Routledge

Taylor & Francis Group

www.routledgesw.com

Alice A. Lieberman, The University of Kansas, Series Editor

An authentic breakthrough in social work education . . .

New Directions in Social Work is an innovative, integrated series of Texts, Web

site, and Interactive Case Studies for generalist courses in the Social Work curric-
ulum at both undergraduate and graduate levels. Instructors will find everything
they need to build a comprehensive course that allows students to meet course
outcomes, with these unique features:

• All texts, interactive cases, and test materials are linked to the 2008 CSWE
Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS).

• One Web portal with easy access for instructors and students from any
computer—no codes, no CDs, no restrictions. Go to www.routledgesw.com
and discover.

• The Series is flexible and can be easily adapted for use in online
distance-learning courses as well as hybrid and bricks-and-mortar
courses.

• Each Text and the Web site can be used individually or as an entire Series
to meet the needs of any social work program.

TITLES IN THE SERIES

Social Work and Social Welfare: An Invitation, Third Edition by Marla Berg-Weger
Human Behavior in the Social Environment, Third Edition by Anissa Taun Rogers
Research for Effective Social Work Practice, Third Edition by Judy L. Krysik and Jerry
Finn
Social Policy for Effective Practice: A Strengths Approach, Second Edition by Rosemary K.
Chapin
Contemporary Social Work Practice, Second Edition by Martha P. Dewees
Research for Effective Social
Work Practice
Third Edition
by Judy L. Krysik, Arizona State University and
Jerry Finn, University of Washington, Tacoma

In this book and companion custom website you will find:

• A social work practice oriented description of qualitative and quantitative

research methods that engages rather than intimidates students.

• Illustrations of real-life research and evaluation from different levels of

social work practice, encompassing many populations.

• Attention to ethics and the politics of research at each phase of the

research process, from the identification of an issue through to the
reporting of findings.

• Tutorials and exercises that provide hands-on learning opportunities

in research and evaluation to promote skill development.

• A historical, strength-based perspective on research and evaluation in social

work to facilitate empowerment and professionalism through knowledge
building.

• Five unique, in-depth, interactive, easy-to-access cases, which students can

easily reach from any computer with Internet connectivity, that provide a
“learning by doing” format that includes data in SPSS and Excel and a
sampling frame unavailable with any other text.

• A wealth of instructor-only resources available at www.routledgesw.com/

research that include sample syllabi, Internet resources, objective and essay-
type test items all linked to current EPAS standards, PowerPoint presentations
for each chapter, and a forum inviting all instructors using texts in the series
to communicate with each other and share ideas to improve teaching and
learning.
Research for
Effective Social
Work Practice
Third Edition

Judy L. Krysik and Jerry Finn

I~ ~~o~!~;n~~:up
LONDON
LONDON AND
AND NEW
NEW YORK
YORK
Third edition published 2013
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Simultaneously published in the UK

by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2013 Taylor & Francis

The right of Judy L. Krysik and Jerry Finn to be identified as authors of this
work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,

and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by McGraw-Hill 2007

Second edition published by Routledge 2010

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Krysik, Judy.
Research for effective social work practice / Judy L. Krysik and Jerry Finn.—3rd ed.
p. cm.—(New directions in social work)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Social service—Research. 2. Social service—Methodology. 3. Social workers—
Professional ethics. 4. Qualitative research—Moral and ethical aspects.
5. Group work in research. 6. Sampling (Statistics) I. Finn, Jerry. II. Title.
HV11.K78 2013
361.3'2072—dc23
2012030850

ISBN: 978-0-415-52100-0 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-415-51986-1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-203-07789-4 (ebk)

Typeset in Stone Serif

by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK
B R I E F C O N T E N T S

Preface xxiii

About the Authors xxix

CHAPTER 1 The Context of Social Work Research 1

CHAPTER 2 The Politics and Ethics of Social Work Research 29

CHAPTER 3 Research Problems and Research Questions 53

CHAPTER 4 Single Subject Research 84

CHAPTER 5 Research in Agencies and Communities 110

CHAPTER 6 Qualitative Research with Dr. Robin Bonifas 149

CHAPTER 7 Group Research Design 185

CHAPTER 8 Sampling 215

CHAPTER 9 Measurement 238

CHAPTER 10 Data Collection and Data Entry 272

CHAPTER 11 Descriptions of Quantitative Data 312

CHAPTER 12 Bivariate Statistics and Statistical Inference 346

CHAPTER 13 A Researcher’s Writing and Presentation Tools 388

References R-1

Glossary/Index I-1

v
D E T A I L E D C O N T E N T S

Preface xxiii

About the Authors xxix

CHAPTER 1 The Context of Social Work Research 1

The Functions of Research in Social Work 6
Promoting Science as a Way of Knowing 6
Increasing Accountability 8
Enhancing Communication 8
Enhancing Access to Scarce Resources 9
Case in Point: Research Proves Critical to Maintaining Scarce Resources 9

Controversies in the History of Social Work Research 10

Historical Controversy 1: Is Social Work a Profession? 10
Historical Controversy 2: Do Social Workers Use Research? 12
Historical Controversy 3: Is Research Relevant to Social Work? 13
The Emergence of Logical Positivism 13
Interpretivism: The Alternative to Positivism 15
A Comparison of Positivist and Interpretivist Research 16
Lessons Learned From the Controversies 18
The Professional Mandate 19

Quick Guide 1: Guidelines for Incorporating Research into Social Work 19

National Association of Social Workers 20
Council on Social Work Education 20
Infrastructure Supporting Social Work Research 21
Trends That Support Research Utilization 21

The Internet 22

vii
viii DETAILED CONTENTS

Government Performance and Results Act 22

Evidence-Based Practice 22
Research in Professional Social Work Practice 24

Case in Point: Social Work Students Investigate Public Perceptions of the Profession 24
Lifelong Learning 25
Research Opportunities for Entry-Level Social Workers 25
Conclusion 26

Main Points 27

Exercises 27

CHAPTER 2 The Politics and Ethics of Social Work Research 29

Social Work Research: The Means to Social Justice 30

Case in Point: Evaluation Research Rescues Healthy Families Program 31

Funding for Social Work Research 32

Research Priorities: What’s Hot, What’s Not 33
The Politics of Intervention 34
The Ethics of Research 35

Case in Point: Abuse of Vulnerable Research Subjects in the Tuskegee Study 36

Rules of Ethical Conduct 36
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) 39
Informed Consent 40
Quick Guide 2: Checklist for Informed Consent Document 41
Assent 43
Case in Point: Havasupai Indians Sue Over Lack of Informed Consent 44
Case in Point: Researchers Increase Participation Using New Active Consent Strategy 46
Privacy 47
Incentives for Participation 48
Confidentiality and Anonymity 48
New Ethics of the Internet 49
Conclusion 50
Main Points 51
Exercises 51
 DETAILED CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 3 Research Problems and Research Questions 53

Understanding the Research Process 54

Identifying the Research Problem 56

Defining the Real Problem 58

Case in Point: Prevention Program Fails to Address the Target Problem 59
Making the Case to Study a Research Problem 59
Find Relevant Information Sources 60
Evaluate the Credibility of Information Sources 60
Striving for Cultural Proficiency 60

Quick Guide 3: Framework for Evaluating the Credibility of Information Sources 61

Refining the Research Question 63

Formulating the General Research Question 63

Avoid Value-Laden Questions 64
Categorize Research Questions by Their Purpose 64
Conduct a Literature Review 66
Use Theory as a Guide 67

Case in Point: Three Theories Used to Formulate Research Questions About

Social Relationships and the Internet 67

Select the Right Research Question for the Study 68

Formulating a Researchable, Specific Research Question 69

Identify and Define Concepts 69

Case in Point: Outdated Definition of Poverty Leads to More Specific

Alternatives for Research 71
Analyze the Feasibility of How the Concept is Defined 72
Define the Unit of Analysis 72
Anchor the Question in Time and Place 73

Case in Point: Study of the Emotional Needs of Refugees Exemplifies

Exploratory Research 74

Developing Research Hypotheses 75

Variables and Constants 76
Types of Hypotheses 76
Case in Point: Study of Serious Violent Behaviors Exemplifies Explanatory Research 77

Formulating Culturally Proficient Research Questions and Hypotheses 78

x DETAILED CONTENTS

Finding Research Questions and Hypotheses in Published Research 80

Conclusion 81

Main Points 81

Exercises 82

CHAPTER 4 Single Subject Research 84

The Value of Single Subject Research 85

The Single Subject Research Model 86

Variables for Single Subject Research 87
Baseline Phase 88
Intervention Phase 90
Follow-Up Phase 91
Single Subject Research Designs 92
AB Design 92
Multiple Baseline Design 93
Multiple Component Design 94
Reversal Design 96
Changing Criterion Design 97

