Be Lab Manual
Be Lab Manual
Be Lab Manual
LAB MANUAL
Evaluation Scheme
Daily Lab Test/
Attendance Record Viva-voce Total
Performance Mini Project
10 30 15 30 15 100
Detailed Syllabus
Experiment # Assignment / Experiment
1 Familiarization of electronic components and its accessories.
2 Plot V-I characteristics of Zener and semiconductor diode.
3 Study the working principle of DSO(Digital Storage Oscilloscope) and signal
generator. Display various waveforms of different amplitude and
frequency using the above mentioned instruments.
4 Study and implementation of clipper circuits.
5 Study and implementation of half-wave rectifier (HWR) circuit.
6 Study and implementation of Full-wave rectifier(center tapped/Bridge)circuit.
7 Study of static input/output characteristics of BJT in CE configuration.
8 Study and implementation of a fixed bias circuit using BJT.
9 Study of static characteristics of FET in CS configuration.
10 Study and implementation of summer, Inverting and non-inverting
Amplifier using Op-AMP.
Text Books:
T1. Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 5th Edition, Oxford
University Press.
T2. Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9th
Edition, Pearson Education.
Reference Books:
R1. V.K.Mehta, Rohit Mehta, Principles of Electronics, 3rd Edition, S. Chand Publishing, 1980.
Online Resources:
1. http://vlab.co.in/ba_labs_all.php?id=1
2. http://iitg.vlab.co.in/?sub=59&brch=165
Course Outcomes:
CO1 To be familiar with diodes and its applications
CO2 Study of different configurations and biasing circuits of transistor
Design, and implementation of various electronic circuits employing Bipolar
CO3
Junction transistor
CO4 Understand and study of different electronic circuits using operational amplifier
CO5 Design and implementation of digital circuits using logic gates
Program Outcomes Relevant to the Course:
Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematical science,
PO1 engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
PO2 complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusion using first
principle of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PREFACE
The Basic Electronics lab is designed to help students understand the basic of electronic
circuit’s analysis as well as giving them the insight on design, simulation and hardware
implementation of circuits. The main aim is to provide hands-on experience to the students
so that they are able to put theoretical concepts to practice.
The content of this course consists of two parts, ‘simulation’ and ‘hardwired’. Computer
simulation is stressed upon as it is a key analysis tool of engineering design. OrCAD PSpice
software is used for simulation experiments.
LABORATORY ORIENTATION
OVERALL PURPOSE
The laboratory portion of this course is designed to give the student practical experience in
working with diode, transistors and operational amplifiers. The laboratory integrates the
theory taught in the lectures with practical design, and should help the student to apply his
or her knowledge for higher semester course like analog electronics and digital electronics.
GENERAL COMMENTS
Every week before lab, each student should read over the laboratory design or experiment
and work out the various calculations, etc. that are outlined. The student should refer to the
text as prescribed in the course description for the fundamental theory. Your grade will
reflect how well you have prepared for the lab. LABORATORY AND EQUIPMENT
MAINTENANCE is the responsibility of not only the laboratory staff, but also the students. A
concerted effort to keep the equipment in excellent condition and the working environment
well‐organized will result in a productive and safe laboratory. There are useful guides one
should follow to avoid the pitfalls in electronic instrumentation and measurement. Above
all, keep in mind that safety is first!
LABORATORY RECORDS
Lab reports will be submitted by each student at the beginning of the following lab period.
The report will be graded on clarity, legibility, and content, neither on length nor on the
quality of the artwork. Although the data is measured jointly, the text and analysis of the
report must be original work and may not be copied.
HARDWARE REQUIRED:
1. Resistor
2. Capacitor
3. PN Junction Diode
4. Zener Diode
5. BJT
6. IC
7. Multimeter
8. Breadboard
THEORY:
An electronic component is a basic physical entity in an electronic system used to affect the flow of
electrons. Electronic components have two or more electrical terminals or leads. A component may be
classified as passive or active.
The components which have own source of energy (e.g. battery) or which utilizes external source
to process (rectify, amplify etc.) an electrical signal are known as Active Components. Example:
Transistor, Diode etc.
The components which can't introduce net energy into the circuit are called as Passive
Components. They can store energy or dissipate energy. Example: inductors, capacitors, resistors.
Resistors: Resistor opposes the flow of electrons i.e opposes the flow of current. There are two
types resistor, (a) Fixed resistors (b) Variable Resistors. There are also two types of band axial
resistors like 4-band axial resistors and 5-band axial Resistors.
Resistors
It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor.
The first two numbers are the first two significant digits of the resistance value.
The third is a multiplier.
The fourth is the tolerance of the value. Each color corresponds to a certain number.
The tolerance for a 4-band resistor will be 2%, 5% or 10%.
In 5-band axial resistor, the first three bands represent the significant digits, the fourth band is
the multiplier and the fifth one is the tolerance.
Variable Resistors
Variable resistors consist of a resistance
track with connections at both ends and a
wiper which moves along the track as you
turn the spindle. The track may be made
from carbon, cermets (ceramic and metal
mixture) or a coil of wire (for low resistances).
Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component
used to store energy in an electric field. Electrolytic Capacitors
are polarized and require one of the electrodes to be positive
relative to the other. If voltage is reversed, the center layer of
dielectric material may be destroyed via electrochemical
reduction, following the loss of the dielectric material. With sufficient short circuit current, the
electrolyte will rapidly heat up and either leak or cause the capacitor to burst. A bar across the
side of the capacitor is usually used to indicate the negative terminal. Also, the negative
terminal lead of a radial electrolytic is shorter than the positive lead and may be otherwise
distinguishable.
Ceramic capacitors
Rectifier Diode
Rectifier Diode is a component that restricts the directional movement of charge carriers. It
allows an electric current to flow in one direction, but essentially blocks it in the opposite
direction.
Transistors
The transistor is three terminals device like Emitter, Base and Collector
which is used for amplification purpose. It was invented in December,
1947 at Bell Labs. There two classes of BJT like NPN and PNP.
Breadboard
A breadboard is a rectangular plastic board with a bunch of tiny
holes in it. These holes let you easily insert electronic components
to prototype (meaning to build and test an early version of) an
electronic circuit, like this one with a battery, switch, resistor, and
an LED (light-emitting diode).
Digital Multi-meter
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (volt-ohm-
milliammeter), is an electronic measuring instrument that combines
several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter can
measure voltage, current, and resistance.
Integrated Circuit(IC)
An integrated circuit (referred to as an IC, a chip) is a set of electronic
circuits on one small plate of semiconductor material, normally silicon.
