Quantum Information
Classical Information
• Quantum information is subjected to laws of
• Classical information is subjected to classical laws quantum mechanics.
of physics. • Quantum information may be probabilistic.
• Classical information is deterministic. • The states in quantum information can be
• The states of classical system can be represented represented by states vectors |0> and |1> or
by either ‘0’ or ‘1’. linear combination of two,
• Every classical operation done on the digit on a |> = 1 |0> + 2 |1>
• Every operation on Qubit is done on both values
value at once. at once.
• The classical algebraic structure of physical events • The quantum event mathematical structure is
are Boolean algebra. abstract operators in Hilbert space.
• Classical information cannot be manipulated.
• Quantum information can be manipulated .
 Comparison of classical and quantum computation

Classical Computing
Quantum Computing
• Used by large scale, multipurpose and devices.
• Information is stored in bits. • Used by high speed, quantum mechanics-based
• There is a discrete number of possible states. computers.
Either 0 or 1. • Information is based on Quantum Bits.
• Calculations are deterministic. This means • There is an infinite, continuous number of
repeating the same inputs results in the same possible states. They are the result of quantum
superposition.
output. • The calculations are probabilistic, meaning there
• Data processing is carried out by logic and in are multiple possible outputs to the same inputs.
sequential order. • Data processing is carried out by quantum logic at
• Operations are governed by Boolean Algebra. parallel instances.
• Operations are defined by linear algebra by
• Circuit behavior is defined by Classical Physics . Hilbert Space.
• Circuit behavior is defined by Quantum
Mechanics.
Concept of Qubit and its properties

• Quantum bits, called qubits are similar to bits having two measurable states called 0
and 1 states. Qubits can also be in a superposition state of these 0 and 1 states. A
qubit can be in a superposition of both 0 and 1.

• Qubits can be expressed in quantum mechanical states with mathematical formula,

Dirac or “bra–ket” notation is commonly used in quantum mechanics and quantum
computing.

• The state of a qubit is enclosed in the right half of an angled bracket, called the
“ket”. A qubit, |ψ>, could be in a |0> or |1> state which is a superposition of both
|0> and |1>.

• The counterpart of a classical bit in quantum computing is Qubit. It’s the basic unit
in which of information in a quantum computer. Superposition, Entanglement,
interference and Tunneling are all special properties that define a qubit.
Properties of Qubit:

• Superposition: The ability of existence of two states ‘0’ and ‘1’ at the same
time in one state.

• Entanglement: The quantum measurements on Qubits perfectly correlated

and they cannot be entangled into two individual Qubits.

• Interference: The interference is a by product of quantum superposition,

which results in the measurement of a Qubit towards a desired state or a set
of states.

• Tunneling: The phenomenon of quantum particle can travel to the opposite

side of the barrier which is impossible by classical particles. The quantum
tunneling allows quantum computers to perform the tasks faster than
classical computers.
Properties of Qubit:

• Qubit is a superposition of both |0> and |1> given |ψ> = α |0> + β

|1>.

• The total probability of all the states of the quantum system must be
100%. i.e. |α| 2 + |β| 2 =1 is called Normalization rule.
Interference-Schrodinger’s photon

A polarizing beam splitter is a device which reflects all light of one

polarization (say H) and transmits all light of the other polarization (say
V). If light polarized at 45° to H and V arrives, half of it is reflected and
half transmitted. If a single photon at 45° arrives, it will be reflected or
transmitted with 50/50 probability. We describe such a photon as a
superposition of H and V: (|H>+|V>)/sqrt(2).
Interference

• However, it is not just a simple • Equal path lengths, rigid mirrors.

matter of a photon going one • Only one photon in the
way or the other with equal apparatus at a time.
probability. If we pass the two • All photons leaving the source
beams through a pair of beam arrive at B.
splitters, we find that the photon • WHY?
can recombine in such a way
that the probability to go in one
direction cancels out. This is
interference.
Single Particle Quantum Interference
(Mach–Zehnder experiment)

Constructive interference leading to appearance of photon at

detector B, even if we consider one photon in the
interferometer.
Representation of Data - Superposition
A single qubit can be forced into a superposition of the two states
denoted by the addition of the state vectors:

|> = 1 |0> + 2 |1>

Where 1 and 2 are complex numbers and |1 |2 + |  2|2 = 1

A qubit in superposition is in both of the

states |1> and |0> at the same time
Multiple Q-bits
What can be done with single q-bit is very limited. For more ambitious
information processing and communication protocols, multiple bits
must be used and manipulated. If we have n q-bits, we can think of
them as representing the binary expression for an n-bit integer between
0 and 2n-1. The most general state of n q-bits can be written
x = 2 n −1
 = 
x =0
x x

We can think of the states |x> as being basis vectors in a 2n-

dimensional complex vector space. Sets of n q-bits are often called
quantum registers or quantum codewords.