Success in Single Subject Research 98

Analysis of Single Subject Research 98
Graphing SSR Data 99
Analyzing the Standard Deviation 100

Quick Guide 4: Excel Tutorial: Graphing the Results of Single Subject Research 101

Case in Point: Using Standard Deviation in SSR Graph Demonstrates Success

in Improving Bedtime Behavior 102
Benefits of Using Single Subject Research to Inform Practice 103
Better Services 103
Enhanced Relationships 104
View of the Larger Context 104
Promoting Critical Thinking 105
Efficiency 105

Drawbacks of Using Single Subject Research to Inform Practice 105

 DETAILED CONTENTS xi

Conclusion 106
Main Points 107
Exercises 108

CHAPTER 5 Research in Agencies and Communities 110

An Overview of Program Evaluation 111
Needs Assessment 113

Types of Information for Needs Assessment 114

Research Methods in Needs Assessment 115

Case in Point: Need for RAINN Online Sexual Assault Hotline Is Assessed
Using Mixed Methods 116

Evaluability Assessment 118

Foundations of Effective Program Structure 118
Agency Mission and Program Goal 118
Program Objectives 119
Logic Model for Assessing Program Evaluability 121
Implementation Evaluation 123

Case in Point: Implementation Evaluation Improves Technology Program

for Foster Children 124

Consumer Satisfaction Assessment 126

Obtaining the Information 127
Understanding the Limitations 128

Case in Point: Pop-Up Survey Rates Customer Satisfaction with RAINN

Online Sexual Assault Hotline 129

Process Evaluation 131

Outcome Evaluation 131

Case in Point: Program Evaluation Seeks to Determine Whether DARE Works 134

Cost Evaluation 135

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 136

Cost/Benefit Analysis 136
The Political Context of Program Evaluation 138
Participatory Action Research and Evaluation 139
xii DETAILED CONTENTS

Benefits of Program Evaluation 140

Concerns Related to Program Evaluation 141

Case in Point: Program Evaluator Addresses Political Concerns in Large-Scale

Study of Sexual Abstinence Program 143

Conclusion 145

Main Points 145

Exercises 146

CHAPTER 6 Qualitative Research with Dr. Robin Bonifas 149

Uses for Qualitative Methods 151

Limitations of Qualitative Research 152

Subjectivity 152
Limited Generalizability 153
Qualitative Data Collection 154
Individual Interviews 154
Focus Group Interviews 156
Observation 156
Types of Observation 158
Limits of Observation 158
Field Journals 159
Review of Existing Records 159

Case in Point: E-mail from Afghanistan Provides Clues About Biological,

Psychological, and Social Stressors in a War Zone 160

Sampling in Qualitative Research 161

Choosing a Purposive Sampling Method 162

Snowball Sampling 163
Deviant Cases 163
Quota Sampling 164
Accessing Participants: “Gaining Entry” 164
Common Qualitative Methods 165
Case Study 165

Case in Point: Case Study of Inner-City Neighborhood Illuminates the

Code of the Street 167
 DETAILED CONTENTS xiii

Ethnography 168
Grounded Theory 169
Phenomenology 170
Combined Research Approaches 171

Case in Point: Mixed Methods Study Highlights Successful Tactics for

Funding Mental Health Services 172

Data Analysis and Results Reporting in Qualitative Research 173

Preparing the Data 173
Analyzing the Data 174
Organizing the Data into Concepts 175
Developing the Story 177
Maximizing Rigor by Validating the Conclusions 179
Reporting the Findings 180

Conclusion 181

Main Points 183

Exercises 183

CHAPTER 7 Group Research Design 185

A Purpose-Driven Approach to Selecting a Group Research Design 186

Exploratory Research Questions 186

Quick Guide 5: Best Group Research Designs by Types of Research Questions 187
Descriptive Research Questions 188
Explanatory Research Questions 188
Notation and Terminology of Group Research Designs 189
Observation (O) 189
The Intervention, or Experimental Condition (X) 190
Random Assignment (R) 191
Assignment That Is Not Random 192
Terminology and Notation Describing Group Research Designs 193
Cross-Sectional Research 193
Pretests and Posttests 193
Follow-Up Observations 195
Number of Groups Involved 195
Prospective and Retrospective Studies 195
xiv DETAILED CONTENTS

Types of Group Research Designs 196

Case in Point: Variety of Research Designs Contribute to Understanding

the Role of Home Visitation in Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect 198

Pre-Experimental Research Designs 199

One-Shot Case Study 199
One-Group, Posttest-Only 199

Quasi-Experimental Group Research Designs 200

One-Group, Pretest-Posttest 200
Posttest-Only with Comparison Group 200
Pretest–Posttest with Comparison Group 201
Multigroup, Posttest-Only 201
Simple Time Series 201
Time Series with Comparison Group 202

Experimental Research Designs 203

The Classic Experiment 205
Posttest-Only with Control Group 206
Solomon Four-Group 206
Matched Samples 207
Limitations of Group Research Designs 207

Case in Point: A Good Experiment Goes Bad When the Healthy Start Program Being
Studied Has Not Been Properly Implemented 208

Threats to Internal Validity 209

Case in Point: A Research Cadillac Turns Out to Be a Lemon in a Study of

Welfare Reform 210
Threats to External Validity 212
Conclusion 213

Main Points 213

Exercises 214

CHAPTER 8 Sampling 215

Defining the Population 216
The Sampling Frame 217
Sources of Error 218
Selecting a Sampling Approach 218
 DETAILED CONTENTS xv

Case in Point: Study of Female Sexuality Founders on Sampling Bias 220

Probability Sampling Approaches 220

Quick Guide 6: How to Draw Five Types of Probability Samples 221

Simple Random Sampling 222

Systematic Random Sampling 223
Stratified Random Sampling 224
Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling 224
Cluster Sampling 226
Nonprobability Sampling Approaches: Convenience Sampling 228

Case in Point: Cluster Sampling Makes the Annual Homeless Street Count Feasible 228

Deciding on the Correct Sample Size 229

Determine the Desired Precision 230

Manage Variation in the Population 232
Quick Guide 7: Base Sample Sizes with a ±5% Margin of Error,
Determined from Population Size and Variability 232
Consider the Number of Variables to be Analyzed 232
Account for Attrition 234
Conclusion 234

Main Points 235

Exercises 236

CHAPTER 9 Measurement 238

Measurement in Social Work Research 239
The Role of Concepts in Measurement 239
The Context of Measurement 240
Measurement in Qualitative and Quantitative Research 241
Sources of Measurable Data 242
Survey Research 242
Structured and Semi-Structured Surveys 243
Limitations of Survey Research 244
Standardized Instruments 245
Norms and Cutting Scores 245
How Researchers Use Standardized Instruments 247
xvi DETAILED CONTENTS

How Researchers Access Standardized Instruments and

Questionnaires 248
Existing Records 249

Principles of Measurement Design 250

Level of Measurement 250
Nominal Measurement 251
Ordinal Measurement 252
Interval Measurement 252
Ratio Measurement 253
Response Rate 253
Measurement Error 256
Pilot Testing 260

The Quality of Measures 261

Measurement Validity 262

Face Validity 262
Content Validity 262
Construct Validity 263
Criterion-Related Validity 264
Measurement Reliability 264
Interrater Reliability 265
Test–Retest Reliability 266
Parallel Forms Reliability 266
Split-Half Reliability 266
Internal Consistency 266
Measurement Utility 267
Determining Utility 267
Measuring Change: Static and Dynamic Measures 268
Measuring Personal Characteristics: Trait and State Measures 269
Measurement Performance 269

Conclusion 269

Main Points 270

Exercises 271
 DETAILED CONTENTS xvii

CHAPTER 10 Data Collection and Data Entry 272

Selecting a Data Collection Method 273

Methods for Administering Surveys 273

Mail Surveys 274
Telephone Surveys 275
In-Person Surveys 277
Internet Surveys 277
Survey Methods and the Objectives of Research 280
Nonresponse 280

Quick Guide 8: Calculating Response Rates 282

Feasibility 283

Recruiting Research Participants 283

Using Six “Triggers” of Influence 283

Reciprocity 284
Commitment and Consistency 284
Social Proof 285
Liking 286
Authority 286
Scarcity 287
Tailoring Recruitment to the Target Participant 287
Define the Participant 288
Define the Study in the Participant’s Terms 289
Planning for Retention 290
Develop Rapport 291
Develop a Tracking System 292
Minimize the Research Burden 293
Provide Incentives 293