This can be made much smaller than a discrete circuit made from
independent components. ICs can be made very compact, having
several billion transistors and other electronic components in an area
the size of a fingernail.
PROCEDURE:
• The first band RED has a value of 2.
• The second band VIOLET has a value of 7
• The third band BROWN has a multiplier of x 101
• The last band GOLDEN indicates a tolerance value of ± 5%
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1. Define resistor. How, three equal resistors of 1Ω each are connected to get equivalent
resistance of 2/3 ?
2. What is the difference between parallel plate and ceramic capacitor?
3. Write one application of variable resistor.
4. Explain, why zener behaves as good conduction in reverse biased?
5. What are the difference between BJT and FET?
6. Discuss one application of Zener diode.
7. What do you mean by Multi-meter?
8. What is the difference between analog meter and digital meter?
9. What is the use of Bread board?
10. What is IC
HARDWARE REQUIRED:
1. D.C. Variable Power Supply
2. Multimeter
3. Diode 1N4007 (1 No.)
4. Resistor 1KΩ (1 No.)
THEORY:
The semiconductor diode, a solid-state electronic device is formed by simply joining
n-type and p-type material together. The region of uncovered positive and negative
ions is called depletion region due to the depletion of carrier in this region. The
term bias refers to application of external voltage across the diode.
A Diode is a simplest two-terminal unilateral semiconductor device. It allows
current to flow only in one direction and blocks the current that flows in the
opposite direction. The two terminals of the diode are called as anode and
cathode. The symbol of diode is as shown in the figure below.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
General diode (Forward Bias)
PROCEDURE:
(i) Connect the circuit as per the diagram.
(ii) Apply forward bias across the diode.
(iii) Change the variable potential (VDC) and note the reading of
voltmeter and ammeter.
(iv) Now change the polarity of the variable potential.
(v) Repeat the step-iii
(vi) Draw the graph between voltage and current, taking voltage along
X-axis and current along Y-axis.
TABULATION AND CALCULATIONS:
For Forward Bias: For Reverse Bias:
Sl. Voltage(V) Current(mA) Sl. Voltage(V) Current(µA)
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1) Why, PN junction diode is called as un-directional device?
2) What is the circuit equivalent of a diode?
3) Explain switching characteristics of diode?
4) Explain, how temperature effects on p-n junction diode?
5) Explain the Diffusion and Drifting phenomenon.
6) Explain the switching action of diode.
7) Why N-type semiconductor is mostly used as compared to P-type
semiconductor?
8) Give the relation between current I and voltage V across PN junction diode.
9) What are the differences between a Ge and Si diode?
10) What do you mean by Reverse Biased current? Explain, how reverse
saturation current varies with temperature?
HARDWARE REQUIRED:
1. DSO
2. Function generator
3. BNC cable
THEORY:
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO): The cathode ray oscilloscope is an extremely
useful and versatile laboratory instrument used for studying wave shapes of
alternating currents and voltages as well as for measurement of voltage, current,
power and frequency, in fact, almost any quantity that involves amplitude and
waveform. It allows the user to see the amplitude of electrical signals as a function
of time on the screen. It is widely used for trouble shooting radio and TV receivers
as well as laboratory work involving research and design. It can also be employed
for studying the wave shape of a signal with respect to amplitude distortion and
deviation from the normal.
The instrument employs a cathode ray tube (CRT), which is the heart of the
oscilloscope. It generates the electron beam, accelerates the beam to a high
velocity, deflects the beam to create the image, and contains a phosphor screen
where the electron beam eventually becomes visible. For accomplishing these tasks
various electrical signals and voltages are required, which are provided by the power
supply circuit of the oscilloscope. Low voltage supply is required for the heater of
the electron gun for generation of electron beam and high voltage, of the order of
few thousand volts, is required for cathode ray tube to accelerate the beam.
Normal voltage supply, say a few hundred volts, is required for other control circuits
of the oscilloscope. A basic block diagram of a general purpose oscilloscope is shown
in figure. Horizontal and vertical deflection plates are fitted between electron gun
and screen to deflect the beam according to input signal. Electron beam strikes the
screen and creates a visible spot. This spot is deflected on the screen in horizontal
direction (X-axis) with constant time dependent rate. This is accomplished by a time
base circuit provided in the oscilloscope. The signal to be viewed is supplied to the
vertical deflection plates through the vertical amplifier, which raises the potential of
the input signal to a level that will provide usable deflection of the electron beam.
Now electron beam deflects in two directions, horizontal on X-axis and vertical on Y-
axis. A triggering circuit is provided for synchronizing two types of deflections so
that horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input vertical signal each
time it sweeps.
Digital oscilloscopes: While analog devices make use of continually varying voltages,
digital devices employ binary numbers which correspond to samples of the voltage.
In the case of digital oscilloscopes, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is used to
change the measured voltages into digital information.
replaces the unreliable storage method used in analog storage scopes with digital
memory, which can store data as long as required without degradation. It also allows
complex processing of the signal by high-speed digital signal processing circuits.
CRO Front Panel Diagram:
Rotate the four variable controls with dots, i.e. TIME/DIV. variable control,
CH. I and CH. II attenuator variable controls and HOLD OFF control, fully
counter-clockwise to their calibrated position.
Set all controls with dots to their mid-range position.
The TV SEP lever switch and the TRIG. Selector level switch in the X-field
should be set to their uppermost position.
Both DC-AC-GD input coupling pushbutton switches for CH. I and CH. II
should be set to the GD position.
Switch on the oscilloscope by pressing the red POWER pushbutton. An LED will
illuminate to indicate working status. The trace, displaying one baseline, should be
visible after a short warm-up period of few seconds. Adjust Y-POS I and X-POS.
Controls to center the baseline. Adjust INTENS. (Intensity) and FOCUS controls for
medium brightness and optimum sharpness of the trace. The oscilloscope is now
ready for use. If only a spot appears (CAUTION: CRT phosphor can be damaged),
reduce the intensity immediately and check that the X-Y pushbutton is in the released
(out) position. If the trace is not visible check the correct positions of all knobs and
switches (particularly AT/NORM. button must be in out position).To obtain the
maximum life from the cathode-ray tube, the minimum intensity setting necessary for
the measurement in hand and the ambient light conditions should be used.