Preparing for Data Collection 294

Developing a Data Collection Protocol 294

Preparing Data Collectors 298
Hiring 298
Training 299

Developing the Database 300

xviii DETAILED CONTENTS

Determining the Order of Variables 301

Deciding on a Unique Identifier 301
Developing the Data Codebook 303
Accounting for Missing Data 304
Entering the Data 306

Working Within a Budget 306

Conclusion 309

Main Points 309

Exercises 310

CHAPTER 11 Descriptions of Quantitative Data 312

Verifying Quantitative Data 314

Case in Point: Coding Errors Produce False Pictures of Girls’ Pregnancies 315

Ordering the Data 315

Frequency Distributions at the Nominal Level 316
Frequency Distributions at the Ordinal Level 316
Frequency Distributions at the Interval and Ratio Levels 318
Examining the Data Graphically 318
Recoding Data 320
Computing Scales by Combining Multiple Variables 322
Assessing Internal Consistency 325
Calculating a Total Scale Score 326
Describing Quantitative Data 328

Central Tendency 328

Mode 328
Median 329
Mean 331
Variability 331
Minimum, Maximum, and Range 332
Standard Deviation 332
Shapes of Distributions 334
Normal Distribution 334
 DETAILED CONTENTS xix

Quick Guide 9: Mathematical Properties of the Normal Distribution 336

Skewed Distributions 337

Descriptive Analyses in Reports 338
Designing Effective Tables 340
Developing Graphics 341
Writing the Narrative 342

Conclusion 343

Main Points 343

Exercises 344

CHAPTER 12 Bivariate Statistics and Statistical Inference 346

Probability 347

Statistical Significance Testing 348

Sampling Error 348

Calculating p-Value 349
Assessing the Impact of Sample Size 350
Errors of Statistical Inference 350
Statistical Significance Testing in Nonexperimental Research 351

Common Bivariate Statistical Tests 352

Linear Correlation 354

Correlation Direction and Line of Best Fit 355
Curvilinear Relationships 356
Correlation Strength and Pearson’s r 357
Coefficient of Determination 358

Quick Guide 10: Guidelines for Describing the Strength of a Correlation

Coefficient 358

Case in Point: Calculating r and r2 Helps to Determine MSW Students’ Beliefs

About the Ethics of e-Therapy 359

Hypothesis Testing with Pearson’s r 360

Correlation Matrix 360

Crosstabulation 361
xx DETAILED CONTENTS

Hypothesis Testing with Chi-Square 362

Expected Frequencies and Observed Frequencies 363
Chi-Square Statistic and Degrees of Freedom 365

Case in Point: User Differences in an Online Rape Crisis Hotline 367

t-Tests: Comparing the Difference Between Two Means 367

Independent Samples t-Test 369
Paired Samples t-Test 370
One Sample t-Test 372

Analysis of Variance 373

Six Common Pitfalls to Avoid in Significance Testing 376
Equating Statistical Significance with Importance 376
Inferring the Magnitude of the Results from the Size of the p-Value 376
Mistaking Rejection of Null Hypothesis for Confirmation of
Research Hypothesis 377
Fishing for Statistically Significant Relationships 377
Inferring Causation from Statistical Significance 377
Failing to Consider Statistical Power 378

Conventions for Reporting Statistical Findings 378

Conclusion 379

Quick Guide 11: Summary of Select Bivariate Statistical Tests 380

Quick Guide 12: Statistics Summary 381

Main Points 384

Exercises 385

CHAPTER 13 A Researcher’s Writing and Presentation Tools 388

Research Proposals 389

Goals of a Research Proposal 390

Sections of a Research Proposal 391
Grant Funding Proposals 393

Quick Guide 13: Rating Sheet for Evaluating Grant Proposals 396

Research Reports 396

Reports to Stakeholders 396

 DETAILED CONTENTS xxi

Case in Point: An Executive Summary Facilitates Use of Consumer Satisfaction

Evaluation of a Mental Health Program 397

Newsletters and Research Briefs 399

Manuscripts for Publication in Professional Journals 400

Publication Process 400

Formatting 402

Quick Guide 14: Checklist for Evaluating a Research Manuscript 404

Presentations at Conferences and Professional Meetings 406

Presentations of Research Papers 407

Poster Sessions 410
Workshops 410

The Ethics and Politics of Research Reports 412

Plagiarism 413
Language 415
Values and Bias 416
Authorship 416
Organizational Politics 416

Conclusion 417

Main Points 417

Exercises 418

References R-1

Glossary/Index I-1
P R E F A C E

Research is an integral part of every social worker’s professional life.

Research for Effective Social Work Practice is written primarily for undergraduate social
work students. Previous editions have been described by instructors as “very user
friendly and non-intimidating for students.” We have sought to maintain the same
student accessibility in this third edition so that students will experience success in
understanding and conducting social work research.
The book provides many examples of social work research drawn from the liter-
ature, our colleagues, and our many years as social work educators, researchers, and
evaluation consultants. The examples relate to many populations and different
levels of practice, and they span many areas, including substance abuse, corrections,
gerontology, social work in an international context, child welfare, violence preven-
tion, community organizing, social policy, program planning, and evaluation.
The third edition of Research for Effective Social Work Practice expands on earlier
editions. The third edition includes:

• A greater emphasis on research in agencies and communities. The chapters on

single-subject research (Chapters 4) and program evaluation (Chapter 5)
have been moved up in the sequence of chapters to allow students a greater
understanding of the context of social work research earlier in the course,
and to provide more of a foundation for final course assignments.

• Greater focus on both theoretical and practical issues related to providing and
documenting evidence-based practice.

• A section on grant writing (Chapter 13). The emphasis is on how integral

research and evaluation are in writing successful grant proposals.

• Greater integration of qualitative and qualitative research methods. Students are

shown how these methods complement both the development of new
knowledge and the evaluation of programs. Exercises have been added to
help students think critically about when to use qualitative or quantitative
methods, or some combination of the two.

xxiii
xxiv PREFACE

• Better integration of Case in Point examples of real-life research into the text.
Some of the examples point to successful research decisions and some
to problematic ones. Several of the examples explain different aspects of
the same studies, providing a more comprehensive view of the research
enterprise and providing chapter-to-chapter continuity.

• More learning and review devices within the text. Additional subheadings and
bulleted and numbered lists help students find information and remember
key details of important concepts. Checklists and tables are provided to help
students remember and review processes and compare methods.

• Quick Guides are a new feature of the book that provide students with print-
able, brief research resources that are useful in practice, and useful as quick
review summaries of key points in the text. These are available on the
instructor resources section of the website in the tab “Data and text files” at
http://www.routledgesw.com//teachers/aboutTheSeries/companionFiles/
reswp.

• New application and critical thinking exercises at the ends of the chapters. Many
exercises from previous editions have also been rewritten so that instructors
can tie the online interactive cases to application of research concepts and
social work practice. In addition, stand-alone exercises that are not tied to
the case studies ask students to think critically about the course content and
its application, to develop their skills at integrating research concepts, and
to think through ethical and design issues.

• Two new interactive case studies at the website, www.routledgesw.com/cases. One

is based on the evaluation of the RAINN (Rape, Abuse, and Incest National
Network) online hotline for rape and sexual abuse. Research and ethical
issues related to program evaluation are a focus of this case. The book’s
website contains evaluation forms and data sets taken directly from the
RAINN evaluation. The second new case study is based on “Hudson City,”
an urban community coping in the aftermath of a category four hurricane.
This case presents some unique challenges for research and evaluation.

• We have made major improvements to the online instructional materials,

especially those materials we make available to instructors only that explain
statistical analysis in Excel and SPSS and we provide a stronger connection
of these materials to the text. Instructors can download these tutorials and make
them freely available to their students on their school’s learning management
system.

What most sets this book apart from other social work research books is that it does
not handle research topics in a piecemeal approach. Like most social work research
books, Research for Effective Social Work Practice has chapters devoted to basic topics
 PREFACE xxv

such as formulating research questions, sampling, research design, measurement,

and analysis. Unlike other texts, however, this book logically links the chapters so that,
based on the research question, the student will be able to (a) make a reasoned judgment
about the best research methods to apply; (b) articulate the strengths and weaknesses of her
or his choices; and (c) critique the research methods used in other studies. In addition, the
critical thinking approach this text promotes, and the examples and guidance it
provides, will help social workers avoid common errors in research and evaluation.
Finally, as the name implies, the book will assist social workers in using and
producing research that will lead to more effective social work practice.
Research for Effective Social Work Practice helps students to develop their own
research skills. We are confident that, if students read this book with the intent to
learn and they engage in the exercises, not only will they be able to access, read, and
critically evaluate research, but they will also master valued research skills.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

Take a look inside, and you will see that each chapter follows a similar format. The
chapters begin with a “quotable quote,” followed by an introduction to the chapter
and a list of learning objectives. There are many examples throughout the book.
Each chapter devotes attention to social work in a culturally diverse context, and it
provides guidance to social workers striving for culturally proficient practice. In
addition, as research terms are introduced, they are displayed in bold type and are
supported by a glossary. The chapters also make considerable use of graphics to
illustrate points. Finally, each chapter is summarized by a conclusion and a series of
main points.
At the end of each chapter are a number of exercises that are carefully designed
to promote active learning. Exercises are intended primarily to apply the concepts in
the chapters to small-group learning. There are some that are also designed for inde-
pendent learning. The exercises draw on five interactive case studies, RAINN,
Riverton, Sanchez, Hudson City, and Carla Washburn, that are on the book’s
website, www.routledgesw.com/research. The website also provides links to credible
online sources of information and additional learning opportunities.
To be consistent with the length of most social work research courses, we orga-
nized this text into 13 chapters. Chapters 1 and 2 present an introduction to the
context of social work research.