FUNCTION GENERATOR:
A function generator is usually a piece of
electronic test equipment used to generate
different types of electrical waveforms over a
wide range of frequencies. Some of the most
common waveforms produced by the function
generator are the sine, square, triangular and
saw tooth shapes. Function generators are used
in the development, test and repair of electronic equipment. For example, they may
be used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to introduce an error signal into a
control loop. Simple function generators usually generate triangular waveform
whose frequency can be controlled smoothly as well as in steps. This triangular
wave is used as the basis for all of its other outputs. The triangular wave is
generated by repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor from a constant
PROCEDURE:
1. Generation of Sine Waves by Function Generator and Measurement by
Oscilloscope (±5Vpp, 1kHz sine wave)
2. Connect one terminal of BNC cable to the output socket of the function
generator, and another terminal to the CH1 socket of the oscilloscope.
3. Select “GND” switch and adjust position switch to center the vertical position
of the signal.
4. Select sine wave and set the frequency dial to the designated value on the
function generator.
5. Construct a stationary wave form by adjusting sweep switch of the function
generator and TIME/DIV dial of the oscilloscope.
6. Measure the frequency and peak voltage of the signal as follows
(a) Peak-to-Peak Voltage:
Use the vertical-position knob to place a peak (positive or negative) on a horizontal
line, keeping the peak on the screen.
Use the horizontal-position knob to set the next (opposite sign) peak on the center
vertical line.
Count the number of divisions between the positive and negative peaks.
Multiply the number of divisions from step 3 by the volts/div setting for the channel
in use.
(b) Period:
Use the horizontal-position knobs to align any edge of the signal with a vertical line.
Use the vertical-position knob to place the next identical edge crossing on the X-axis.
Count the number of divisions along the horizontal line to the next crossing in the
same direction.
Multiply the number of divisions from step 3 by the time/div setting.
(c) Frequency:
Measure the period of the signal (T). Calculate frequency (f) using f = 1/T.
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1. What is peak to peak value?
2. What is X-Y mode?
3. Define Digital oscilloscope.
4. What is Function generator?
5. Differentiate between periodic and non periodic waveforms
6. State the process for generating a waveform of 5.5 KHz.
7. Why, the input impedance of CRO is in MΩ range?
8. What is the peak-peak voltage of the signal x(t)=(sin2000πt+cos2000πt)volt?
9. What is the time period of the signal x(t)=(sin2000πt+cos2000πt)volt?
10. Make the block diagram for generating a square wave.
THEORY:
Clipper circuits: Clipper circuits consist up of diodes and resistors which have the ability
to “clip” off a portion of the input signal without distorting the remaining part of the
alternating waveform. Half-wave rectifier is an example of simple clipper circuit. The
basic components required for a clipping circuit are a diode and a resistor. In order to
fix the clipping level to the desired amount, a dc battery must also be included.
Different levels of clipping can be obtained by varying the amount of voltage of the
battery and also interchanging the positions of the diode and resistor.
Classification of Clippers: On the basis of network configuration:
Series Clippers: The series configuration is defined as one where diode is in
series with the load
Parallel Clippers: The shunt clipper has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.
On the basis of clipped output
Positive Clipper: In a positive clipper, the positive half cycles of the input voltage
will be removed.
Negative Clipper: In a negative clipper, the negative half cycles of the input
voltage will be removed.
But this current is in same direction, as the diode direction, so vi = vm is in the forward
bias region, and the region containing this voltage is the forward bias region bounded
only by the transition voltages. The region next to this region beyond the transition
voltage is reverse bias region bounded transition voltage.
When forward biased, by using KVL: vo V VD (VD=0 for ideal diode)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Positive clipper
Negative clipper
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuits as per the circuit diagram
2. Calculate the values of output theoretically
3. Set input signal voltage (say 5V, 1 kHz) using signal generator
4. Observe the output waveform using CRO (DC-mode)
5. Sketch the calculated & observed waveforms on the graph.
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONNAIRE:
k/
In case of HWR, the rectified output contains both AC and DC components. The
presence of AC components in the rectified output is called ripple which needs to be
For the period T/2 →T, the polarity of the input vi is such that it reverse biases the
diode producing an “off” state with an open-circuit equivalent. The result is the
absence of a path for charge to flow, and vo = iR = (0)R=0 V for the period T/2 → T. The
process of removing one-half the input signal to establish a dc level is called half-wave
rectification.
Average voltage calculation:
Let vi=vmSin(ωt)
The average is calculated for a period ‘T’, but output exists for only one half-cycle i.e.
from 0 to T/2. Hence the average voltage can be calculated as :
T /2
vo t dt
1
vav
T
0
T /2
v t dt
1
vRMS o
T 0
T /2
Sin 2 t dt
1
v
2
m
T 0
vm
2
The effect of using a silicon diode with VT = 0.7 V instead of ideal diode is that, the
applied signal must now be at least 0.7 V before the diode can turn “on”. For levels of vi
less than 0.7 V, the diode is still in an open circuit state and vo= 0 V.
vm vT vm vT
Now in such a case: vav , v RMS
2
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. In case of HWR, a 100 kΩ resistor and a capacitor of 470 µF is taken for
assembling the circuit. The resister is used to limit the current when the diode is
forward biased.
3. The AC input is introduced at the input and the rectified output is observed across
the load.
4. The output is also observed along with the low pass filter.
5. The waveforms are observed for inputs with different amplitude and frequencies.
6. The average and rms values corresponding to each output waveform is calculated
CONCLUSION:
It may be observed from the output waveform that the half wave rectifier converts
only one half cycles (either positive or negative) of the input AC to pulsating DC. The
capacitor which is connected in shunt across the load operates as a low pass filter. The
capacitor bypasses the AC ripples to the ground and makes DC available at the output.
Since no filter is perfectly ideal, still some AC ripples are available at the output but the
magnitude of AC ripples is considerably reduced. Since the HWR converts only half of
the input AC to DC, its efficiency is less than 50%.
QUESTIONNAIRE:
The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two diodes connected to a single load
resistance (RL) with each diode taking its in turn to supply current to the load. When
point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the
forward direction as indicated by the arrows.
When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C,
diode D2 conducts in the forward direction. The current flowing through resistor RL is in
the same direction for both half-cycles.
Average voltage calculation:
Let vi=vmSin(ωt)
The output is periodic with a periodicity T/2. So the average can be calculated for the
time ‘T/2’. Hence the average voltage is calculated as:
T /2
vo t dt
1
v av
(T / 2 )
0
T /2
2 vm
vm Sin t dt
2
T
0
Root Mean Square (RMS) voltage calculation:
Let vi=vmSin(ωt)
The RMS voltage is calculated for the time ‘T/2’, as the output is periodic with a
periodicity T/2.Hence the RMS voltage can be calculated as :
T /2
v t dt
1
vRMS o
(T / 2) 0
T /2
Sin 2 t dt
2
v
2
m
T 0
vm
2
2vm vT v v
For practical diode: vav , v RMS m T
2
2) Full wave Bridge Rectifier: Another type of circuit that produces the same output
waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit above is that of the Full Wave Bridge
Rectifier. This type of rectifier uses four individual diodes connected in a closed
loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of
this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer,
thereby reducing its size and cost.
Fig. 6.3 Flow of current during positive and negetive half cycle
As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed
across the load is also unidirectional.
2vm vm
For ideal diodes: vav , v RMS
2
2vm 2vT vm 2vT
For practical diodes: vav , v RMS
2
The Smoothing Capacitor Filter: The output of both the rectifiers has been a pulsating
unidirectional DC. The output required is a constant steady DC voltage. The DC value in
full wave rectifier is more than in half wave rectifier. We can further increase its
average DC output level higher by connecting a suitable smoothing capacitor across the
output load.
CONCLUSION:
It may be observed from the output waveform that the full wave rectifier converts
both the cycles of the input AC to pulsating DC. The capacitor which is connected in
shunt across the load operates as a low pass filter. Hence, it reduces the ripple
significantly in the rectified output. It may also be perceived that FWR has twice the
average output voltage and better RMS voltage than half wave rectifier (HWR). In
addition, it has improved efficiency in comparison to HWR. Hence, FWR has an overall
better performance than HWR and therefore is preferred in the design and
implementation of power supply units.
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1) What is the drawback of center-tapped FWR?
2) What are the differences between center-tapped FWR and bridge rectifier?
3) What is the relation between RMS and average voltage in case of FWR?
4) Which FWR is suitable for high voltage applications and why?
5) What is center-tapped transformer?
6) How ripple in FWR can be reduced?
7) What is the efficiency of FWR?
8) What is peak inverse voltage (PIV) and what would be the PIV in case of center-
tapped FWR and bridge rectifier?
9) How a negative full wave rectified voltage can be obtained at the output?
10) Differentiate between HWR and FWR?
HARDWARE REQUIRED:
1. Universal trainer kit
2. DC Ammeter
3. DC Voltmeter
4. Connecting wires
5. Transistor
6. Resistor
THEORY:
A transistor is a current control bipolar device which is widely used as an amplifier
when operated in active region and is used as a switch if operated in saturation and
cut-off regions. In case of transistor, both majority and minority charge carriers are
involved for the flow of current and hence is called bipolar junction transistor (BJT) or
simply bipolar transistor. Transistor is basically a three layered semiconductor device
which is formed by placing a p-type semiconductor in between two layers n-type
semiconductors and vice versa. Hence, there are two types of transistor. The former is
called npn transistor and the later is called pnp transistor.
A transistor has three terminals and two junctions. The three terminals are
named as emitter, base and collector. The two junctions are namely emitter-base and
base-collector junction. The junction between the emitter and base is called base-
emitter junction. Likewise, the junction between base and collector is called base-
collector junction. In order to operate a transistor in active region which meant for
amplification in CE configuration, the emitter-base junction is forward biased and base-
collector junction is reverse biased. A transistor can be used in a circuit in the following
three configurations.
1. Common Base Configuration (CB Configuration)
2. Common Emitter Configuration (CE Configuration)
3. Common Collector Configuration (CC Configuration)
In case of common emitter (CE) configuration, the input is introduced across base and
emitter and the output is taken across collector and emitter. Since the emitter is
common in between input and output, this type of configuration is called as common
emitter configuration. The CE configuration is generally preferred in amplifier because
of very high current gain.
emitter voltage (Vce). A family of input characteristics plots between V be and Ib can be
obtained for different values Vce as illustrated in the following figure. Here the input
characteristics are plotted without introducing any AC signal and hence the
characteristics become stationary and so are called static characteristics. The input
characteristics plot resembles the diode characteristics in the forward biased condition
because the emitter-base junction in CE configuration is forward biased and base-
collector junction is reversed biased.
The input resistance in CE configuration at particular value of V be is obtained by
taking the ratio base to emitter voltage with respect to the corresponding base current,
Ib. Since the input resistance is very low in CE configuration, a small change in voltage
level can generate considerable variations in the input current, Ib which intern
significantly varies the output current Ic by times meant for proper amplification of
weak signals. The is called current gain in CE configuration.
PROCEDURE:
Input characteristics of BJT in CE Configuration
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. The input resistance of 4.7KΩ
and output resistance of 1KΩ is taken here for this experimental set-up. The
transistor BD115 is used in this circuit as per the availability.
2. Keep the collector voltage (Vce) constant at 5v, 10v and 15v to obtain a family of
input characteristics plot.
3. For each value of Vce, vary VS1 such that Vbe is increased stepwise and note
down the corresponding base current Ib.
4. From these readings, draw the graph Vbe versus Ib for each value of VS1. This will
give input characteristic of BJT in CE Configuration.
5. The input resistance at any particular value of Vs1 is obtained by taking the ratio
of Vbe with respect to the corresponding input current Ib.
TABULATION AND CALCULATION:
Input characteristics
Sl. Vce=1V Vce=10V
No. Vbe in volts Ib in µA Vbe in volts Ib in µA
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
The output characteristics plot of BJT represents the variation of output
collector current, Ic with respect to the variation of collector to emitter voltage, V ce for
a constant value of input current, Ib. A family of output characteristics plots is obtained
by plotting Ic with respect to Vce for different values of Ib. In order to maintain constant
value of Ib the input source voltage VBB is kept fixed and at the same time, the output
voltage source Vcc is varied in order to obtain the output characteristics plot as
illustrated in the figure. Since no AC signal is introduced for determining the output
characteristics, the characteristics is found to be stationary and hence is termed as
stationary output characteristics as illustrated in the following figure.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. The input resistance of 4.7KΩ
and output resistance of 1KΩ is taken here for this experimental set-up. The
transistor BD115 may be used in this circuit as per the availability.
2. The base Current (Ib) is kept constant at 50A, 60A and 70A.
3. For each value of Ib vary VS2 such that Vce is increased stepwise and note down
the corresponding collector current Ic.
4. From these reading, draw the graph Vce Versus Ic for each value of Ib. This will
give output characteristic of BJT in CE configuration.
5. At a particular value of Vs2, the output resistance is computed by taking the
ratio of collector to emitter voltage with respect to output current, Ic.
TABULATION AND CALCULATION:
Output characteristics:
CONCLUSION:
The input characteristics of the transistor in CE configuration resemble the diode
forward characteristics because in this configuration, the base-emitter junction is
forward biased. In addition, in this configuration, the input resistance is found to be
very less. Since the input resistance is very low, a small change in voltage level can
generate considerable variations in the input current, Ib which intern significantly varies
the output current Ic meant for proper amplification of weak signals.