• Chapter 1 sets the context for social work research and discusses the
importance of evidence-based practice and data-informed decision making
to the social work profession. The chapter presents social work research in
its historical context; examining the challenges the profession has overcome
and those it continues to face. As you prepare yourself for the job market,
Chapter 1 introduces you to a world of opportunities to engage in social
xxvi PREFACE

work research, both as a complement to practice and as a profession in

itself.

• Chapter 2 reflects on the way politics shapes research agendas and the
choice of research methods for realizing the core values of the profession. It
emphasizes the need for social workers to commit themselves to ethics and
critical thinking in conducting and using research. Similar to the first
chapter, Chapter 2 uses a historical approach, reflecting the belief that we
should learn from the mistakes of our past.

Chapters 3 through 9 represent the design phase of research:

• Chapter 3 sets out the process of conducting research, and it provides a

step-by-step approach to framing research problems and questions.

Chapters 4 and 5 put these concepts into the context of conducting research in
social work, as a practitioner evaluating his or her practice or evaluating a program
on a more macro level:

• Chapter 4 represents one context in which social workers apply their

research skills. The chapter addresses the evaluation of a single case through
single-subject research and considers both the drawbacks and benefits of
this approach.

• Chapter 5 focuses on research strategies used by agencies and community

groups to gather information to support, evaluate, and improve social
programs. Attention is given to the purposes of evaluation as well as its
limitations and political context. The chapter includes types of evaluation,
including evaluability assessment, needs assessment, process, outcomes, and
cost evaluation.

Chapters 6 through 10 present a “how to” approach to answering the research ques-
tion posed in single-subject research or program evaluation using quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed-methods studies:

• Chapter 6 describes a variety of qualitative research methods to answer

research questions that focus on gaining an indepth understanding of social
work-related areas of inquiry.

• Chapter 7 emphasizes the selection of research methods to answer research

questions. The strengths and limitations of group research design are
addressed, along with strategies to control for threats to validity and
strengthen designs. Students are presented with a number of
counterarguments for overcoming objections to experimental research.
 PREFACE xxvii

• Chapter 8 deals with sampling, that is, how to decide which people and
how many people to include in the study. A sampling frame is available on
the website to use with the sampling exercises.

• Chapter 9 covers the basics of measurement, including how to design your

own measures and how to maximize error and increase response through
design features.

• Chapter 10 deals with the mechanics of collecting and safely storing data
and preparing the data for analysis. The website provides step-by-step
tutorials in SPSS and Excel to help you complete the exercises.

Chapters 11 through 13 discuss the implementation, analysis, and reporting

phases:

• Chapter 11 presents a “how to” approach to analyzing quantitative data. As

with Chapter 10, the website provides SPSS and Excel tutorials, and you can
complete the chapter exercises using the Riverton and RAINN data in Excel
or SPSS that are accessible from the website.

• Chapter 12 examines the analysis of quantitative data, guidelines for

selecting statistical tests to analyze the data, and considerations for
interpreting them. Statistical tests include Pearson correlation, Chi-square,
three uses of t-tests, and analysis of variance (ANOVA).

• Chapter 13 provides valuable tips on presenting research in the context of

research proposals, grant writing, research reports and presentations, and
publication.

Finally, this book is designed to guide students in meeting the Council on Social
Work Education (CSWE) Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) by
developing competencies related to the use of research in social work practice.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to acknowledge my mentors, colleagues, and students (past and present)

who continue to fight the good fight. Thank you also to my parents (H.W.K. and
A.E.B.), whose daily lives reflect the importance of community and caring for
strangers. JK
I wish to thank the approximately 4,416 research students in my classes over
my career. They have taught me how to teach research through their feedback,
suggestions, interest, humor, and occasional anxiety. I also wish to thank
my co-author, Judy Krysik, whose upbeat and “can do” attitude has made the
collaborative process of writing this book a real pleasure. Finally, I wish to thank my
xxviii PREFACE

wife, Patricia Spakes, who first showed me how to write for publication and then
how to build a career and a life together. JF

We would like to thank the following reviewers for their invaluable feedback:
David L. Beimers, Minnesota State University
Sally Bell, Azusa Pacific University
Kevin Borders, Spalding University
Baorong Guo, University of Missouri, St Louis
A B O U T T H E A U T H O R S

Dr. Judy Krysik is currently an Associate Professor in Social Work, Arizona State
University, Phoenix. She teaches research methods, evaluation, program planning,
and practice with children and families. Her current research is on the primary
prevention of child abuse and neglect and the coproduction of knowledge. She is a
Board Member of Prevent Child Abuse Arizona. She is involved in the Council on
Social Work Education (CSWE) as co-chair of the Values and Ethics track and she
serves on the editorial review boards of the Journal of Social Work Education, Social
Work Research, and the Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics.

Dr. Jerry Finn is currently an Emeritus Professor in Social Work, University of

Washington, Tacoma. Dr. Finn has 32 years of teaching experience in social work
that includes courses in human behavior, research, practice, and information tech-
nology and human services at the bachelor’s and master’s levels, and he has served
on doctoral committees. In addition, he has published numerous scholarly articles
and two edited books, primarily in areas related to the impact of information tech-
nology on human services. Dr. Finn has served as treasurer of the CSWE with the
Association of Baccalaureate Social Work Program Directors (BPD) as treasurer and
registrar. He is currently consulting with human service agencies in the areas of
program evaluation and information technology.

xxix
C H A P T E R 1

The Context of Social

Work Research

The continued growth and acceptance of social work knowledge depends not only
on social workers’ appreciation and support of research but also on their competence
to engage in research and use research findings.
(Proctor, 2001, p. 3)

P EOPLE GENERALLY BECOME SOCIAL WORKERS because they want to have a

positive impact on social conditions in order to improve the lives of other
people. Impact comes from the commitment to make change and the knowledge
and skills to put that commitment to use. Social work history is rich with examples
of committed individuals informed by knowledge and skill.
Dorothea Dix, for example, was a pioneering social worker who used research
to make an enormous impact in the area of mental health (Muckenhoupt, 2003). In
1841, she volunteered to teach a Sunday school class of 20 women inmates at the
Cambridge, Massachusetts, jail. After the lesson was over, she went down to the
lower level of the building—the dungeon cells. This was where the “insane” were
sheltered. She saw miserable, wild, and dazed men and women chained to walls and
locked in pens. They were naked, filthy, brutalized, underfed, given no heat, and
sleeping on stone floors.
This visit moved Dix to start a campaign to have stoves placed in the cells and
to have the inmates fully clothed. She also began to study firsthand the conditions
for people with mental illness throughout the state. She traveled from county to
county, gathering evidence to present to the Massachusetts legislature as the basis
for laws to improve conditions. She eventually visited states all over the nation,
systematically gathering evidence and making presentations to lobby for the estab-
lishment of state-supported institutions. The first state hospital built as a result of
her efforts was located in Trenton, New Jersey. The construction of this hospital was
the first step in the development of a national system of “asylums”—places of refuge
(Viney & Zorich, 1982). Proponents argued that putting people in asylums would be
more humane and cost-effective than the existing system.