It may be well perceived from output characteristics that the output current,
Icsaturates irrespective of variations in Vce. In addition, the variation of collector current
only depends on the change in the base current Ib and therefore the transistor is called
as a current control device. The saturation of Icwith respect to Vce indicates that the
output resistance of the transistor is high which is conducive for faithful amplification
of signals.
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1. Draw and explain the working of a PNP junction transistor?
2. Name the types of charge carriers.
3. What do you understand by hole current?
4. Which is the majority charge carrier in case of a PNP transistor?
5. What do you understand by biasing and why is biasing important?
6. Name the types of biasing circuits.
7. What is the minimum base-emitter voltage required to drive a common emitter
silicon transistor?
8. Draw the input characteristic graph of a PNP transistor.
9. Draw and explain the working of a NPN junction transistor?
10. Why BJT is called a bipolar device?
11. What do you understand by hole current?
12. Which is the majority charge carrier in case of a NPN transistor?
13. What is CB configuration and define the current gain in this configuration?
14. What is the range of current gain in CB configuration?
15. What is the relation between α and β?
16. What is the advantage of CE configuration over CB configuration?
17. What is CC configuration and mention about its significance?
18. What is faithful amplification?
THEORY:
Transistor biasing is a process of applying DC potential to a transistor in order to
operate it in the active region so that faithful amplification of a weak signal can be
possible. The DC bias across the transistor is applied in such a way that the base
emitter junction is forward biased and the base collector junction is reverse biased.
Consequently, the operating point lies at the middle of the linear region of the
transistor output characteristics. If these conditions are violated then the operating
point switches to saturation or cut-off regions causing distortion in the amplified
output waveform. So, proper maintenance of collector current, Ic and collector to
emitter voltage VCE is essential to operate a transistor in active / linear region which is
possible only through transistor biasing. In addition, transistor biasing improves the
thermal stability of a transistor and avoids thermal breakdown.
There are different types of biasing circuits such as fixed bias, voltage divider bias, fixed
bias with collector feedback etc. The fixed bias circuit is simplest biasing circuit amongst
all whereas the voltage divider bias is the widely used biasing circuit. The fixed bias circuit
is named so because the load current, Ic depends on fixed parameters and hence found
to be constant. The stability factor of fixed bias circuit is high which indicates poor
stability. The circuit diagram of fixed biased circuit is given as follows.
Fixed Biased Circuit
xd
In case of this fixed biased circuit, the base resistance RB is chosen as 240 KΩ and the
collector resistance RC is chosen to be 2 KΩ. Since the value of RB is greater than RC, the
voltage drop across RB is more than the voltage drop across RC. Therefore the voltage at
base is less than the voltage at the collector terminal. So, the base emitter junction is
forward biased and base collector junction is reverse biased to operate the Q-point
within the active region.
In fixed bias configuration, the operating point can be determined by finding out the
collector current and collector to emitter voltage. They can be determined by applying
KVL in the input and output circuit.
Applying KVL in the base-emitter loop:
VCC I B RB VBE 0
VCC VBE (9.1)
IB
RB
The VCC, VBE and RB are constant terms and the base current, IB depends on all these
parameters and so is constant. Since the collector current is equal to β time of the base
current, is also constant. Where, β is called current gain in common emitter configuration.
I C I B (9.2)
Output characteristics of a BJT in CE mode
The supply voltage, VCC and the collector current, IC are fixed in the fixed biased circuit
according to (9.2). VCE can be determined by choosing a suitable value of RC using (9.3)
and therefore is constant. Hence, the operating point, (VCE, Ic) is found to be static in
the output characteristics and the corresponding load line is also static. The load line is
therefore called static load line which can be determined on the output characteristics.
The two end point of the static load line can be obtained by solving the output
equation which is illustrated below. Applying KVL at the output circuit,
It may be observed from (9.4) that the collector current becomes maximum when V CE
becomes zero and hence the maximum value of collector current is given by,
The maximum collector current, gives the locus of one of the end point of DC
load line at y-intercept and is given by
Similarly, the x-intercept of the DC load line can be obtained by putting in the
output expression. So the another end point of the DC load line at x-intercept is given by,
Once both the end point of the DC load line is determined, the location of the operating
point is found out at the middle of the load line using the following expression.
)=( (9.6)
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Plot the output characteristics for a given value of base current, I B.
3. Determine the locus of the y-intercept (0, ICmax) of the DC load line by
substituting VCE=0 in the output equation.
4. Likewise, determine the x-intercept (VCEmax, 0) of the DC load line by
substituting IC=0 in the output equation.
5. Determine the operating point using (9.6).
TABULATION AND CALCULATION:
Output Characteristics
Sl. Ib=40 uA Q-point 1 Ib=70 uA Q-point 2
No. Vce in volts Ic in mA Locus Vce in volts Ic in mA Locus
CONCLUSION:
It may be concluded from the above experiment that to operate the transistor in active
region, the base emitter junction should be forward biased and the base emitter
junction should be reversed biased. In order to achieve this condition, the base
resistance is chosen higher than the collector resistance so that the desired base and
collector current is obtained to operate the Q-point in the active region. In addition,
the design of fixed bias circuit is simple because we need to estimate the values of only
two resistors.
QUESTIONNAIRE:
The characteristics curves example shown above shows the four different regions of
operation for a JFET and these are given as:
Ohmic Region: When VGS =0, the depletion layer of the channel is very small and the
JFET acts like a voltage controlled resistor.
Cut-off region: This is also known as the pinch-off region where the Gate Voltage, VGS
is sufficient to cause the JFET to act as an open circuit as the channel resistance is at
maximum.
Saturation or Active Region: The JFET becomes a good conductor and is controlled by the
Gate-Source voltage, (VGS) while the Drain-Source voltage, (VDS) has little or no effect.
Breakdown Region: The voltage between the Drain and the Source, (VDS) is high
enough to causes the JFET’s resistive channel to break down and pass uncontrolled
maximum current.
In response to small applied voltage from drain to source, then n-type bar acts as
simple resistor, and the drain current increases linearly with VDS. With increase in ID
the ohmic voltage drop between the source and the channel region reverse biases the
junction and the conducting position of the channel begins to remain constant. The
VDS at this instant is called “pinch of voltage” (see figure). If the gate to source voltage
(VGS) is applied in the direction to provide additional reverse bias, the pinch off voltage
is decreased.
Transfer characteristics are useful in evaluating the operating conditions of an FET. The
drain current expression is given as
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. To plot the drain characteristics keep VGS constant at 0V.