1
2 RESEARCH FOR EFFECTIVE SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

PHOTO 1.1

Dirty floor of
an abandoned
building from
the Manteno
State Mental
Hospital in
Manteno,
Illinois

Source: Shutterstock, Copyright: Nagel Photography

Research continues to impact our society’s approach to mental health. By 1955

there were 560,000 people in mental hospitals throughout the United States. The insti-
tutions themselves had become overcrowded, abusive, and in need of reform. Social
workers again used research to convince state legislators that mental hospitals were
ineffective treatment facilities. They used interviews with patients and family members
to document abuses. They argued that releasing people from mental hospitals would
be more humane and cost-effective than the existing policy of institutionalization.
As a result, beginning in the mid-1960s, many mental hospitals were closed in
favor of community treatment models (Scott & Dixon, 1995; Stein & Test, 1980).
 THE CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 3

Although community treatment is promising, it has also led to an increase in homeless-

ness and incarceration among adults with mental illness (Lamb & Weinberger, 1998).
Research continues today on the effectiveness of community-based treatment and
peer and family support models. Research continues to be a major factor in the under-
standing of mental illness and on the improvement of services for this population.
This book was written to help social work students develop the research knowl-
edge and skills that you will need in order to have a positive impact on social work
practice and social conditions, in the areas of mental health and many other issues
of concern to social workers. To accomplish this task, you will need to answer many
fundamental questions: Did I help the individual, couple, or family I worked with?
What types of interventions are most likely to lead to positive change? Who is not
receiving social work services even though he or she is eligible for such services?
What interventions are the most cost-effective in this era of diminishing resources?
What evidence do I need in order to obtain or maintain funding for a social program?
What information do I need to give policy makers to promote change that will help
people in the community? To answer these questions, you will need knowledge and
skills in research. The realization that research is vital to social work practice is not
new, and the need for research has been demonstrated over and over again, as illus-
trated in many of the exhibits throughout this book.
Before we begin to develop research knowledge and skills, however, we must
address the one question that is on the minds of so many beginning social work
students: Why do I need to learn research? To address this question we present you
with an open letter in Exhibit 1.1. We continue to address this question in this chapter
by briefly examining the function of research in social work, the history of research
in social work, the struggles the profession has overcome, and the opportunities and
challenges that lie ahead. Overall, this chapter is devoted to helping you to achieve
an appreciation for the place of research in social work practice and to increase your
knowledge of the infrastructure that has been developed to support social work
research. The remaining chapters are geared toward helping you develop the research
knowledge and skills that will enable you to fulfill your dream of making an impact.
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• Articulate the role of research in social work.

• Discuss the alternatives to knowledge based on research.
• Describe how research can be used to empower both social workers and the
people they endeavor to help.

• Summarize the positions of social work’s professional organizations on the

use of research in social work.

• Describe the concept of evidence-based practice.

• Identify the types of career opportunities that research skills afford the
entry-level social worker.
4 RESEARCH FOR EFFECTIVE SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

EXHIBIT 1.1 EXHIBIT 1.1

To Once and The old maxim, “What goes around comes around” has happened to me. I took my
first policy class when I was a first-year MSW student. I wanted to be a therapist. After
Future Social
a week I (foolishly) asked my professor, “Why do we need any of this?” He looked
Work Research
pained and proceeded to tell me that policy was “the rules” and that those rules would
Students determine what services I could provide and to whom, as well as what funding and
access would be available for my “therapy.” I didn’t get it at the time.
Now I am teaching research. One evening, one of my MSW students looked
frustrated. I asked if there was something she didn’t understand. “No,” she answered,
“I just don’t see why I’ll ever need this.” I am sure I made the same pained expression
that my policy professor had made 30 years earlier. For drama, I also clutched my heart.
But she was serious and did not mean to induce cardiac arrest. In fact, she wasn’t
asking a question; she was honestly stating her feelings.
And so, I was sure I had failed her—not her grade, but her education. Hadn’t I given
the “Why you need research” lecture? Hadn’t we examined fascinating research
designs and crucial outcome studies? Hadn’t we discussed research ethics, literature
reviews, critical analyses, statistical testing, and outcome evaluation? We had . . . and
yet the question had remained.
I came to realize that the student didn’t doubt the importance of research. Rather,
she doubted the relevance of research for her. She was sure that SHE would never
knowingly do research, just as I was sure 30 years earlier that I would never (knowingly)
do policy analysis (or teach research). Foolish me, and probably foolish her.
I guess I need to make my case again. How can you be a clinician, a therapist,
an advocate for rape victims, a worker in a domestic violence shelter, a youth
counselor, or any other direct service worker without developing research skills? It
would be nice to think that we taught you everything you needed to know in the
social work program. Too bad—we didn’t. When I was a therapist, I was seeing
a client for marital counseling. I had learned a lot about family systems and marital
counseling. One day my client told me that his father had sexually abused him as a
child. My first thought was, “My program never taught me about sexual abuse
of boys by their fathers. What should I do?” I needed to know the developmental
impact of this kind of sexual abuse. What kinds of treatments were likely to be
effective? How great was the risk of suicide? Should I explore and reflect the
client’s past feelings, or should I teach avoidance and compartmentalization? I
was very glad—and relieved—that I knew how to access the research literature. Other
people’s research made my work a lot less anxiety provoking, for both my client and
for me.
Good social workers care about what happens to their clients. Yes, using effective
treatments and validating results is part of the NASW Code of Ethics. However, good
social workers don’t want to be effective just because their Code of Ethics demands it.
Instead, they want to be effective because they CARE. Research helps you and your
 THE CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 5

clients to see what you are accomplishing (or not accomplishing) as a result of services EXHIBIT 1.1
provided.
I recently heard about an exciting new treatment: rapid eyeball movement therapy. continued
It really works. At least, that’s what they tell me. Decisions, decisions, decisions . . . so
many decisions to make as part of providing services to your clients. What exciting new
services should you use? Is it better to use individual or group treatment? How many
sessions does it take for a men’s domestic violence group to effect change? Is a
“climbing course” an effective way to promote group solidarity with teenagers? Should
we encourage the school system to have a DARE program? Should we text with our
clients? Sometimes the research literature provides answers; sometimes it doesn’t. You
need to know how to get the evidence you need to make treatment decisions. You can
be a “force” for evidence-based practice at your agency. We do things because it has
been demonstrated that they work. OK, sometimes we try something innovative if
there is enough theory or evidence to suggest it’s worth a try. However, we don’t
continue to spend money if it doesn’t work. You have to know one way or another.
Money. Money. Money. Why does it always come down to money? You want money
so you can continue your program. You want money so you can expand your services or
offer new services. You can get the money, but you have to know how (and who) to
ask. These days, funders don’t give money easily. You have to get it the old fashioned
way, by demonstrating that you need it and will use it wisely. Demonstrate that people
want, need, and will use your service. Demonstrate that what you want to provide is
effective. Demonstrate that you put the money already given you to good use. You
demonstrate these things through program evaluation, a.k.a. research.
Sometimes people say some strange and hurtful things in the name of “truth.”
Sometimes they do this because they want to stop what you are doing. I’m referring to
comments like, “Most people on welfare cheat the system” or “Almost 98% of men
pay their child support.” Going further, in some cases they actually come up with
research to support it. You need to know enough about research to show them (or
politicians/funders/your community) the error of their ways, or of their method of
obtaining data, or of their statistical procedures, or of their (false) conclusions. First you
have to “smell” it, then point it out, then get rid of it.
OK, if you don’t want to “walk the walk,” at least learn to talk the talk. If not you,
SOMEONE will do research at your agency. You can explain your program and objectives
in language that a researcher understands, and you can understand the language of
the researcher to be sure that what is being done is appropriate. Bilingual is good.
So, maybe you won’t ever have to do research or policy analysis. But maybe you will.
Maybe you think you’ll be a case manager or a therapist for the rest of your life. I
thought that. Funny, though, things change. You may become a supervisor, an advocate,
an administrator, a program evaluator, or even a research professor. Who knows where
life leads? In the meantime, I have a hammer in my garage. I rarely use it, but when I
need one, it’s incredibly handy. We wish you the best with your research tools.

Source: Reprinted with permission, previously published in Finn (2004, p. 12)

6 RESEARCH FOR EFFECTIVE SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

THE FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL WORK

At this point you may be wondering, “How can research make me a better social
worker?” There are several answers to that question, and they all relate to the func-
tions of research in social work. In this section we discuss research both as a method
for providing the scientific basis of the social work profession and as a tool for
improving social conditions. We focus on four basic functions of social work research:

1. promoting science as a way of knowing

2. increasing accountability

3. improving communication

4. enhancing access to scarce resources.

Promoting Science as a Way of Knowing

Social workers have many ways of acquiring knowledge (see Exhibit 1.2), and
they are all important. One way of knowing is through direct experience. Social
work education promotes knowing through experience by requiring students to
complete a specific number of hours in an internship or a field placement. Through

EXHIBIT 1.2 WAY OF KNOWING EXAMPLE

Five Ways of Authority Depression is anger turned against the self. I know because
Knowing my supervisor told me.
Direct experience A caseload of 60 cases per worker will cause burnout. I know
because I experienced it. I know because I saw, smelled,
touched, or tasted it.
Intuition I think the child is being abused. I don’t know why exactly,
but my intuition tells me so. I know because I feel it to
be so.
Science In 2007, the estimated number of forcible rapes (90,427)
decreased 2.5% from the 2006 estimate (United States
Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigations,
2008). I know because the facts are specific and are backed
up by research.
Tradition “There is nothing wrong with spanking a child. My parents
spanked me, and my grandparents spanked my parents, and
look at me, I’m OK.” I know because that’s the way it’s been
as long as I can remember.
 THE CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 7

observation and direct experience, social workers develop a sense of what works and
under what circumstances.
Intuition is another way of knowing. As social workers we are told to pay atten-
tion to our reactions or our “gut feelings.” Sometimes our intuition causes us to
explore certain lines of questioning or to make observations that lead to important
insights in our work.
We also gain knowledge from authority. From infancy we are programmed to
believe that what people in positions of authority tell us is true. For instance, we
may seldom question what our parents, teachers, clergy, and political leaders tell us.
In social work practice we gain knowledge from our supervisors and our colleagues.
We also acquire knowledge from our clients, who are authorities on their own lives.
Another source of knowledge is tradition. Knowing through tradition involves
believing something because that is the way it has always been, because it is a part
of who you are. Tradition is an important source of culturally specific knowledge.
For instance, many indigenous cultures have folk healers; in Mexico they are some-
times called curanderas (or curanderos, masculine). The curanderos are a cornerstone
of Mexican culture. Some people who seek the services of the curanderos are true
believers; others are skeptical. In either case, however, participation is a product of
knowledge rooted in tradition.
Human service agencies may also have traditions, for instance, traditions about
the best ways to deliver social services. The way it is done is because “that’s how it
has always been done.” For example, an agency may pride itself on providing
insight-oriented therapy to their clients. However, this “tradition” of service delivery
may become outdated as changes within the community bring more people with
severe and persistent mental illnesses to the agency.
One particularly important source of knowledge for social workers is social
work research, a systematic way of developing knowledge that relies on the scien-
tific method. The scientific method is a process of accumulating knowledge that
involves five distinct steps:

1. identifying a problem or issue

2. defining that problem or issue in terms of a question that is capable of study

3. developing a plan to answer the question

4. gathering data according to prescribed practices

5. drawing conclusions from the data.

The knowledge and skills we learn in social work research—like those we learn
in other social work courses, such as interviewing and assessment—change the ways
we see, hear, and understand people and make us more effective social workers. An
education in social work research leads us to question the knowledge claims of all
sources. One of the most important reasons you are taking this course is to learn to
8 RESEARCH FOR EFFECTIVE SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

question what you think you know and how you know it—this is the hallmark
of critical thinking.
Making judgments about what to believe is a part of everyday life for social
workers. The danger of basing social work practice decisions on direct experience,
intuition, authority, or tradition is that what you think you know may be no more
than a few isolated observations, or what we refer to as anecdotal information. For
example, knowledge based on authority may be based on what feels right or
comfortable for a particular person who has the authority. It may be rooted in
tradition or may be an untested fad.
To be effective as social workers, we must critically evaluate our ways of knowing
and make judgments based on the best information available. We must learn to
question basic values and claims, even those that are made on the basis of published
scientific findings that we previously may have taken for granted. This does not
mean that social workers discount other ways of knowing or never use them. They
are, however, keenly aware that much of their work, from understanding problems
and issues to selecting interventions and evaluating their effectiveness, should be
based on critical thinking and science.

Increasing Accountability
A second function of social work research is to help us evaluate our own effective-
ness. How do we know when our actions are working (or not working)? How will we
know if something can be done better, faster, or less expensively? Through social
work research we soon learn that our interventions are usually not entirely effective.
We use research to help us determine when to stay the course and when to take
corrective action. We learn to be curious about and question the effectiveness of
what we, as social workers, do.
Through research, we also provide information to others about our effective-
ness. We are accountable to those we serve. They have a right to know the extent to
which we have been successful in meeting their needs and goals, and the needs and
goals of others who have gone before them. In addition, we must be accountable to
those who fund social work services, whether that is through public funds, private
donations, or fee for service contracting. Indeed, the funding of social programs
depends increasingly on providing evidence of success.

Enhancing Communication
A third basic function of social work research is communication. Social workers use
research to communicate precisely and with confidence and to enhance their image
as professionals. When social workers use research effectively, they are not just
talking; they are talking knowledgeably.
For example, Dr. Robin Bonifas, a social work professor at Arizona State
University, studies the quality of psychosocial care in nursing homes. Informed by
 THE CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 9

research, Dr. Bonifas (2008) reported that when social workers devote considerable
time to psychosocial assessment at the expense of psychosocial intervention, the
associated outcomes were poorer for nursing home residents. When social workers
more equally balanced the time spent on assessment and intervention, psychosocial
outcomes for facility residents were greatly improved. Dr. Bonifas is currently
working with other nursing home advocates to identify methods that will enable
nursing home social workers to achieve this balance.

Enhancing Access to Scarce Resources

A fourth basic function of social work research is to gain access to scarce resources.
Research can make the difference between losing and maintaining the funding for
vital social work services.

In 1995 property taxes in Franklin County, Ohio, covered about 50% of the cost of mental CASE IN
health and substance abuse services. As the tax levy was set to expire, an initial attempt POINT
to pass a new levy failed. Suddenly, mental health and substance abuse services were on
the chopping block. With only one more election left to pass the tax before it expired, a Research
coalition consisting of the funding board and the agencies providing the services Proves Critical
embarked on a mission to save the services. to Maintaining
At the outset, two opposing ideas regarding how to focus the campaign emerged
Scarce
among the coalition partners. The funding board wanted to broadcast messages about
the mental health system, its structure, and its clients in order to give it more of a public Resources
identity. The providers’ idea was to showcase their agencies as providers of services in
the campaign. Research supported by the coalition to examine the opinions of the local
residents on the suggested campaign strategies soon served to eliminate both ideas. The
research revealed that there was very little awareness—and a great deal of confusion—
among the voting public concerning the mental health system and the providers. It
further showed that the clients of the mental health and substance abuse services were
not people with whom most of the voters could identify. Many voters viewed alcohol or
drug problems as the fault of the individual. Therefore, funding these services was a low
priority.
Having rejected both proposed approaches, the coalition used research to develop a
campaign message to pass the tax levy. The strategy was to test messages for their ability
to move voters from a negative or neutral position to a positive one. The coalition
employed paid consultants who polled voters and used focus groups to test potential
messages. The messages found to work the best with voters were that (a) services were
helping people to help themselves and (b) a large proportion of the budget would help
children. What voters wanted to hear about was positive results with which they could
identify, such as a client going back to work because of the services.
Had the coalition not used research to test the messages, they probably would have
repeated the same mistakes that led to the defeat of the tax levy in 1995, including
10 RESEARCH FOR EFFECTIVE SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

CASE IN telling the story from the administrator and provider perspective as opposed to the
POINT voter’s perspective (Allen & Boettcher, 2000). Instead, by using research, the coalition
learned to stay away from messages like the average annual cost of the levy to the
continued taxpayer and the quality of the local mental health system. Research also played a medi-
ating role, reducing the tension between the administrators and providers, who were no
longer placed in the position of arguing their differing ideas for the campaign. The
group could move on together using research-based information.
The research provided information on the characteristics of people who were solidly in
support of the tax levy, people who were solidly against the levy, and undecided people
who might be persuaded. This information enabled the coalition to target most of the
campaign resources toward the undecided group, a population that was essential to
securing victory. The campaign moved from a 47% chance of winning in the June poll to
a 62% victory in the election four months later. One of the most important lessons learned
from this experience was “Pay attention to research, not instinct” (Allen & Boettcher,
2000, p. 30).

CONTROVERSIES IN THE HISTORY OF SOCIAL

WORK RESEARCH

So far we have taken the position that in order to have an impact, social workers
need to acquire knowledge and skills in research. There have been many times
since the days of Dorothea Dix, however, that the place of research in social
work has been hotly debated. Three of these historical controversies have called
into question the status of social work as a profession, the very nature and value
of research, and the roles of the social work practitioner and researcher in producing
and using research. A brief history of these controversies is warranted because
it allows us to appreciate where we are today and how we got here. Understanding
our professional history is also part of the socialization process for social work
students.

Historical Controversy 1: Is Social Work a Profession?