3. Vary the VDD and observe the values of VDS and ID.
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of VGS at 0.1V and 0.2V.
5. All the readings are tabulated.
6. To plot the transfer characteristics, keep VDS constant at 1V.
7. Vary VGS and observe the values of VGS and ID.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for different values of VDS at 1.5V and 2V.
9. The readings are tabulated.10. From drain characteristics, calculate the values of
dynamic resistance (rd) by using
10. From transfer characteristics, calculate the value of transconductance (gm) By
using the
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:
S. No. Vds=0.5v Vds=1v Vds=1.5v
Vgs(in volt) Id(in mA) Vgs(in volt) Id(in mA) Vgs(in volt) Id(in mA)
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1. Why FET is called as uni-polar device?
2. What are the advantages of FET?
3. What is trans-conductance of FET?
4. What are the disadvantages of FET?
5. Relation between µ, gm and rd?
6. Why a FET is said to be a voltage controlled device?
7. What is pinch off voltage?
8. What do mean by Schockley’s Equation?
9. What do mean by drain resistance in FET?
10. What is the difference between n-channel FET and p-channel FET?
HARDWARE REQUIRED:
THEORY:
Op-Amp stands for operational amplifier. It was originally the name of the
circuit used for carrying out different mathematical operation (Addition,
subtraction, differentiation, integration etc.)
It is a linear analog IC. Fabricated with ‘Si’.
It is a very high gain differential amplifier with high input impedance and low
output impedance.
Vo = A Vd i.e.
Vo = A (V1-V2)
A = Open loop gain
Vd = Differential input voltage
Vd = V1-V2
Symbol of Op-Amp : - Pin configuration : -
Virtual Ground: -
A point in any circuit is said to be grounded it the potential at that point is equal to the
ground potential.
If the point is connected to the ground with help of any conducting wire, then all the
current from that point flows towards the ground, the point is said to be physically or
mechanically ground.
Virtual means ‘not actual’. So in ‘virtual ground’, the point is not physically connected
to the ground but the potential at that point becomes same as ground potential.
The concept of ‘virtual ground’ is based on an ideal Op-Amp i.e. voltage gain of an ideal
Op-Amp is infinite and input impedance is infinite.
2. Since, Ad is infinite,
Ad = V0/Vd │ where Vd = V1 – V2
Vd = V0/Ad
Vd = V0/∞
Vd = 0
V1 – V2 = 0
V1 = V2
Since V1 = 0 (ground)
V2 0
Potential at point ‘X’ is zero although it is not connected to ground physically. So
this concept is called virtual ground.
Application of Op-Amp :
1. Inverting Amplifier
Above figure shows the schematic diagram of an
ideal Op-Amp. In this the feedback is connected
from the output to the inverting terminal. Input
signal is also applied at the inverting terminal.
Considering Op-Amp to be ideal, Input impedance
Rin = ∞.
So input current through Op-Amp is zero.
I1 = I2
Vi V g V g Vo
R1 Rf
R f Vi
Vo
R1
If RF = R1, Vo = -Vi
Since the output voltage is –ve of input voltage it is called inverting amplifier.
For experiment R1=1kΩ , R2=10kΩ
2. Non Inverting Amplifier
Fig (3) shows an Op-Amp circuit that works as a non-inverting amplifier or
constant multiplier.
Vo V V 1 1
1 1 V1
Rf R f R1 R
f R1
R Rf
Vo V1 .R f 1
RR
1 f
Rf
Vo 1 V1
R1
It is clear that output voltage is proportional to the voltage at the non inverting
terminal V1. So it is called non-inverting amplifier.
For experiment R1=1kΩ, R2=10kΩ; and R1=1kΩ, R2=1kΩ
3. Summing Amplifier
There are a number of applications where it is useful to produce the sum, or more
generally the weighted sum, of two or more signals. One example is the mixer system
in a recording or broadcast studio where various sources (microphones, CD players,
etc.) are combined to produce the final mix for the track or program.
The inverting amplifier configuration we used makes this very easy to do, just add
another resistor to the inverting (-) input of the op amp:
of the inputs. The key is to notice that the current flowing in RF must be (by KCL) equal
to the sum of the currents in R1 and R2. For this reason, the node of an op amp circuit
which is connected to the inverting input is sometimes referred to as the summing
junction. This summation can be extended to any number of inputs.
PROCEDURE :
1) Design the circuit as per circuit diagram.
4) Check the connections of the Op-Amp properly before switch on the supply.
5) Apply the signal (sine, square, ramp etc.) at the input terminal of the circuit.
6) Test the circuit by applying the input signal of suitable amplitude (say 1V
peak to peak) from a function generator. Observe the output waveform on
the CRO and determine actual gain.
CONCLUSION :
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1. Difference Amplifier (subtractor)
2. For our two inputs, use the function generator for v1 and the dynamic
microphone for v1. The earpiece produces a comfortably loud output with a
signal of about 1 V p-p. Choose the value of R2 required to give a 1 V p-p output
when speaking into the microphone in a normal tone of voice.
3. Mention some of the linear applications of Op-Amps?
4. Mention some of the non – linear applications of Op-Amps?
5. What happens when the common terminal of V+ and V- sources is not grounded?
6. What are the ideal characteristics of an op-amp?
7. What is a comparator?
8. What is duty cycle?
9. What is slew rate? What are its units?
10. Write some application name of summing amplifier.
HARDWARE REQUIRED:
1. DSO - 1 no.
2. Universal trainer kit - 1 no.
3. Function generator - 1 no.
4. Connecting wires - As required
5. Op-Amp - IC-741 - 1 no.
6. Capacitor – 0.1µF - 1 no.
7. Resistance - 10kΩ, 1kΩ
THEORY:
Op-Amp stands for operational amplifier. It was originally the name of the
circuit used for carrying out different mathematical operation (Addition,
subtraction, differentiation, integration etc.)
It is a linear analog IC. Fabricated with ‘Si’.
It is a very high gain differential amplifier with high input impedance and low
output impedance.
Equivalent circuit of an Op-Amp : -
Non-inverting terminal
Vo = A Vd i.e.
Vo = A (V1-V2)
A = Open loop gain
Vd = Differential input voltage
Vd = V1-V2
Inverting terminal
Application of Op-Amp:
1. Integrator
Vi 0 d
C (0 V o )
R1 dt
( Vg = 0, virtual ground)
V1 d
C Vo
R1 dt
1
dv 0 V1 dt
R1C
1
Vo
R1C V1 dt
From the above expression, it is clear that output voltage is –ve of integration of
the input voltage. Therefore, Op-Amp is used as an integrator.