Of course social work is a profession. Isn’t it? How do we know? A century ago, in
1915, the National Conference of Charities and Correction in Baltimore invited an
educational reformer named Abraham Flexner to speak. Flexner chose to focus his
address on the question of whether social work was a profession. To answer this
question, Flexner presented the defining criteria of a profession, applied them to
social work, and concluded that social work did not measure up. In fact, Flexner
publicly stated that social work was not a profession. Flexner’s comments sent shock
waves throughout the social work community.
 THE CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 11

“Groundbreaking Infant PHOTO 1.2

Mortality Study—The
U.S. Government could Ms. Anna I.
once do little more than Grosser with
guess at the percentage
famous “Baby
of infants who survived
their first year and the
Thermometer”
reasons why so many of the U.S.
did not. One of the Children’s
Children’s Bureau’s very Bureau
first undertakings was a
Copyright:
search for more defini-
tive answers.
National Photo
Eight American Company
cities were selected
to represent different
conditions for families
in different regions.
Bureau staff, volun-
teers, and women’s
clubs members pains-
takingly visited the
homes of approxi-
mately 23,000 babies,
documenting condi-
tions and discovering critical factors that influenced the vastly differing infant death
rates among various groups. The result? Between 1915 and 1921, infant mortality rates
fell 24 percent.”

Flexner’s criteria to define professional status included the following:

• The work involves personally responsible intellectual activity.

• The work has a practical purpose.
• The work is teachable in a curriculum.
• The work pursues a broader social good.
• The content of the discipline is derived from science and learning and does not
employ knowledge that is generally accessible to everyone (Kirk & Reid, 2002).

Although there is some controversy with regard to the criteria Flexner used to
assign social work a failing grade, social work was most vulnerable to the criticism
12 RESEARCH FOR EFFECTIVE SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

that it lacked a unique scientific body of knowledge. Does social work have a unique
scientific knowledge base? If so, what makes it unique?
The research methods that social workers use—that is, the procedures for
conducting research studies and gathering and interpreting data to get the most
valid findings—are not unique to our profession. The same is true of the theories
that social workers draw upon to guide their research. Perhaps the best explanation
of what makes social work research unique is based on the idea that the identity
of a profession depends more on the uniqueness of its goals than on its
methodology (Wakefield, 1988).
The ends to which social workers strive are defined in the preamble to the NASW
Code of Ethics. It defines social work’s primary mission as “to enhance human well-
being and help meet the basic human needs of all people, with particular attention
to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living
in poverty” (NASW, 1999, p. 1). Social work research is needed to fulfill this mission.
Thus, the purpose of social work research is to create applied knowledge; that is, we
use research to develop knowledge that will inform social work practice.
Social workers consider not only the usefulness of the research questions they
ask to inform practice but also the ways that research findings may be misused.
Social workers have been instrumental in expanding research to include problem
areas that were little understood and populations that were largely ignored by
research in other disciplines. They also study people and problems in a way that
challenges stereotypes and focuses on strengths as well as problems. For instance,
they tend to examine not only risk factors for problems but also protective factors,
that is, factors that reduce the risk of certain problems and that lead to resilience.

Historical Controversy 2: Do Social Workers Use Research?

The next major area of controversy in social work research focused not on the produc-
tion of research by social workers, or the lack thereof, but on the use of research. Aaron
Rosenblatt was the first social work researcher to conduct a study on the use of research
by social workers. Over 40 years ago, Rosenblatt (1968) found that social workers rated
research the least used or least valued activity in making treatment decisions. Other
early studies of social workers’ use of research found similar results. Specifically, they
revealed that social workers (a) did not read many research articles; (b) seldom used
research studies in their professional work; and (c) had difficulty accepting findings
that challenged their beliefs (Casselman, 1972; Kirk & Fischer, 1976).
In response to the question of why social workers did not use research to a
greater extent, some researchers offered the following explanations:

• Social workers were not appreciative of the work that researchers do.
• Social agencies were barely tolerant hosts of research.
• Agency administrators were interested only in research that supported the
status quo. (For a discussion of this controversy, see Kirk & Reid, 2002.)
 THE CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 13

Later research led to optimism that research use in social work was increasing
(Reid & Fortune, 1992). The response to the claim that social workers did not use
research to inform their practice served to shift the debate away from the shortcom-
ings of the social worker to the nature of the research. If social workers were not
using research to inform practice, perhaps it was because they failed to see the utility
of much of the research.

Historical Controversy 3: Is Research Relevant to Social Work?

The third controversy in social work research involves the utility of research for
social work practice (Kirk & Reid, 2002). Specifically, many social workers ques-
tioned whether research could improve their practice, and others insisted that the
profession use knowledge that was research-based. This issue and the preceding
controversy on the use of research illustrate the division that existed between those
who saw themselves as social work practitioners and those who saw themselves as
social work researchers. To understand how this gap between research and practice
occurred, we must briefly comment on the origins of modern-day science.

The Emergence of Logical Positivism. The idea of applying science to the social
world grew out of a period of European history known as the Enlightenment.
Seventeenth-century thinkers moved away from religious and authoritarian expla-
nations of human behavior toward an empirical analysis that relied on observation
and measurement as the way of knowing. This new framework, or paradigm, was
called logical positivism. It was seen as a way to replace the old ways of knowing
with objective rationality.
Essentially, logical positivism argued that scientists could understand the
human experience in the same way as they do the physical world. Going further,
social scientists who understood the human experience in this way could engineer
solutions to individual and social problems just as physical scientists attempted to
engineer solutions in the natural world. In order to remain objective, the expert
scientist had to distance himself from the subjects of the research. (We use the
gender-specific term “himself” because early social science was dominated by men.)
Many social scientists embraced logical positivism as the path that would lead
to objectivity and truth. For all its promise, however, logical positivism was not
without its problems. For instance, it could consider only a limited number of vari-
ables at one time. The idea of being an objective scientist was also criticized because,
after all, scientists are human, and, like all humans, they are socialized to a set of
values and beliefs that influence what they see and how they interpret it. The critics
of logical positivism contended that, despite its claims of objectivity, logical posi-
tivism was biased and often served as a form of power rather than a source of truth.
History provides us with numerous examples to support this position.
One illustration is the following commentary by the late Stephen Jay Gould, an
evolutionary biologist and science historian. In his 1981 book The Mismeasure of Man,
14 RESEARCH FOR EFFECTIVE SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

PHOTO 1.3

Descartes’ idea
of how
impulses from
limbs reach the
brain

Source: Photos.com Copyright: © Getty Images

Gould presents numerous examples of bad science that was produced in the name of
objectivity and has served to maintain the status quo. For example, during the nine-
teenth century, scientists involved in the field of craniometry compiled data on skull
size to rank people by race and sex. Gould states that the proponents of craniometry
regarded themselves as “servants of their numbers, apostles of objectivity” (p. 74). As
an example he cites Paul Broca, an eminent French scientist of the time:

We might ask if the small size of the female brain depends exclusively upon the
small size of her body. Tiedemann has proposed this explanation. But we must not
forget that women are, on the average, a little less intelligent than men, a difference
 THE CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 15

PHOTO 1.4

Science as a
Means of
Oppression

Source: Shutterstock, Copyright: Alena Hovorkova

which we should not exaggerate but which is, nonetheless, real. We are therefore
permitted to suppose that the relatively small size of the female brain depends in
part upon her physical inferiority, and in part upon her intellectual inferiority (cited
in Gould, 1981, p. 104).

Interpretivism: The Alternative to Positivism. The claims that (a) research carried out
in the tradition of logical positivism leads to the objective truth and (b) knowledge
flows one way, from expert to nonexpert, have contributed to the division and distrust
between researchers and social work practitioners. In the 1970s and 1980s, the debate
16 RESEARCH FOR EFFECTIVE SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

in social work focused on the most appropriate paradigm for developing social work
knowledge. As a scientific alternative to logical positivism, many researchers came
to embrace a paradigm known as interpretivism. The interpretivist paradigm is
concerned with understanding social conditions through the meaning individuals
ascribe to their personal experiences.
In essence, interpretivism maintains that (a) there may be several versions
of the truth, and (b) the version that a researcher adopts will depend upon her or his
vantage point. Given these assumptions, then, the meaning a researcher ascribes to
an event or phenomenon should not be separated from the context in which the
event occurs. The researcher’s personal perceptions and experiences strongly influ-
ence the way she or he sees and interprets the world. This reality should always be
acknowledged in the findings of the research.
Entire editions of journals and books have been devoted to arguing the relative
merits of positivism and interpretivism for social work research (see, for example,
Hudson & Nurius, 1994). The debate has revolved around philosophical questions
such as: What is truth? If there is such a thing as truth, how can we know it?
Researchers who favor the interpretivist paradigm argue that the positivist paradigm
is reductionistic: It oversimplifies life’s complexity by reducing it to a set of observa-
tions, and it leaves out important aspects of the human experience. Proponents of
the positivist framework respond that interpretivist research is subjective and
cannot be generalized beyond the individuals or groups studied.