1
Vo
R1C1 V i dt
Integrated Output
(impulse)dt step
(step)dt ramp
For experiment R=1kΩ, C=0.1µF
2. Differentiator :-
Assuming ideal Op-Amp and taking virtual ground concept into account, we have I1 = If.
d V g Vo
C (V1 V g )
dt R
From the above equation, the output voltage is proportional to the time rate change of
input voltage. Hence Op-Amp is used as a differentiator.
Differentiated output
dV
Vo RC 1
dt
d
(ramp) step
dt
d
( step) inpulse
dt
If we apply a constantly changing signal such as a Square-wave, Triangular or Sine-wave
type signal to the input of a differentiator amplifier circuit the resultant output signal
will be changed and whose final shape is dependent upon the RC time constant of the
Resistor/Capacitor combination.
1 The Output waveforms obtain from the differentiator with respective input
waveforms
PROCEDURE :
4) Check the connections of the Op-Amp properly before switch on the supply.
5) Apply the signal (sine, square, ramp etc.) at the input terminal of the circuit.
INTEGRATOR:
1. Set up the integrator circuit as shown in figure. Give a rectangular wave of ±1V (2V
pp) and 1 kHz frequency at the input and observe the input and output
simultaneously on CRO.
2. Vary the dc offset of the square wave input and observe the difference in the
output waveform.
3. Repeat the experiment by feeding triangular wave and sine wave at the input and
observe the output.
DIFFERENTIATOR:
1. Set up the differentiator circuit as shown in figure. Give a rectangular wave of ±1V
(2V pp) and 1 kHz frequency at the input and observe the input and output
simultaneously on CRO.
2. Repeat the experiment by feeding triangular wave and sine wave at the input and
observe the output.
RESULT AND ITS ANALYSIS:
Observe the Differentiator and Integrator output on the CRO fill the given table
INTEGRATOR:
Sl. Time Output Time
Input Waveform Amplitude Amplitude
No period waveform period
1 Rectangular wave (1KHz) 1ms 2Vp-p
2 Sine wave (1KHz) 1ms 2Vp-p
DIFFERENTIATOR:
Sl. Time Output Time
Input Waveform Amplitude Amplitude
No period waveform period
1 Triangular wave (1KHz) 1ms 2Vp-p
CONCLUSION :
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1. Define integrator.
2. Define differentiator.
3. Write down output voltage formula for the integrator.
4. Write down output voltage formula for the differentiator.
5. What is the output of the differentiator for square wave input?
6. What are the problems in an ordinary op-amp differentiator? What are the
changes in the circuit of the practical differentiator to eliminate these problems?
7. What are the problems in an ordinary op-amp Integrator? What are the changes
in the circuit of a practical integrator?
8. What is a lossy integrator?
9. How a sine wave and cosine wave can be discriminated?
10. Why integrators are preferred over differentiators in electronic circuits?
OBJECTIVE:
1. To be familiar with concepts of amplifiers and oscillators
2. Recognize the conditions of oscillator
3. Design of RC phase shift oscillator using OP-Amp and calculate the resonant
frequency.
HARDWARE REQUIRED:
1. Equipments – CRO
2. Resistors – R1 , R2 , R3 =100 ohm, R4 = 10 K Potentiometer
3. Capacitors- C1 = C2 = C3 = 0.1 µF
4. IC – OP-AMP IC- 741
5. Miscellaneous – Bread board and wires
THEORY:
Use Of RC Stages
Number of RC stages help improve the frequency stability. The total phase shift
introduced by the feedback network is 180 degrees, if we are using N RC stages each
RC section provide 180/N degree phase shift.
When 2 RC sections are cascaded, the frequency stability is low. For 3 sections
cascaded the phase change rate is high so there is improved frequency stability.
However for 4 RC sections there is a good phase change rate resulting in the most
stable oscillator configuration. But 4 RC sections increases cost and makes circuit
complexity.
Hence phase shift oscillators make use of 3 RC sections in which each section provides
a phase shift of 60 degree. The latter is generally used in high precision applications
where cost is not much regarded and only accuracy plays a major role.
Frequency of oscillation (f)
PROCEDURE:
Collect all the required equipments from the laboratory.
Connect the IC, capacitors and the resistors as per the circuit diagram on the
Breadboard.
Before connecting the source voltage, Switch ON the kit and adjust the V CC at
12volt through Multimeter from 0 to 30 volt variable voltage source with
respect to ground point of the trainer kit.
Before measurement check all the circuit connection and verify it through
concerned faculty.
Vary the potentiometer 10k to get proper oscillation and compare it with the
calculated frequency.
Trace the wave from at each test point i.e., at the output of op-Amp at each RC
stage with help of CRO.
TABULATION AND CALCULATIONS:
Parameter Frequency
Theoretical Value
Practical Value
% of Error
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1. What is an oscillator? What kind of feedback is used in oscillator circuits?
2. What is the Barkhausen’s criterion for sustained oscillation?
3. What is the phase shift provided by each RC network?
4. What is the phase shift provided by OP-AMP?
5. What is the frequency of RC phase shift oscillator?
6. What are the applications of RC phase shift oscillators?
7. Why phase shift oscillator uses three RC pairs?
8. Can RC phase shift oscillator can be designed using 4 RC pairs?
9. What is formula for frequency of oscillations for RC phase shift oscillator?
10. Why three RC sections are used in the feedback for RC phase shift oscillator?
PROCEDURE:
Open ‘Capture CIS’ from the Desktop.
Create a new Project (File New Project).
Give a project name, then Select a project location “C:\PSpice\{YourName}”,
then chose “Analog or Mixed A/D” type of project then click OK.
Select “Create a blank Project”, then click OK.
Place Different required components Using “Place PSpice Component “and
place components.
Connect all components as per the circuit diagram.
Then Go to PSpice – New simulation Profile and give a name and allow simulation
process to go-on.
After Simulation chose the voltage and current button to show the current and
voltage value on the circuit.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Output Characteristics
Sl. Ib=40 uA Ib=70 uA % Error
No. Vce Ic Vce Ic
Experimental - Theoritical
% Error = ×100
Theoritical
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1. Draw and explain the working of a PNP junction transistor?
2. Name the types of charge carriers.
3. What do you understand by hole current?
4. Which is the majority charge carrier in case of a PNP transistor?
5. What do you understand by biasing and why is biasing important?
6. Name the types of biasing circuit
7. What is faithful amplification?
8. What is the range of current gain in CB configuration?
9. What is the relation between α and β?
10. What is the advantage of CE configuration over CB configuration?
11. What is CC configuration and mention about its significance?
OBJECTIVE:
1. To learn to realize the JFETself-bias circuit using OrCADPSpice
2. Design and simulate the JFET self- bias circuit.
3. Compare the analytical and simulated results.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
OrCAD PSpice
THEORY
JFET: The Junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET) is the simplest type of field-effect
transistor. They are three-terminal semiconductor devices that can be used as
electronically-controlled switches, amplifiers, or voltage-controlled resistors. Unlike
bipolar transistors, JFETs are exclusively voltage-controlled in that they do not need a
biasing current. Electric charge flows through a semiconducting channel between
source and drain terminals. By applying a reverse bias voltage to a gate terminal, the
channel is "pinched", so that the electric current is impeded or switched off
completely. A JFET is usually on when there is no potential difference between its gate
and source terminals. If a potential difference of the proper polarity is applied between
its gate and source terminals, the JFET will be more resistive to current flow, which
means less current would flow in the channel between the source and drain terminals.
Thus, JFETs are sometimes referred to as depletion-mode devices.
Self Biasing
Main disadvantage of fixed bias configuration requires two dc voltage sources. Self bias
circuit requires only one DC supply to establish the desired operating point.
Mathematical Analysis
As gate source junction is reverse biased, So IG = 0 A and,
Therefore VG = IGRG = 0 V, hence ID = IS
Voltage at source is
VS = IS R S = IDR S
CALCULATIONS
• VDD = 12 Volts
• ID = 2.5 mA
• RG = 1MΩ
• Assume RD = 3 RS
• VDS = 7.4 Volts
• Calculate RD, RS, VGS =?
• Find RS = ? VDS = VDD - ID R D R S
• Find RD = ? RD = 3 RS
• Find VGS = ? VGS = -IDR S
PROCEDURE:
Open ‘Capture CIS’ from the Desktop.
Create a new Project (File New Project).
Give a project name, then Select a project location “C:\PSpice\{YourName}”,
then chose “Analog or Mixed A/D” type of project then click OK.
Select “Create a blank Project”, then click OK.
Place Different required components Using “Place PSpice Component “and
place components.
Connect all components as per the circuit diagram.
Then Go to PSpice – New simulation Profile and give a name and allow
simulation process to go-on.
After Simulation chose the voltage and current button to show the current and
voltage value on the circuit.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1. Why FET is called as uni-polar device?
2. What are the advantages of FET?
3. What is trans-conductance of FET?
4. What are the disadvantages of FET?
5. Relation between µ, gm and rd?
6. Why a FET is said to be a voltage controlled device?
7. What is pinch off voltage?
8. What do mean by Schockley’s Equation?
9. What do mean by drain resistance in FET?
10. What is the difference between n-channel FET and p-channel FET?
THEORY:
A logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function; it
performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic
output. The AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates can be extended to have more than two
inputs. A gate can be extended to have multiple inputs if the binary operation it
represents is commutative and associative.
AND GATE (7408)
The AND Gate is a digital logic gate whose output is a logic (1) if both of its
inputs are logic (1).
If neither or only one input to the AND gate is HIGH, a LOW output results. In
another sense, the function of AND effectively finds the minimum between two
binary digits. Therefore, the output is always 0 except when all the inputs are 1s.
Truth Table
A X
INPUT A INPUT B OUTPUT X
0 0 0
B 0 1 0
SYMBOL AND 1 0 0
1 1 1
OR GATE (7432)
The OR Gate is a digital logic gate whose output is logic (1) if one or both the
inputs are logic (1).
In another sense, the function of OR effectively finds the maximum between
two binary digits
Truth Table
A X INPUT A OUTPUT X
0 1
X=A 1 0
SYMBOL OF NOT
Truth Table
Input A Input B Output C
A
0 0 1
0 1 1
C
B SYMBOL OF NAND GATE 1 0 1
1 1 0
Truth Table
A
Input A Input B Output C
Y 0 0 1
0 1 0
B
1 1 0
SYMBOL OF NOR 1 1 0
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
Circuit Diagram
PROCEDURE:
Collect your required no of ICs and equipments from the lab.
Design your circuits with the help of connecting wires and ICs on the trainer kit
as per the circuit diagram.
Before switching on the trainer kit check the circuit.
By changing the input variables observe the outputs and compare it with the
truth table.
TABULATION AND CALCULATIONS:
Sl. No. A B Sum AB A B carry AB
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONNAIRE:
OBJECTIVE:
1. To be familiar with latch and flipflops.
2. Construct and Implement of S-R latch using NAND and NOR gates
3. Design and implement 2:1 MUX using basic logic gates.
HARDWARE REQUIRED:
1) Bread Board
2) Connecting wires
3) Twiser
4) AND (IC 7408), OR (IC 7432), NOT (IC 7404), NAND (IC 7400), NOR (IC 7402)
THEORY:
Latches: A latch is a type of temporary storage device that has 2 stable states (Bi-stable).Two
stable states are set (1) and Reset (0). The latches can retain either of these states indefinitely,
making them useful as storage device.
SR latch: The SR latch is not a circuit with 2 cross-coupled NOR gates or two cross coupled
NAND gates. It has 2 inputs labeled ‘S’ for set and R for reset.
S R Q n 1 Q n 1 Remark
0 0 Qn No change
Qn
0 1 0 1 Reset
1 0 1 0 Set
1 1 0 0 Invalid
MUX: Multiplexer (MUX) is a combinational logic circuit that receives information from
many inputs and directs this information to the output. The input information that is
selected is controlled by selector lines. A MUX with 2n inputs requires ‘n’ selector lines.
MUX is also sometimes known as many to one or it is known as data selector.
2:1 MUX: It has 2 inputs and one output, so number of selector line is one. Inputs are I 0
and I1, output is Y and selector line s.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
2:1 MUX implementation:
S Y
Y S I 0 SI 1 0 I0
1 I1
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the gates as per the circuit diagram, on the breadboard.
2) Use manual switches and logic indicators for input and output.
3) After connection switch on the supply and verify the truth table of MUX.
4) Repeat the same procedure for the SR latch.
Sl. No. S R Q
CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1. What is the difference between Latch and Flip-flop?
2. What is the characteristic Equation of S-R flip-flop?
3. What is the basic difference between MUX and Latch?
4. How many stable state/states a latch has?
5. What is De-MUX?
6. Does a MUX have memory or not?
7. What is the digital logic for S and R for invalid output?
8. What is the use of selection line for a MUX?
9. Write one application of MUX.
10. Latch stores how many binary bit/bits?