A Comparison of Positivist and Interpretivist Research. The differences in research

conducted using either the positivist or the interpretivist paradigm are reflected in
the following example, which involves welfare reform. What is the best way to learn
the “truth” about women’s experiences as a result of welfare reform?
One possibility is to investigate at great depth the experiences of individual
women receiving Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) through interviews
with these women, their children, their families, their neighbors, and other commu-
nity members. We might even stay with a family receiving TANF for a period of time,
observing how its members live. We would be interested in their explanations of what
led them to apply for TANF, how they view their future, what aspirations they have
for their children, and what their everyday life experience is like.
From our observations, we would then develop additional questions and
hypotheses that would increase our understanding of their circumstances. Our goal
would be to develop insight and perhaps a theory to explain the impact of welfare
on a woman’s life. We might better understand the forces that lead women either
to leave welfare or to remain on it. Indepth research focusing on extensive examina-
tion of a limited number of subjects conducted in the interpretivist tradition is
known as qualitative research. Chapter 6 is devoted to the topic of qualitative
research.
Another way to find the “truth” is to “count things” that we believe are impor-
tant. Again using welfare as an example, how many women receive TANF? How
 THE CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 17

EXHIBIT 1.3
Interpretivist Tradition Positivist Tradition
Two Research
Traditions,
Two Research
Approaches

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

• Open-ended observations and • Collection of numerical data for

interviews that lead to detailed summarizing, counting, and
description statistical models

• Limited number of subjects • Large number of subjects

• Tends to be hypothesis generating • More likely to be hypothesis testing

• Researcher may be a participant • Researcher is considered objective

many men are receiving TANF? What are the age, race, education, employment
status, income, and number of children of adults receiving TANF? After we have accu-
mulated these data, we can look for relationships in the data. We might learn, for
example, that women who never finished high school have a higher likelihood of
remaining unemployed than women who have finished high school. This type of
research conducted in the positivist tradition, which involves the use of numerical
data, is known as quantitative research. The latter half of this book focuses on
quantitative research. See Exhibit 1.3 for a simple comparison of the two research
traditions.
Although both qualitative and quantitative research approaches are valued for
their unique contributions to social work research, there is a perceived hierarchy of
research approaches. Quantitative research has been described as objective and
scientific and has been equated with masculinity. To illustrate this type of thinking,
in a discussion of the politics of research paradigms, one researcher recounted her
surprise at learning that her manuscript, which reported a quantitative study on
wife abuse, was rejected by a respected feminist journal (Yllo, 1988). The reason she
was offered for the rejection was that the positivist research paradigm was patriar-
chal and as a result could contribute no feminist insights. In contrast, qualitative
research is often considered subjective and nonscientific and is equated with
femininity. Quantitative research has been referred to as “hard science” and qualita-
tive research as “soft science.” There has also been a perception that social workers
18 RESEARCH FOR EFFECTIVE SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

who wanted their research to be funded and published were better off pursuing a
quantitative research approach.
In response to the debate on epistemology—how we know what we know—posi-
tivism has evolved considerably. The evolution in positivism includes the recogni-
tion that scientists are not immune to values, political pressure, and ideologies, and
that objectivity is something to strive for rather than a characteristic of a research
approach. The contemporary positivist paradigm maintains that knowledge derived
from observation is superior to knowledge based on authority, experience, tradition,
or other forms of knowing. Through highly structured research methods and controls,
positivism seeks to limit the influence of any type of bias that might threaten the
validity or truthfulness of the findings. As a result, we no longer use the term logical
positivism to describe today’s brand of positivism. We are more likely to use the
terms post-positivism or quantitative research. Similarly, we often use the term qual-
itative research to refer to research conducted in the interpretivist paradigm.

Lessons Learned From the Controversies

Undoubtedly, there will always be social workers who fail to see the value in the
other side’s position on research. Contemporary social workers, however, need not
choose one paradigm over the other. As social workers in search of knowledge, we
now recognize that each approach provides useful and complementary knowledge
and makes a unique contribution.
Moreover, we sometimes combine qualitative and quantitative approaches in
which the limitations of one approach are offset by the benefits of the other. We call
this the mixed methods approach. For example, in one mixed methods study, the
researchers set out to explore the financial implications of the death of a life partner
(Corden & Hirst, 2008). Qualitative interview data with recently bereaved individuals
were combined with data from the British Household Panel Survey to understand
why financial difficulties occur, and to describe whether the difficulties are brief
or long-lasting, and their effects on bereavement outcomes. The researchers’ qualita-
tive data informed them of family obligations and expectations that could not be
uncovered through quantitative data. The qualitative research also informed their
approach to examining quantitative data, as they learned that money transfers
between households including adult children was common following the death of a
life partner.
Finally, if social workers are going to use research-based knowledge successfully,
researchers need to consider the following priorities:

• Produce research that is relevant for social work practitioners, in part by

collaborating with practitioners.

• Produce focused research in areas we know little about, such as the factors
that influence the effectiveness of treatment with different ethnic and racial
groups.
 THE CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 19

• Adopt better methods of sharing research methods and findings.

• Write for social work practitioners, producing succinct reports that state the
core findings understandably and explain how the research can be applied
to practice.

The controversies regarding the professional status of social work, research use,
and research relevance have moved the profession forward and provided opportuni-
ties for professional growth. As social workers have tackled each controversy with
passion and debate, the profession has emerged with a stronger position on where
research fits into social work and what the nature of that research should be. We
examine the result in the next section.

THE PROFESSIONAL MANDATE

The days of questioning the relevance of research to the social work profession are
over. It now explicitly states a position on the value of research in social work and
the types of research that are valued. To further the goal of widespread use of
research, the profession has created an infrastructure to promote social work
research and to create opportunities for social workers to engage in research. The
current position is clear: Professional social workers are expected to understand and
use research.
Our professional organizations have made explicit statements concerning the
importance of research to social work. The National Association of Social Workers
and the Council on Social Work Education, two bodies that represent and guide the
social work profession, strongly support social work research. Quick Guide 1 is an
easy-to-reference guide summarizing how research can be incorporated intelligently
and ethically into your social work practice.

QUICK GUIDE 1 Guidelines for Incorporating Research into Social Work

✓ The ends served by our research are as important as the methods we use to conduct our research.
✓ We must always be critical consumers of research-based knowledge, and we need to evaluate
reliably the observations, facts, inferences, and assumptions stated in the research.
✓ When scientific claims depart radically from our professional experiences, we should not quickly
discount our professional knowledge, and we must question the reasons for the discrepancy.
✓ Research benefits from popular participation, and it works best when knowledge flows in more
than one direction—from expert in research to expert in the phenomenon being studied—rather
than from expert researcher to nonexpert research object.
✓ As social workers, we must concern ourselves with the social consequences of our research
findings, and we should divorce ourselves from the political and moral passivity that can result
when we cloak ourselves in a veil of scientific objectivity.
20 RESEARCH FOR EFFECTIVE SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

National Association of Social Workers

The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) is the largest organization
of professional social workers in the world, having approximately 145,000 members
(NASW, 2012). The NASW works to enhance the professional growth and develop-
ment of its members and to create and maintain professional standards. The
NASW Code of Ethics specifically states the following under Section 5, Social
Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to the Social Work Profession, 5.02 Evaluation and
Research:

a. Social workers should monitor and evaluate policies, the implementation of

programs, and practice interventions.
b. Social workers should promote and facilitate evaluation and research to
contribute to the development of knowledge.
c. Social workers should critically examine and keep current with emerging
knowledge relevant to social work and fully use evaluation and research
evidence in their professional practice.
d. Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should carefully consider
possible consequences and should follow guidelines developed for the
protection of evaluation and research participants. Appropriate institutional
review boards should be consulted. (NASW, 1999)

The responsibility to conduct and use research is considered an ethical obligation of

all professional social workers. This expectation has been formalized through its
inclusion in the NASW Code of Ethics.

Council on Social Work Education

Another major social work organization, the Council on Social Work Education
(CSWE), develops educational policy and accreditation standards for social work
programs on the baccalaureate and master’s levels. In 2008 the CSWE implemented
new Educational Policy and Accreditation (EPA) Standards. Under Educational
Policy 2.1.6—Engage in research-informed practice and practice-informed research,
the CSWE educational policy specifically states the following:

Social workers use practice experience to inform research, employ evidence-based

interventions, evaluate their own practice, and use research findings to improve
practice, policy, and social service delivery.
Social workers comprehend quantitative and qualitative research and understand
scientific and ethical approaches to building knowledge. Social workers

• use practice experience to inform scientific inquiry and

• use research evidence to inform practice. (CSWE, 2008, p. 5)